All PNP

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
Dr. Buku, Dr. Appianing, Mr. Ziggah, Mr. Ofosu-
Dwamena, Ms. Ogah, Mr. Esia-Donkoh
4/14/2021 1
UNIT 2 WEEK 3
METHODS, TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES

OF TEACHING
4/14/2021 2
Outline
 Meaning of methods, techniques, and strategies of
teaching.
 Types of teaching methods (teacher-centred and
learner-centred).
 Teacher-centred method (meaning, assumptions,
characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages)
 Some techniques of teacher-centred method (lecture,
drill and practice, etc.).
4/14/2021 3
Brainstorming
How do you understand the following terms?

Methods
Techniques
Strategies
Skills
4/14/2021 4
Meaning of Methods of Teaching
 The term method, is the orderly arrangement or pattern of
structuring an activity.
 Method of teaching thus refers to the orderly plan, procedure,
organisation, or arrangement of instructional activities
(teaching and learning activities) in order to attain maximum
learning outcomes.
 It is the general procedure in which the process of teaching is
structured and implemented.
 It refers to all the things the teacher does in the classroom to
enable the learner learn (Amadi, 1992).
4/14/2021 5
 It is the way a teacher decides on what and how the students
will learn.
 It is an orderly arrangement of learning activities and
systematic procedure of the teaching and learning process to
achieve desired learning outcomes.
 It sets the guidelines for the pattern of behaviour the teacher
expects from the learners in the course of the teaching and
learning process (Lawal & Oyeleye, 2004).
 It is the systematic way in which a teacher approaches his or
her teaching.
4/14/2021 6
 Different processes lead to different forms of interaction
between the teacher and learners which results in learning.
 In one circumstance, the teacher is seen to be at the centre
of the instructional process teaching with very little
interaction with and involvement of the learners.
 In another situation the teacher places the learner at the
centre of the teaching and learning process where the
teacher serves as a facilitator.
 These two situations are referred to as teacher-centred
method and learner-centred method of teaching respectively.
4/14/2021 7
Meaning of Teaching Techniques
 Techniques refer to the specific ways one performs or makes
use of a method.
 Teaching techniques are the exact, precise, or specific ways
a teacher applies or performs a teaching method.
 They are the specific actions and processes through which
the goal of a particular method of teaching is achieved.
 They enhance the development of skills that can be used to
encourage and help learners understand the concepts and
processes needed to achieve learning outcomes of any
teaching and learning process.
4/14/2021 8
Meaning of Teaching Techniques
 Teaching techniques are therefore the activities performed to
realise the methods of teaching.
 They are the building blocks of learning, remembering, and
effective learning.
 Teaching technique is the way or procedure a teacher
handles the different aspects or phases of an instructional
method.
 This implies there are different techniques to be considered
when a teacher is using a particular method of teaching.
4/14/2021 9
Meaning of Teaching Strategies
 Strategies are important actions which are necessary to
realise directional decisions to achieve set goals.
 Strategy is a general term popularised over time by the
military to suggest the plan for success at the battle field.
 When applied to teaching and learning, our battle ground is
the classroom.
 Teaching strategy is thus seen as a plan made to achieve
success in teaching and learning.
4/14/2021 10
 Teaching strategy is a generalized plan for a lesson(s) which
include structure, desired learner behaviour in terms of goals
of instructions and an outline of planned tactics necessary to
implement the strategy.
 It is sequencing of the appropriate techniques which a
teacher has selected for the teaching and learning process
(Oyeleye, 2003).
 It is also the overall plan developed by a teacher to satisfy
and achieve desired learning outcomes (Ogunyemi, 2000).
4/14/2021 11
 For instance, a teacher using problem solving teaching
technique may apply a combination of strategies such as
using reaction of students to posters, followed by
questioning, and later group discussion.
 This shows the teacher is strategising to achieve effective
lesson objectives.
 This implies the importance of a teacher acquiring a skill of
strategising which involves the knowledge, consideration,
and combination of variety of techniques to be used in
teaching.
4/14/2021 12
 There are different types of teaching strategies used by the
teacher.
 He/she manipulates them according to the need of the

students, subject matter and of course, the instructional
objectives, and implements them in classroom teaching.
 Selection and manipulation of teaching strategies is done at

pre-active phase of teaching while implementation is done at
interactive phase of teaching.
4/14/2021 13
Methods, Techniques, Strategies: Relationship
 Methods, techniques and strategies are concepts that are
related activities even though they differ from one another in
meaning.
 They are different but they are all part of planning to enhance
effective teaching and learning.
 A professional teacher should be mindful of a variety of them
when preparing to teach any lesson.
 If a method is accepted as a teacher’s approach to teaching,
techniques would mean the specific activities performed
while using the method.
4/14/2021 14
 The strategy would be the sequence adopted/adapted for
using the techniques during a lesson.
 For instance, if a teacher decides to use learner-centred

method to teach a topic, he/she would also need to select a
combination of techniques (activities) such as whole case
study, role play, and small group discussion.
 The strategy would require the teacher to determine which of

these techniques would come first and which will follow.
4/14/2021 15
 The teacher can decide to present a relevant case on the
topic for the students to react to them, followed by a role play,
and finally a small group discussion on their observations on
the case presented and the roles played.
 The appropriate use of techniques and strategies in a
teacher’s method of teaching reflects a likelihood of realising
desired learning outcomes through a practical lesson.
 Identifying the method, techniques, and strategies for
delivering a lesson is an indication of how ready a teacher is
for a lesson.
4/14/2021 16
 Methods, techniques and strategies describe how a lesson is
to be taught.
 This should start from the general method to the specific

techniques and strategies for using such techniques with the
learners.
 Thus, methods, techniques and strategies of teaching

describe what the teacher will do, and how it is going to be
done at the appropriate time in the course of the lesson.
4/14/2021 17
Meaning of Teaching Skills
 Skill is the ability or competence to do something using the
right methods, techniques, and strategies.
 Teaching involves a lot of skills with the major ones including:
- learning plan preparation,
- setting SMART learning outcomes/objectives,
- introducing a lesson,
- questioning,
- communicating,
- using appropriate examples,
4/14/2021 18
Meaning of Teaching Skills
- communicating,
- using appropriate examples,
- using the chalkboard/whiteboard,
- using appropriate teaching and learning resources,
- using effective non-verbal cues,
- using evaluation or assessment, etc.
4/14/2021 19
Meaning of Teacher-centred Method
 This is also known as teacher transmission method
(Ghanney & Bentil, 2020).
 The teacher takes the centre role in the teaching and learning
situation.
 The reason is that the activities in the classroom result in
very little interaction between the teacher and the learners.
 The teacher dominates the teaching and learning process by
telling students what they need to know.
 The main attention is more on what is taught than the learner
being taught.
4/14/2021 20
Teacher-centred Method: Purpose
 Many teachers tend to use teacher-centred method for three
main reasons:
- To cover a large area of knowledge in order to prepare
learners for examinations.
- To provide information otherwise not available to learners (e.g.
lack of textbooks and other learning resources).
- To introduce new knowledge which may be mainly theoretical
or needs the teacher first to tell learners what to do.
4/14/2021 21
Teacher-centred Method: Assumptions
 The teacher knows best and as such he/she is considered
the source of knowledge.
 Students have no knowledge.
 Students are passive.
 Knowledge can be gained by passive transfer.
 Teachers know what learners need to learn.
 All learners learn in the same way.
 All learners have the same learning needs.
NB: By definition, assumptions are not supposed to have been
proven.
4/14/2021 22
Teacher-centred Method: Characteristics
 Teacher selects what the learner will learn, the techniques,
strategies and the pace of learning.
 The teacher’s role is to communicate knowledge to learners.
 Teacher teaches all the time and does not allow learners to
learn on their own.
 Learners learn when the teacher is present and they are
encouraged to think that they cannot learn on their own.
 Learners are regarded as more or less uniform group of
learners, rather than individuals with diverse needs, interests,
talents, and abilities.
4/14/2021 23
Brainstorming Activity
 Pick an elbow partner and discuss the advantages

of teacher-centred method of teaching. This
activity should be done in five minutes.
 Share with the rest of the class the advantages

you discussed.
4/14/2021 24
Teacher-centred Method: Advantages
 It saves time as all learners are exposed to new knowledge
which they learn at the same time.
 It allows faster coverage of the syllabus/curriculum.
 The teacher has control of the teaching and learning situation

which helps to maintain good class control.
 Learners are exposed to new information/knowledge in a

uniform manner.
4/14/2021 25
 Pick a different elbow partner and discuss the

disadvantages of teacher-centred method of
teaching. This activity should be done in five
minutes.
 Share with the rest of the class the advantages

you discussed.
4/14/2021 26
Teacher-centred Method: Disadvantages
 Learners play a more passive role in learning as listeners, and

they do not actively participate in the lesson.
 Lessons are planned according to the teacher’s wishes,
interests, and abilities.
 Learners’ interests and abilities are not given adequate
consideration.
 Learners with difficulties may be behind while bright ones are
slowed down because of the need to have the whole class
follow. This may lead to indiscipline problems in the class.
4/14/2021 27
Teacher-centred Method: Some Techniques
 Lecture technique.
 Drill and practice technique.
 Questioning and responding technique.
 Whole class discussion technique.
 Teacher-led demonstration technique.

4/14/2021 28
Reading Assignment
 Read on the following for a forum discussion on the

LMS.
- Lecture technique.
- Drill and practice technique.
- Questioning and responding technique.
- Whole class discussion technique.
- Teacher-led demonstration technique.
4/14/2021 29
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
4/14/2021 1
UNIT 3 WEEK 5
INTEGRATED PEDAGOGIES
4/14/2021 2
Outline
 Introduction
 Meaning of integrated pedagogies.
 Objectives of integrated pedagogies.
 Examples of integrated pedagogies.
4/14/2021 3
Introduction
 A key trend in recent pedagogic thinking, and its
matching implementing practices, is centred on the
important concepts of integration and competence.
 This progress is the consistent outcome of numerous
pedagogic developments that have impacted the
teaching practices of the 21st century.
 After years of indecisiveness with the idea of
competence in education, many authors nowadays tend
to settle on the definition of competence.
4/14/2021 4
Introduction
 Competence is the natural mobilisation and use of a set of
resources with the view of addressing a situation and
responding to it in an appropriate way (Dolz & Ollagnier, 2002;
Roegiers, 2001, 2003).
 Thus, competence can only occur in the existence of a
precise situation through the integration of diverse skills,
made up of knowledge and know-how.
 These are necessary elements needed to develop
competence.
 For example, to be able to drive one may have acquired the
4/14/2021 5
Introduction
 Lacking one of the skills needed to drive will equally not
make the person competent.
 An individual may be competent in a specific situation
(driving under normal conditions), but incompetent in a
different situation (driving in a rainy condition).
 An education concentrated on learning competences, as
opposed to the simple comparison of skills, is vital for the
application of integrated pedagogy (Roegiers, 2001).
 Such a pedagogy will assist the learner to master the
situations to be dealt with in professional and/or private life.
4/14/2021 6
Integrated Pedagogies: Meaning
 It usually refers to the integration of different pedagogical
techniques and strategies in a teaching and learning process.
 It is the pedagogical plan that incorporates rich set of

teaching, learning, and technological techniques and
strategies to achieve desired learning outcomes.
4/14/2021 7
Integrated Pedagogies: Objectives
 To make sense of the learning process
- Ensuring the learning process is situated in an expressive
context that makes sense to the learner in line with real-life
situations needed for future life.
 To differentiate matters by relevance

- Focusing on the importance either because it is necessary
and practical for daily life, or because it may becoming the
basis for future learning.
4/14/2021 8
 To applying the learning to practical situations
- It involves not just filling the learner’s head with knowledge.
- It includes teaching the learner to relate the learned material

to values, such as becoming a responsible citizen, a
competent worker, an independent individual.
- It also involves appraising the learner in a complex scenario

4/14/2021 9
 To associate the learned elements
- Involves responding to one of society’s main tasks of

providing a learner with the ability to organise knowledge
and skills to deal effectively with daily events as well as
unexpected ones.
- This fourth objective is based on the close interlinking of the

first three objectives (process, relevance, and application)
4/14/2021 10
Examples of Integrated Pedagogies
 Active learning;
 Co-operative and collaboration learning;
 Experiential learning;
 Guided discovery learning;
 Enquiry-based learning;
 Problem-based learning; and
 Project-based learning.
4/14/2021 11
Active Learning: Meaning
 Active learning is generally defined as any instructional
approach that engages or actively involves learners in the
learning process.
 It requires learners to perform meaningful learning activities

and think about what they are doing (meta-cognition) as
individuals, pairs or structured groups.
 Active involvement is characterised by learner choice or

independence in terms of the task, and how and when
learners respond to the task.
4/14/2021 12
 Active learning influences learners’ own interests to engage
them in the learning process.
 It uses hands-on, authentic, real-world related activities with

teachers serving as facilitators rather than instructors.
 The core elements of active learning are learner

engagement in the learning process.
4/14/2021 13
 The teacher’s role in active learning include:
- asking questions to focus on what is to be learned,
- encouraging sharing of knowledge with other learners,
- recording anecdotal observations,
- providing learning materials and resources to enhance

learning experiences.
4/14/2021 14
Active Learning: Benefits
 It creates meaningful learning opportunities because it
integrates learners’ experiences from home and school
settings.
 It encourages social interactions through the use of small
group activities and peer learning.
 Learners are actively engaged in the learning process (it
focuses on the learner and learning).
 It is iterative because learners investigate and explore new
concepts and ideas in active learning environments.
4/14/2021 15
Active Learning: Benefits
 It creates a positive learning environment which is fun and
enjoyable.
 It aids in information retention.
 It helps develop good communication and critical thinking

skills.
 It provides variety of learning opportunities and improves

motivation to learn.
4/14/2021 16
Active Learning: Enabling Factors
 Successful implementation of active learning approaches depends
on various factors such as:
- Regular and ongoing reflective dialogue among teachers in
professional learning communities (groups).
- Use of valuable evidence to link changed classroom practices to
improved learning outcomes for learners.
- Planning and implementing simple activities to generate positive
learning outcomes.
- Provision of whole school level support in the form of peer support
and mentoring, creating communities of practice, leadership support,
and resources.
4/14/2021 17
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Meaning
 Collaborative learning refers to any instructional situation in
which learners work together in small groups to achieve a
common goal.
- The core element of collaborative learning is its focus on
learner interactions rather than on learning as a lonely activity.
 Cooperative learning could be defined as a structured form of
group work where learners pursue common goals while being
assessed individually.
 The core element of cooperative learning is that it focuses on
cooperative incentive rather than competition to promote
4/14/2021 18
Collaborative & Cooperation Learning: Meaning
 Cooperative learning involves:
- individual learner accountability,
- mutual interdependence,
- face-to-face interaction,
- appropriate practice of interpersonal skills,
- regular self-assessment of group/team functioning.
4/14/2021 19
 Both collaborative learning and cooperative learning are
instructional techniques and strategies planned to make the
most of positive peer social interaction by grouping learners
together to complete an assignment or task.
 The definitions for collaborative and cooperative learning are
largely interchangeable.
 The unique features of these approaches include:
- meaningful tasks
- active participation of learners
- learners working together and helping each other.
4/14/2021 20
 Effective groups could be mixed or homogenous ability or age
of learners depending on the task to be performed or the
learning context.
 Groups can work individually on tasks that lead to a shared goal.
 Groups can also work together on a shared task.
 Importantly, certain essential strategies underpin the
effectiveness of collaborative and cooperative learning.
 Effective use of these strategies provides a greater assurance
that the intended learning outcomes, and associated knowledge
and skills, could be achieved, regardless of the composition of
the group (Cheng, Lam & Chan, 2008).
4/14/2021 21
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Strategies
 Positive interdependence
- This is when learners know that they are linked with their group
in a way that they cannot succeed unless all group members
perform the task at hand.
- Positive interdependent groups see their work as benefiting
each other, share resources, provide mutual support, and share
in joint success.
- There are no “free riders” as each group member makes a
unique contribution to the achievement of group task.
4/14/2021 22
 Face-to-face promotive action
- When learners help, support, praise, and encourage each

other in groups, it promotes positive interdependence,
fosters verbal and interpersonal skills, motivate, and
learners get to know each other.
- The role of the teacher in using this strategy is to describe,

model, and reinforce this condition through the group work
activities.
4/14/2021 23
 Individual accountability and personal responsibility
- Group work activities should be structured to ensure that

individual performance could be easily identified, assessed,
and feedback given to the group and individuals in the group.
- Individual feedback may be done through individual quizzes

or random selection and presentation of individual work or
contribution to the achievement of the group task.
4/14/2021 24
 Interpersonal and small group skills
- The ability to interact effectively is a learned skill.
- This may be achieved through clear and direct teaching.
- The role of the teacher in this strategy is to intentionally

teach social skills for effective group tasks.
4/14/2021 25
 Group processing
- This is a situation where group members reflect and

discuss how well they achieved their group tasks and
maintain effective working relationships.
- This process deepens cognitive and metacognitive learning

and creates the basis for improved future task performance
(Johnson & Johnson, 1991).
4/14/2021 26
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Benefits
 Meaningful learning is achieved when collaborative and
cooperative learning strategies are applied to meaningful tasks,
and by scaffolding which builds on and extends learners’ social
and interpersonal skills.
 Learners develop deeper understanding of cooperative activity
content, concepts, process, and their own self-efficacy through
group processing.
 Collaborative and cooperative learning encourage improved
communication, social, and interpersonal skills, which are
transferrable to new social situations and contexts outside the
classroom, and remain relevant and useful for a lifetime.
4/14/2021 27
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Benefits
 Active engagement in collaborative or cooperative learning
encourages a positive interdependence and individual
accountability.
- Learners become aware they could depend on each other and
have a clear sense of their own responsibilities.
 Iteration is promoted because learners formulate ideas, share,
revise, and recalibrate their thinking based on the inputs of
the group.
- As learners disagree, discuss, explain, and persuade one
another, new positions, new ideas, and new thinking occurs
4/14/2021 28
Collaborative & Cooperative Learning: Enabling Factors
 Small group sizes (two to five members) should be used to enhance
greater individual accountability, and less redundant effort on the
part of learners.
 The use of specific cooperative learning strategies is essential since
it is not enough to group learners and tell them to cooperate.
- Conditions for effective group work should be clearly created and
reinforced by teachers.
- Group work should be thoughtfully structured but it does not
suggest total control by the teacher.
 Collaborative and cooperative learning should be used for
conceptual or complex tasks to foster problem solving, creativity,
critical thinking, high level reasoning, and higher order thinking skills.
4/14/2021 29
Experiential Learning: Meaning
 It refers to learning in a natural setting through play.
 It involves experiences in an out of the classroom.
 It involves reflection and performing learning activities.
 Its effectiveness is based on the interest and motivation of
learners.
 In addition to classroom experiential learning, activities
commonly associated with experiential learning include:
- outdoor learning,
4/14/2021 30
Experiential Learning: Meaning
- outdoor adventure education,
- service learning,
- excursions and incursions,
- environmental education,
- kitchen garden programmes,
- local and international community initiatives,
- creative arts programmes
4/14/2021 31
Experiential Learning: Benefits
 It fosters meaningful interactions in and outside the
classroom.
 It leads to better understanding of concepts.
 It encourages better social interaction and interpersonal skills.
 It is actively engaging as hands-on learning, group discussion,
and reflections are combined in performing tasks.
 It is iterative since it encourages investigation, exploration,
experimentation with different situations in context.
 Learners are motivated and interested in what they learn
because they are provided with the opportunity to discuss
4/14/2021 32
Experiential Learning: Enabling Factors
 Teachers must be knowledgeable, skilled, and specialised
facilitators.
 Learners must be provided with opportunities to decide on
how an activity should be done.
 Learners must be provided with safe and enabling learning
environments.
 Teachers must make good used of highly quality formative
and summative assessment strategies (assessment for, as,
and of).
4/14/2021 33
Experiential Learning: Enabling Factors
 Teachers must design and deliver experiential learning to
eliminate barriers that may exist among individuals and groups
in the classroom.
 Teachers must ensure that there is effective structuring, setting,
and preparation to successfully implement experiential learning.
- This would enable learners to be versed in the structure of
activities, their roles, and expectations of them.
- It will also enable learners to self-direct and complete their
tasks with less or no close supervision.
4/14/2021 34
Reading Assignment
 Read on the following for our next lecture.
- Guided discovery learning
- Enquiry-based learning
- Problem-based learning
- Project-based learning.
4/14/2021 35
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
4/14/2021 1
UNIT 3 WEEK 6
INTEGRATED PEDAGOGIES
4/14/2021 2
Outline
 Guided discovery.
 Enquiry-based learning.
 Problem-based learning.
 Project-based learning.
4/14/2021 3
Guided Discovery: Meaning
 This is mostly attributed to Jerome Bruner.
 He proposed that a process of discovery enables
learners develop a sense of ownership over their own
learning.
 Prior knowledge of what is being discussed in a lesson
serves as the basis for discovery.
 This suggests the crucial role of guidance in discovery
learning.
4/14/2021 4
 When learners expect or are prepared to discover
concepts form their experiences in their environment,
they will devise means of searching and finding.
 Discovery learning has been critiqued as ineffective
with the argument that it equates to minimal or no
teacher guidance (Hushman & Marley, 2015; Alfieri et al.,
2011).
 Debunking this, researchers have classified and
described different types of discovery learning.
4/14/2021 5
 Literature distinguishes between approaches such as
guided, assisted, enhanced, and enriched discovery
learning as distinct from “pure” discovery learning.
 Pure discovery learning is when the learner is not

provided with the target information or conceptual
understanding and must find it independently with only
the provided materials (Alfieri et al., p. 2).
4/14/2021 6
 Guided/assisted/enriched/enhanced discovery learning
occurs when teachers provide a range of support such as
hints, direction, coaching, feedback, worked examples,
scaffolding, and elicited explanations.
 Arguably, guided discovery offers learners the best
opportunity to adopt discovery mind-set to expect and be
prepared to discover knowledge for themselves.
 Evidence suggests that guided discovery is superior to
instructional approaches that are unguided, minimally guided
or fully teacher-guided.
4/14/2021 7
Guided Discovery: Benefits
 It promotes meaningful learning because learners are
guided to integrate new information with their existing
knowledge.
 It often relies on social interaction and this is beneficial to
learner when learning in groups.
 It produces higher levels of active learning engagement
than direct instruction.
 It is often used to foster scientific skills development.
 Learners demonstrate greater achievement and positive
changes in interest, motivation, and joy in learning
4/14/2021 8
Guided Discovery: Enabling Factors
 Teachers must make informed judgements on the type
and quantity of guidance to provide their learners.
 Teachers must specify the intended learning outcomes.
 Teachers must view effective guided discovery
approaches as those that activate and prepare the mind
to make a discovery.
 The instructional design and delivery must be quality to
have a positive influence on the learners’ learning habits
and motivation.
4/14/2021 9
Enquiry-Based Learning: Meaning
 This is a learner-centred approach to teaching and
.
learning where a unit of work is organised around
relevant, authentic, open-ended questions.
 It is characterised by its emphasis on:
- process,
- questioning,
- building on prior knowledge,
4/14/2021 10
- active learner involvement,
.
- involvement of internal and eternal school-community
resources,
- iterative or recursive learning,
- reflection and deep thinking,
- ongoing assessment,
- learning to action.
4/14/2021 11
 It is used as a strategy to enhance scientific thinking
.
skills such as experimentation, evaluating evidence, and
making inferences.
 It is also used to foster critical thinking, interdisciplinary
and social studies learning.
 It is beneficial to teachers both as a strategy to transmit
scientific knowledge, and as a tool to talk about the
important work of scientist to their learners.
4/14/2021 12
Enquiry-Based Learning: Benefits
 It encourages meaningful and authentic/realistic
.
questions, and enhances enquiry-skills development.
 It encourages learner involvement and cooperative
learning through group activities to solve problems,
complete projects, or design and build artefacts.
 Learners are cognitively engaged in making meaning,
developing evidence-based explanations,
communicating their ideas.
4/14/2021 13
Enquiry-Based Learning: Benefits
 It enhances exploration, open-endedness, and
.
investigative trial and error.
 It helps learners to readjust their expectations, and
addresses the worry about not succeeding.
 Learners become happy and their interest in enquiry-
based learning is increased.
 Learners are motivated to learn more, and go beyond
the task they are required to perform.
4/14/2021 14
Enquiry-Based Learning: Enabling Factors
 Successful implementation requires planning and well
.
thought-out approaches to collaboration, classroom
interaction and assessment.
 Teachers must guide the process of enquiry-based learning
and this should depend on the grade level and depth of
scientific knowledge needed to solve the problem.
 Enquiry-based learning should include:
- everyday problems or enquiry topics with low conceptual
load
- combination of independent learner work,
4/14/2021 15
-
Enquiry-Based Learning: Enabling Factors
 Teachers must be trained in enquiry-based learning
approaches and strategies..
 Enquiry-based learning, especially in science
programmes, should include:
- short and long-term learning outcomes,
- content and curricula alignment with interests,
knowledge, understanding, experiences, and abilities of
learners,
- academic collaboration across levels and disciplines.
4/14/2021 16
Problem-Based Learning: Meaning
 This involves working through and reflecting on problems
in small self-directed groups with guidance from the
teacher as a facilitator/guide.
 The context for learning is set through a real-life problem
with multiple dimensions, around which a unit of task is
performed.
 This is similar to enquiry-based learning where units of
work to be done are planned around questions.
 Hence, it is considered as a subset of enquiry-based
learning (Barron & Darling-Hammond, 2010).
4/14/2021 17
 It is used as a strategy to develop problem solving skills.
 This could be achieved if the following are explicitly

taught, and not self-discovered:
- problem solving strategies.
- processes.
- subordinate skills such as collaboration.

4/14/2021 18
 Individual learner’s ability to solve problems:
- rests on the organisation of their existing knowledge,
- what they notice, and
- how they represent problems.
4/14/2021 19
Problem-Based Learning: Benefits
 It dwells on meaningful problems which are line with
learners’ experiences.
 It promotes argumentation, provides opportunities for

feedback, and allows repeated exposure to concepts.
 It is usually facilitated by small group or peer work

which positively influences learners’ social skills such as
cooperation, group decision making skills, and
teamwork.
4/14/2021 20
Problem-Based Learning: Benefits
 It develops in learners, skills in self-control, planning, and
how to express emotions.
 It improves learners’ academic achievement and attitudes
(self-efficacy, motivation, and engagements) towards what
they learn, especially in science subjects.
 Iterative (investigative) cycles of reflection, action, and
ongoing improvement of work underpins effective problem-
based learning.
 It creates a positive learning environment which is enjoyable
through the use of stimulus resources, scenarios, and group
4/14/2021 21
Problem-Based Learning: Enabling Factors
 Teachers must disclose the learning outcomes, guide,
and provide scaffolded instruction to support learners to
undertake experiments to cater for the needs of all
learners.
 Teachers must develop the appropriate knowledge and
skills to implement problem-based learning.
 Problem-based learning environments must include
descriptive feedback, opportunities for learners to reflect,
and clear learning activities with learner engagement.
4/14/2021 22
Problem-Based Learning: Enabling Factors
 Teachers must serve as mentors to guide learners by
monitoring discussions, asking questions, assisting to
resolve conflict, enabling equitable contribution, providing
examples, and conducting assessments and evaluations.
 Learners must have some level of knowledge about the
context of the problem to be solved.
 Assessment must involve rubrics, portfolios,
demonstrations or displays.
4/14/2021 23
Project-Based Learning: Meaning
 It is a type of enquiry-based learning where the output
(project) is the fundamental idea around which learning
is planned and structured.
 Key features include learning by doing. This implies:
- undertaking complex tasks and producing realistic
products resulting in events,
- presentations to an audience.
4/14/2021 24
 Thomas (2000, p. 3-4) outlined five different features of
project-based learning as:
- Projects are vital to the curriculum.
- Projects are framed around driving questions or unclear
problems.
- Projects involve learners in constructive investigations
which challenge learners to generate new
understanding and skills, and not only using existing
knowledge and skills.
4/14/2021 25
- To a large extent, projects are learner-driven, and not
teacher-led.
- Projects are realistic and authentic to learners as

determined by the roles they play, their collaborators,
the products, audience, and the performance or
assessment criteria.
4/14/2021 26
Project-Based Learning: Benefits
 Meaningful projects support the development of
learners’ higher order thinking skills.
 Projects, when performed in small groups with the
teacher as a facilitator, assist learners to develop
healthy, positive social interactions, and social skills.
 Project-based learning is engaging and associated with
positive changes to learners’ motivation and attitude
towards learning.
4/14/2021 27
Project-Based Learning: Benefits
 Meaningful projects support the development of
learners’ higher order thinking skills.
 Projects, when performed in small groups with the
teacher as a facilitator, assist learners to develop
healthy, positive social interactions, and social skills.
 Project-based learning is engaging and associated with
positive changes to learners’ motivation and attitude
towards learning.
4/14/2021 28
Project-Based Learning: Enabling Factors
 Teachers must encourage learners to initiate an enquiry,
direct an investigation, manage their time, and use
technology productively and responsibly.
 Teachers must have the time, training, resources, and

skills to support learners to undertake projects.
4/14/2021 29
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
4/11/2021 1
UNIT 4 WEEK 9
LEARNING THROUGH PLAY

(LtP)
4/11/2021 2
Outline
Meaning and the continuum of play
Characteristics of playful learning experiences
Types of play/games
Factors to consider in modifying play/games
4/11/2021 3
Introduction
Through active engagement with ideas, knowledge,
experiences, and also with the world at large, we see children
as better prepared to deal with tomorrow’s reality (a reality of
their own making).
From this perspective, learning through play is considered as

crucial for a positive and a healthy development, irrespective
of the learner’s situation.
4/11/2021 4
Learning Through Play
Play is one of the most essential ways through which learners,
especially young learners/children gain essential knowledge
and skills (UNICEF, 2018).
This is why play opportunities, and environments that

promote play, exploration, and hands-on learning form the
basis of effective early grade programmes (UNICEF, 2018).
Learning to play is learning how to relate to others.

4/11/2021 5
Learning Through Play
Learning through play is about continuity.
- That is, bringing together learners’ spheres (home, school, and
the wider world) of life.
In the early years, children need time to develop their play.
They prefer having space inside and outside.
They often enjoy playing with other children or adults.
As children grow and develop, their play evolves.
4/11/2021 6
The Continuum of Play
“When we make play the foundation of learning, we

teach the whole child” (Vince Gowman).
What do you make of this quote?
Why is play important in learning, especially among

young learners?
4/11/2021 7
Significance of Play
 It expands intelligence.
 It is a testing ground for language and reasoning, connecting to the
challenges children face in school, such as literacy, math, and science
concepts.
 It stimulates the imagination, encouraging creative problem-solving.
 It helps develop confidence, self-esteem, a sense of strengths and
weaknesses, and a positive attitude toward learning.
 It is a significant factor in brain and muscle development.
4/11/2021 8
Types of Play
 Generally, there are two types of play (Guided and Unguided

Play).
 However, play could be further differentiated using the

following:
- Motor-physical play.
- Exploratory play.
4/11/2021 9
Types of Play
- Constructive/Creative play.
- Symbolic/Expressive/Narrative play.
- Socio-dramatic play/fantasy.
- Cooperative play/Games with rules

4/11/2021 10
Motor-physical Play
 This is when learners run, jump, and play games such as hide
and seek and tag.
 Motor-physical play provides the opportunity for learners to
develop muscle, strength, coordination, and exercise.
 Learners also become aware of taking turns in performing
activities.
 They also learn to accept winning or losing in a game or any
competitive activity.
4/11/2021 11
Exploratory Play
 This is when learners experiment with, and explore the

attributes of new ideas or new learning materials/resources, and
combining them in new ways to solve problems.
 As learners play with open-ended learning resources (e.g. sand,
blocks, water, and clay), they investigate, discover, explore
cause and effect, and learn to create their own concepts.
 Exploratory play activities are directly related to the
development of logical and mathematical thinking.
4/11/2021 12
Constructive/Creative Play
 This is where young learners build and create things, explore objects,
discover patterns, and solve problems to determine what works and
what does not work.
 Young learners enjoy ordering and organising collections such as
bottle caps, rocks, buttons, etc.
 It allows young learners to make important discoveries about seriation,
classification etc., as they construct patterns and assign learning
resources to categories (colours, sizes, texture-smooth or bumpy, etc.)
4/11/2021 13
Constructive/Creative Play
 Constructive/creative play can also support language

development as teachers and young learners discuss:
- mathematical concepts such as height and weight,
- Use words that define spatial awareness such as beside and
behind.
Teachers promote literacy, numeracy, and problem solving as
thy support and encourage young learners’ constructive play.
4/11/2021 14
Symbolic/Expressive/Narrative Play
 This is a type of play that enables leaners to express feelings

and emotions.
 Art materials such as colours, paints etc. facilitate
symbolic/expressive/narrative play.
 Musical instruments in the form of toys could also facilitate
this type of learning.
 This type of play gives the opportunity for young learners to
develop creativity and symbolic communication.
4/11/2021 15
Socio-Dramatic Play
 This is where learners pretend or act out a story with friends,

family members, or their teachers.
 This enables the learners to understand themselves, their
feelings, and feelings of the people around them.
 It allows the learners to develop appropriate social behaviour.
 E.g. some learners pretend to play a story or scenario with
defined roles (Mother and baby) and a plot (going to the doctor
for an injection as a result of ill health).
4/11/2021 16
Cooperative Play/Games with Rules
 This is a type of play organised by group goals and established

rules.
 Young learners move from a self-centred world to an
understanding of the importance of social interactions and rules.
 Part of this development occurs when young learners learn
games such as follow the leader, Simon Says, and team sports.
4/11/2021 17
4/11/2021 18
Free Play
- Play that children freely choose and self-direct.
Collaborative (Social) Play
- Play that allows learners to be active participants in creating play
scenarios in the classroom.
- Play that allows learners to develop social skills through interacting
with other children or participants (negotiation, compromise,
teamwork etc.).
Games
- A recreational activity defined by a goal and a set of rules to play it.
4/11/2021 19
Characteristics of Playful Learning Experiences
What does it look/feel like when learners learn

through play?
4/11/2021 20
Learning through Play: What We Know
Learning through play occurs through joyful, actively
engaging, meaningful, iterative, and socially interactive
experiences.
The goal is to develop creative, engaged, lifelong learners

who thrive in a 21st Century world.
4/11/2021 21
Learning through Play: What We Think
Learning through play supports overall healthy development,
acquisition of both content (subject) and learning-to-learn
skills.
The benefits and role of learning through play differ across

contexts and cultures.
4/11/2021 22
Learning through Play: What Needs to be Done
Learning through play research across cultures and contexts.
Well controlled studies examining the role of play for higher-

level skills.
Greater understanding of how play and its benefits change

over time and context.
Insights from neuroscience on play in real-life contexts.

4/11/2021 23
Exploring Characteristics of Playful Learning
4/11/2021 24
Characteristics of Playful Learning
4/11/2021 25
Characteristics of Playful Learning: Joyful
Joy in a broad sense is pleasure, enjoyment, motivation, thrill,
and a positive emotion whether over a short period of time or
over the entire play session.
Joy is seen as both enjoying a task for its own sake and the
momentary thrill of surprise, insight, or success after
overcoming challenges.
The predominant emotions of play are interests and joy (Peter
Gray)
4/11/2021 26
Characteristics of Playful Learning: Meaningful
This is where learners find meaning in an experience when
they connect this experience to something they know already.
In play, learners often explore what they have seen and done,
or explore what they have seen others do as a way of grasping
what it means.
Through this, learners are able to express and expand their

understanding.
4/11/2021 27
Characteristics of Playful Learning: Actively Engaging
This refers to hands-on and minds-on learning.

This is where learners are actively engaged in play.
s where learners find meaning in an experience when they
connect this experience to something they know already.
In play, learners often explore what they have seen and done,
or explore what they have seen others do as a way of grasping
what it means.
Through this, learners are able to express and expand their
understanding.
4/11/2021 28
Modifying Games: Factors to Consider KED
Factors to consider in modifying game could be identified in

the acronym “STEP”.
Size or Shape of the playing surface (e.g. make it smaller or

larger, circular or square.
Tasks or rules of the game (e.g. instead of having to count to

ten to become “unfrozen” in a tag game, students have to
solve a spelling challenge).
4/11/2021 29
Modifying Games: Factors to Consider KED
Equipment (e.g. instead of collecting beanbags, students

collect cards with numbers on them to use for addition and
subtraction tasks).
People playing the game (e.g. students work in smaller teams

to accomplish the task).
Most importantly: BE CREATIVE

4/11/2021 30
Conclusion KED
“We don’t stop playing because we grow old. We

grow old because we stop playing” (George Bernard
Shaw).
4/11/2021 31
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
4/14/2021 1
UNIT 5 WEEK 10
TECHNICAL AND TEACHING SKILLS I
4/14/2021 2
Outline
 Taxonomy of educational goals and objectives.
 Planning and preparing for learning.
 Key elements of a lesson/learning plan.
 Instructional skills.
 Questioning skills.
 Classroom management skills.
 Communication skills.
 Evaluation skills.
4/14/2021 3
Taxonomy of Educational Goals & Objectives
 Any instructional process is a deliberate attempt to induce
learning.
 In order to know the extent to which learning has taken place,
targets (aptitudes and attributes) are set relative to the
various domains of learning and measured.
 What learners would be able to do are classified/
categorised (taxonomies).
 Taxonomy of educational objectives is a hierarchical model
used to organize educational learning objectives into levels
of complexity and specificity.
4/14/2021 4
Categories of Objectives: The Three Domains
4/14/2021 5
Cognitive Domain: Bloom et al. (1951)
4/14/2021 6
Cognitive Domain: Anderson & Krathwohl (2001)
4/14/2021 7
Cognitive Domain (About Knowing)
Bloom et al. Anderson & Krathwohl
4/14/2021 8
Affective Domain
4/14/2021 9
Psychomotor Domain
4/14/2021 10
“SMART” Objectives/Outcomes
4/14/2021 11
Preparing and Planning: Essential Decisions
 Preparing and planning for learning is a teacher’s road
map of what learners need to learn, and how it will done
effectively during the lesson.
 This implies that certain essential decisions must be

taken by the teacher as he/she prepares and plans for a
lesson.
4/14/2021 12
 Identify the topic/lesson to be taught.
 Consider the level/class and cognitive level of learners

(age).
 Identify and analyse the learning needs of learners as

individuals or a group, and in line with the lesson.
 Identify “SMART” and desired learning outcomes/

objectives (What is to be learned as a result of the
4/14/2021 13
 Plan to align instructional strategies with learning
objectives/outcomes .
 Plan for an introduction of the lesson to arouse and
sustain interest of learners.
 Plan the specific learning activities which must be
sequenced in an engaging and meaningful manner.
 Plan for appropriate and varied teaching and learning
resources.
4/14/2021 14
 Plan for specific core values, core competences, and
core skills to be achieved).
 Plan to evaluate and assess learning at the beginning,

during and after lesson (assess learners’ understanding)
.
 Plan to create a realistic timelines.
4/14/2021 15
Writing a Lesson/Learning Plan: Key Elements KED
 Subject and topic to be taught
 Class
 Class size
 Week/Week ending
 Day/Date
 Duration/Period
 Average age of the class
4/14/2021 16
 References
 Strand and sub-strand
 Learning outcomes/content standard (code)/objectives
 Indicators (code)
 Performance indicator(s)
 Core competencies
 Key words
4/14/2021 17
 Teaching and Learning Resources (TLRs)
 Activity Phase1: Starter (preparing the mind for learning)
 Activity Phase 2: Main Activities (new learning including
assessment at various stages)
 Activity Phase 3: Plenary/Reflections
 Remarks
4/14/2021 18
Reasons for Writing Lesson/Learning Plan
 It helps the teacher to be well prepared and be aware of what
he/she intends to teach the learners.
 It helps the teacher to maintain a standard teaching pattern
in order not to deviate from the topic (It serves as a guide).
 It provides the teacher with learning outcomes/objectives.
 It helps the teacher to be self-confident while teaching.
 It helps the teacher to focus more on the basic knowledge
first and take the learners toward the next step.
 It helps the teacher to clearly understand and ingrain the flow
of the lesson.
4/14/2021 19
Reasons for Writing Lesson/Learning Plan
 It helps the teacher to pay attention to the learners’ learning
process, and not just the steps the teacher needs to follow.
 It provides an opportunity to the teacher to think out new
ways and means of making the lesson interesting and
introduce thought-provoking questions (It proves the
creativity of the teacher).
 It helps the teacher to evaluate his/her teaching and to
compare with the outlined learning outcomes/objectives.
 It shows the systematic record of the teacher’s teaching.
 It helps other another teacher to teach the lesson in the
4/14/2021 20
Instructional Skills: Issues to Consider
 State or make known to learners, the purposes, learning
objective/outcomes, and brief procedures for the
lesson.
 Give procedural and instructional directions clearly.
 Use a range of strategies for whole class, small group,
and individual learning.
 Make use of varied motivational techniques or
strategies.
4/14/2021 21
Instructional Skills: Issues to Consider
 Present lesson in a systematic manner.
 Use effective questioning techniques of the level of
learners.
 Engage learners in critical thinking and problem-solving.
 Use techniques and strategies that modify and extend
learning.
 Engage learners in lesson closure.
4/14/2021 22
Questioning Skills
 Questions are statements that require an answer or a
response.
 They play a critical role in any effective teaching and
learning situation.
 Thus, a teacher CANNOT teach without posing
questions to learners and learners asking questions.
 Questions can be asked or used at anytime or stage of
a lesson: beginning, during,, and at the end of the lesson.
4/14/2021 23
Questioning: Beginning of a Lesson
 Questions are used at the beginning of a lesson for varied
reasons including the following:
- To explore learners’ entry knowledge about a concepts to be
taught (to find out what learners already know).
- To explore learners’ knowledge and understanding of a topic/
concept, and identify gaps.
- To arouse interest and curiosity about a topic/lesson.
- To scaffold the development of their understanding to enable
them close the gap between what they currently know and
the learning objectives/outcomes
4/14/2021 24
Questioning: During a Lesson
 Questions are asked during a lesson for varied reasons
including the following:
- To ensure learners are following the discussion.
- To assess learners understanding of concepts.
- To serve as guide and help learners to focus attention
on a particular issue or concept.
- To enable learners to be actively involved in the lesson.
- To develop critical thinking skills among learners.
4/14/2021 25
Questioning: During a Lesson
- To enable learners to predict outcomes.
- To guide learners to argue on an opinion.
- To provide an opportunity for learners to assimilate and
reflect on information.
- To avoid confusion.
- To encourage and construct new understanding.
- To motivate learners.
4/14/2021 26
Questioning: End of a Lesson
 Questions are asked at the end of a lesson for reasons
including the following:
- To involve learners in summarising and reviewing
salient points in the lesson to be sure learning
outcomes have been achieved (to evaluate learning)
- To explore learners understanding on how to apply
concepts learned to real life situations.
- Stimulate learners to pursue knowledge and
understanding on their own (encourage independent
learning)
4/14/2021 27
Types of Questions: Factual
 Soliciting reasonably simple, straight forward answers
based on obvious facts or awareness.
 These are usually at the lowest level of cognitive
(thinking) or affective (feeling) processes and answers
are frequently either right or wrong.
 These questions do not involve personal feelings or
opinions.
 Every response to such a question must be supported
with evidence.
 For example, answering questions based on a passage
4/14/2021 28
Types of Questions: Convergent
 They are questions that typically have one correct
answer.
 Answers to these types of questions are usually within

a very finite range of acceptable accuracy.
 Convergent questions usually begin with “who”, “what”,

“where” or “when”.
4/14/2021 29
Types of Questions: Divergent
 Divergent questions allow learners to explore different
avenues and create many different and alternative
answers or scenarios.
 Correctness may be based on logical projections, may
be contextual, or arrived at through basic knowledge,
inference, imagination etc.
 These questions often require learners to analyse or
evaluate knowledge, and predict or project different
outcomes.
4/14/2021 30
Types of Questions: Divergent
 Answers to divergent questions mostly fall into a wide
range of acceptability.
 Mostly, a correct answer is determined subjectively
based on possibilities.
 There may not be right or definitely correct answers to
divergent questions.
 Such questions seek to stimulate imaginative and
creative thought, or investigate cause and effect
relationships.
4/14/2021 31
Types of Questions: Evaluative
 These types of questions generally involve sophisticated
levels of cognitive and/or emotional (affective) judgment.
 In attempting to answer these types of questions, learners
may have to combine various cognitive and/or affective
processes or comparative contexts.
 Often an answer is analysed at multiple levels and from
different perspectives before arriving at newly formed
conclusions
 For example, What is the relationship between
administration and management?
4/14/2021 32
 How should a teacher pose questions to learners?
 How should a teacher react to responses given by

learners?
4/14/2021 33
Classroom Management Skills
 How should a teacher pose questions to learners?
 How should a teacher react to responses given by

learners?
4/14/2021 34
 For learning to take place, teachers should be able to
manage their classroom.
 Classroom management is considered one of the most

challenging tasks for especially beginning teachers.
 It refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques that

teachers use to keep students organized, orderly,
focused, attentive, on task, and academically productive
during a class.
4/14/2021 35
 Classroom management refers to a teacher’s efforts to
oversee the activities of a classroom, including learning,
social interaction, and student behaviour (Martin, Yin, &
Baldwin, 1998).
 It is a teacher’s ability to keep order in the classroom,
engage learners in learning, and elicit their cooperation,
while balancing the menial tasks of the classroom (Wong &
Wong, 2009).
 It is the arrangement and appropriate use of all resources
(material, human resource and time) available in the
4/14/2021 36
Elements of Classroom Management Skills
 Instructional management
- Focuses on the physical environment.
- Effective teachers organize a safe classroom

environment.
- Teachers strategically organizing furniture, learning

centers, and materials in order to optimize student
learning and reduce distractions.
4/14/2021 37
Elements of Classroom Management Skills
 Behaviour management
- This focuses on learners expressed attitudes.
- It is the application of rules and routines to get learners

to behave in more appropriate ways in order to
maximize learning.
4/14/2021 38
Why do Learners Misbehave in Cass?
4/14/2021 39
Approaches to Classroom Management
 Assertive approach.
 Business academic approach.
 Behaviour modification approach.
 Group managerial approach.
 Group guidance approach.
 Acceptance approach.
 Success approach.
4/14/2021 40
Assertive Approach (Canter Model)
 Teacher insists on responsible behaviour by learners.
 Hence, the teacher and learners agree on specific and

clear rules of behaviour and consequences for
disobeying them.
 The teacher is expected to respond to learners’

behaviours quickly and appropriately.
4/14/2021 41
Business Academic (Emmer-Everton Model)
 Teacher focuses on keeping the learners busy by:
- giving learners a lot of exercises,
- guiding and monitoring individual and group work,
- giving feedback to individual and group learners,
- holding learners accountable so they do not misbehave.
 This approach involves a high degree of time on task

with the hope that when learners are engaged there will
be little room for misbehaviour.
4/14/2021 42
Behaviour Modification (Skinner-Bandura Model)
 This is based on the belief that behaviour is shaped by
the environment and therefore pay little attention to
causes of problem.
 Behaviour is shaped by its consequences so teachers
use elaborate system of rewards and punishments to
modify learners’ behaviour.
 This facilitates the occurrence of positive behaviour
and inhibits reoccurrence of misbehaviour.
4/14/2021 43
Group Managerial Appraoch (Kounin Model)
 This approach focuses on addressing/responding
immediately to learners’ group misbehaviour in order to
prevent problems from spreading to become more
serious.
 Classroom activities have been put into two groups
(learner and teacher management behaviours) for
effective management.
 Learner behaviour includes work involvement and
deviancy (no misbehaviour, mild and serious
4/14/2021 44
Group Managerial Approach (Kounin Model)
 Teacher management behaviour include:
- Desist techniques (advising learners to stop undesirable behaviours,
making direct eye contact and being assertive, keeping comments
brief, monitoring until learners comply).
- Movement management (changing seating arrangements, keeping
learners actively engaged, gaining learners’ attention before the
start of lesson).
- Group focus (clarifying group task, focusing on accomplishing
group task, modeling appropriate behaviour, monitoring individual
and group progress, time, noise, building interactions among group
members to share meaningful ideas).
4/14/2021 45
Group Guidance Approach
 Focuses on managing and changing the student
behaviour on group basis since teachers mostly work
with groups.
 Teachers ensure group focus on task and maintain

group control and discipline to enhance group rapport.
4/14/2021 46
Acceptance Approach (Dreikurs)
 This is based on the belief that everyone has the prime
need for acceptance.
 Learners want to be accepted and be liked by others
especially those who are important to them.
 Acceptance by peers and teachers is the prerequisite for
appropriate behaviour and achievement in school.
 Thus, learners will exhibit all kinds of behaviour to get
attention.
 Mistaken goals for misbehaviour may include attention
getting, power seeking, revenge seeking, withdrawal.
4/14/2021 47
Success Approach (Glasser)
 This approach focuses on changing negative conditions
or situations in the classroom environment that trigger
misbehaviour in order to help student succeed.
 Behaviour is a matter of choice; good or bad behaviour

results from good or bad choices.
4/14/2021 48
Communication Skills: Issues to Consider
 Communicating with confidence and enthusiasm.
 Communicating at the level of understanding of learners.
 Using appropriate and accurate non-verbal, oral/sign,

and written communication.
 Projecting voice/hand shapes/orientation appropriately.
4/14/2021 49
Evaluation Skills: Issues to Consider
 Monitoring learners’ participation and progress.
 Providing immediate and constructive feedback.
 Basing evaluation on learning outcomes/objectives.
 Using formal/informal assessment strategies to assess

learners’ learning before, during, and after lesson.
4/14/2021 50
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
4/14/2021 1
UNIT 5 WEEK 11
TECHNICAL AND TEACHING SKILLS II
(Professional Learning Communities (PLCs)

and Reflective Practice)
4/14/2021 2
Professional Learning Communities
(PLCs)
4/14/2021 3
Professional Learning Community (PLC): Meaning
 It is an approach to encourage collaborative learning
among colleagues within a specific work environment
or field.
 It is mostly used in schools as a way to organise

teachers into working groups of practice-based
professional learning.
 It is a group of educators that meets regularly, shares

 PLC is a collaborative approach to professional
development in which small groups of educators meet
on regular basis to explore new concepts, share
expertise and insights from their teaching experiences,
and engage in collective problem solving.
 PLC serves two broad purposes:
- Improving the knowledge and skills of educators

through collaborative study, expertise exchange, and
professional discussion.
- Improving the educational aspirations, achievements,

and attainments of learners through stronger
leadership and support.
 PLC is not a programme or new initiative to be
implemented.
 It is a basic understanding of how teachers work

together in a collective and collaborative manner to
help learners perform very well.
 It is a process that results in continuous learning for

both teachers and learners.
PLC: Critical Questions to Ask
 What do we want all learners to know and be able to do?
 How will we know if they learn it?
 How will we respond if some learners do not learn?
 How will we extend the learning for learners who are

already proficient?
PLC: Benefits for Teachers
 It provides a space and a structure for teachers to
agree on a common goal.
 It helps teachers to share results and learn from each

other to achieve fast but significant progress in their
work.
 It provides an opportunity to educators to directly

improve teaching and learning.
PLC: Benefits for Teachers
 It helps to build stronger relationship between team
members (teachers).
 It helps teachers to stay on top of new research and

emerging technology tools for effective teaching.
 It helps teachers to share their concerns and reflect on

their teaching techniques and strategies.
PLC: Benefits for Learners
 It lowers rates of absenteeism among learners since
they enjoy the lessons.
 It improves learning among learners.
 It encourages improved academic achievement among
learners.
 It results in smaller achievement gaps among learners
from different backgrounds and with different learning
needs.
PLC Components: Characteristics
 Reflective dialogue.
 Collective focus on learners achievement.
 Interaction among teachers.
 Collaboration.
 Shared values and norms.
 Collective inquiry.
 Commitment to continuous improvement.
PLC Components: Structural Conditions
 Time to meet and discuss.
 Physical proximity.
 Interdependent teaching roles/Team teaching roles.
 Teacher empowerment/school autonomy.
 Communication structures.
PLC Components: Human/Social Resources
 Openness to improvement.
 Trust and respect.
 Supportive leadership.
 Socialisation.
 Cognitive-based and skill-based.

Ensuring Effective PLC
 Educate teachers on what a PLC really means.
 Begin PLC with learning.
 Embrace a collaborative culture built on trust.
 Decide together and agree on how things should be
done.
 Set “SMART” goals.
 Consider bringing in an expert from outside when the
need arises.
 Understand that it takes time to achieve effective PLC.
Reflective Practice in Teaching
Reflective Practice: Introduction
 Educators/teachers can reflect on:
- an aspect of a programme did not work well to
think about what to do differently in the future.
- something that has exceeded expectations to
identify what worked well and what needs to be
continued.
- question(s) in order to challenge their thinking,
consider things differently, examine beliefs,
Guiding Questions for Reflection
 Why do we teach?
 What do you hope to do for your learners?
 What have good teachers done for you?
 What are my values and beliefs of teaching?
 What values are most important to you?
NB: Educators’/teachers’ conceptualisation of teaching
and how learners learn inform their reflection before,
during, and after teaching.
What is Reflection?
 It is a serious and sober thought at some
distance from an action.
 An activity in which people recollect their
experience, think about it, think over it and
evaluate.
 In teaching, it is based on the subject being
taught, the presentation and the translation of the
subject matter knowledge to promote learning.
What is Reflection?
 It is the evaluation of learning activities from
students’ perspective and not from the teacher’s
perspective.
 The new curriculum which is standard-based

places emphasis on Learning Outcomes (what
the learner has learned).
Video KED
 A good reflective practitioner?

RCA Discussion KED
 Describe the video you just watched.

 How did you feel about what transpired in the
video?
 How does the concept of the video reflect what
happens in our schools?
 In a similar or related situation, what will you do as
a teacher?
 What lessons have you learnt from the video?
Meaning of Reflective Practice
 Reflective practice is widely regarded as one
of the principles that supports and improves
teaching and learning.
 A key element in becoming an effective
teacher is to develop skills in reflective
thinking.
 What then is reflective practice? (Brainstorm-5
minutes)
 It is an active process of evaluating one’s own
practice and devising strategies of making
things better (Schon, 1983).
 It is the careful thinking about what educators
do in order to reconsider their actions and
refine their practices based on these thoughts
(O’Connor & Diggins, 2002).
 It means “looking back on an experience and
making sense of it to identify what to do in the
future” (Drew & Bingham, 2001, p. 221).
 Reflective practice is a way of looking at your
day to day activities or experiences with an
open mind.
 Taking the opportunity to think about the work
you are going to do, as you do it, or after you
Reflective Practice in Teaching
 It involves a process where teachers look
back and evaluate their teaching experiences.
 It is the process where teachers take a closer

look at their teaching experience to identify
ways in improving the quality of their work.
A Reflective Practitioner
 There is the need for every individual to reflect
on every aspect of life.
 The ability for an individual to reflect is an

essential part of human life.
A Reflective Practitioner
 A ‘reflective practitioner is someone who:
- thinks back on what happened, and asks 'why?
', 'how?’, ‘where?’, ‘what?’
- learns constantly, evaluates, and refines his/
her practice, even after many years of
experience.
- applies what has been learned from one
Towards Reflective Teaching
 Becoming a reflective teacher involves
moving beyond a primary concern with
instructional techniques and “how to”
questions (Bartlett, 1990).
 It also involves asking “what” and “why”
questions that regard instructions and
managerial techniques.
Towards Reflective Teaching
 Asking “what and why” questions give teachers a
certain power over our teaching.
 The degree of autonomy and responsibility teachers
have in doing the work is determined by the level of
control they can exercise over their actions.
 Reflecting on “what and why” questions provides the
opportunity for teachers to exercise control, and open
up the possibility of transforming everyday classroom
life.
Reflective Practice: Benefits for Teachers
 It helps to generate practice-based knowledge
skill development, since it is based on real
practice.
 It assists teachers to make more meaning of
difficult and complex practice.
 Reminds teachers that there is no end point to
learning about their everyday practice.
 Teachers become more flexible and adaptable
Reflective Practice: Benefits for Teachers
 It helps teachers to exchange ideas, share
decision-making and positive partnerships.
 It assists teachers to learn, develop, and

strengthen their capacity as a team.
 Thus, it enhances teacher professional

development and helps to maintain teacher
quality.
Reflective Practice Benefits for Learners
 Reflections on class sessions assist students
identify and address their weaknesses to
improve their overall performance.
 It encourages student to express their ideas,
raise queries, contribute and make
suggestions which provide productive
feedback for teachers.
 It assists students to develop critical thinking,
problem solving, and coping skills.
Reflective Practice: Benefits for Learners
 Students are motivated encouragement to

overcome their learning needs and challenges.
 Improves overall student effectiveness

because it helps students to form learning
groups to share thoughts, process new
information, and encourage interaction.
Conclusion KED
“The un-reflected life is not worth living”

(Plato cited in Taylor, 2000, p. 10).
(EDC 232)
Facilitators:
4/12/2021 1
UNIT 6 WEEK 12
NATIONAL TEACHERS’ STANDARS (NTS)

FOR GHANA
4/12/2021 2
Outline
 Introduction.
 The need for curriculum reforms.
 Rationale, vision, and aims for the reform.
 The reform process.
 Who are the standards for?
 Consideration for implementing the reforms.
 Meaning of National Teachers’ Standards (NTS)
 Domains of the National Teachers’ Standards (NTS)
 Conclusion.
4/12/2021 3
Introduction
 The role of education in the development of the
individual and the society cannot be compromised
(Ampofo, Onyango & Ogola, 2019).
 Quality education is critical, crucial, essential and
necessary in the strategic plans of improving economies
of developing countries (Kotirde & Yunos (2014).
 The primary motivation for educational reforms is the
keen interest in improving quality education.
The Need for Reforms
 All countries face challenges in their education system.
 Challenges in Ghana’s education system include:
- Indiscipline among learners, and lack of committed/
dedicated teachers.
- Seeming negative attitude of both teachers and supervisors
towards instructional supervision.
- Many minor reforms in the past 20+ years in Ghana have
not yielded the desired learning outcomes of learners.
- Preparation of teachers has not adequately improved
learning outcomes among learners in basic schools.
Rationale, Vision, & Aims for the Review
Rationale
 To respond to a national priority of shifting the structure
and content of the education system from merely passing
examinations to building character, nurturing values, and
raising literate, confident, and engaged citizens who can
think critically.
 To raise the quality of education at the pre-tertiary level,
with emphasis on science and mathematics as
fundamental building blocks for success in either tertiary
education or early entry into the work place.
Rationale, Aim, & Vision for the Review
 To address the inherent challenges in the existing
curriculum and ensure that the content of the national
curriculum can be internationally benchmarked.
Aim
 To instill in new teachers the Nation’s core values of
honesty, integrity, creativity and responsible citizenship
and to achieve inclusive, equitable, high quality
education for all learners in line with the Sustainable
Development Goal Four (SDG4)
Rationale, Aim, & Vision for the Review
Vision
 To prepare new teachers to become effective, engaging
and inspirational, and be fully prepared to teach the
basic school curriculum in order to improve learning
outcomes and life chances of all learners as set out in
the NTS.
The Reform Process
 The process of the curriculum reform was based on the
creation of two policy tools namely:
- National Teachers’ Standards [NTS] (For pre-service and
in-service teachers).
- National Teacher Education Curriculum Framework
[NTECF] (Pre-tertiary & Initial Teacher Education [ITE]).
Who are the Standards for?
 Student teachers on pre-service teacher training courses.
 All Beginning Teachers on their Induction Year in schools.
 All practicing teachers in schools.
 The National Teaching Council (NTC) will use the
Standards in assessing cases of any misconduct by any
member of the teaching profession.
 Institutions involved in the training and development of
teachers - Universities and Colleges of Education (public
and private).
Who are the Standards for?
 Teacher educators will use it as a guide in the
preparation of curricula and courses.
 District, Municipal and Metropolitan Education Directors.
 School Improvement Support Officers (SISOs) formerly
Circuit Supervisors.
 Teacher Unions.
 Headteachers and mentors in schools will use it as a
guide to inform their work.
Implementing the New Curriculum
 We must focus on the following:
- Supporting the implementation.
- Building capacity.
- Sustaining the change.
 These cannot be achieved without knowing,
understanding, and effectively implementing the
domains and elements of the National Teachers’
Standards.
Brainstorm: What are Standards?
In your opinion, what are standards?

Brainstorm: What is/are NTS?
 What is/are the National Teachers’ Standards

(NTS)?
National Teachers’ Standards (NTS)
 The NTS provides the determiner of what/who a good
teacher is, and against which all teachers (new and old)
will be assessed for certification and licensing.
 The NTS set out the minimum levels of practice that all
trained teachers must reach by the end of their pre-
service teacher education programme in order to play
the critical role of inspiring and challenging learners to
achieve their potentials.
Domains of NTS
 The minimum levels of practice are described as
STANDARDS” that must be met under the three
“STANDARDS”
domains: professional values and attitudes;;
professional knowledge;; and professional practice.
- Professional Values and Attitudes: Teachers should be
guided by legal and ethical teacher codes of conduct in
their development as professional teachers.
Domains of NTS
- Professional Knowledge: The teacher should understand
how children develop and learn in diverse contexts
(cultural, linguistic, socio-economic and educational
backgrounds) and apply this in their teaching.
- Professional Practice: The teacher should employ a

repertoire of learning strategies or skills in order to meet
the learning needs of all children through the application
of relevant resources.
DOMAINS OF THE
STANDARDS Professional Values and
Attitudes
Professional Development-
3
Community of Practice- 4
(7 standards)
Professional Practice
Professional Knowledge
Managing the Learning-
Knowledge of Environment -4
Educational Frameworks
and Curriculum- 5 Teaching and Learning-
5
Knowledge of Learners -
2 Assessment- 6
(7 standards) (15 standards)

Professional Values & Attitudes
 Professional Development (3 Standards)
- Improving teaching and learning through critical
and collective reflection.
- Improving personal and professional
development through lifelong learning and
Continuous Professional Development (CPD).
- Demonstrating effective leadership qualities in
the classroom and wider school.
Professional Values & Attitudes
 Community of Practice (4 Standards)
- Developing as a professional teacher, guided by legal
and ethical teacher codes of conduct.
- Engaging positively with colleagues, learners, parents,
SMCs, PTAs, and wider public as part of a community
of practice.
- Developing a positive teacher identity and acting as a
good role model for learners.
- Playing the role as a potential agent of change in the
school, community and country.
 Knowledge of Educational Frameworks and
Curriculum (5 Standards)
- Demonstrating familiarity with the education system
and key policies guiding it.
- Having comprehensive knowledge of the official
school curriculum, including learning outcomes.
- Having secure content knowledge, pedagogical
knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge for
the school and grade they teach in.
- Knowing the curriculum for the years appropriate to
multi-grade classes.
- Having good knowledge of how to teach beginning

reading and numeracy, and speaking, listening, reading
and writing of at least one Ghanaian language for
instruction, especially at the pre-primary and primary
levels.
 Knowledge of Students (2 Standards)
- Understanding how children develop and learn in
diverse contexts and apply this in their teaching.
- Taking accounts of and respects learners’ cultural,

linguistic socio-economic and educational
backgrounds in their planning and teaching.
 Managing the Learning Environment (4 Standards)
- Planning and delivering varied and challenging lessons,
and showing a clear grasp of the intended outcomes of
their teaching.
- Carrying out small scale action research to improve
practice.
- Creating a safe, encouraging learning environment.
- Managing behaviour and learning with small and large
classes.
 Teaching and Learning (5 Standards)
- employing a variety of instructional strategies that
encourage learner participation and critical thinking.
- paying attention to all learners, especially girls and
students with Special Educational Needs, ensuring
their progress.
- employing instructional strategies appropriate for
mixed ability, multi-grade, multilingual and multi-age
classes.
- setting meaningful tasks that encourage learner
collaboration and leads to purposeful learning.
- explaining concepts clearly using examples familiar to
learners.
- producing and using variety of teaching and learning
resources that enhance learning, including the use of
ICT related tools.
 Assessment (6 Standards)
- Integrating variety of assessment modes into teaching
to support learning.
- listening to learners and giving constructive feedback.
- Identifying and remediating learners’ difficulties or
misconceptions, referring learners whose needs lie
outside the competency of the teacher.
- Keeping meaningful records and communicating
learners’ progress regularly to learners and parents.
- demonstrating awareness of national and school

learning outcomes of learners.
- Using objective criterion referencing to assess learners.

Conclusion
 The rapid changes in knowledge, concepts, technology,
and philosophies as a result of the rapid changes in the
world have brought about some fundamental changes
in education.
 Education is no longer restricted to considering human
needs and the requirements of the present.
 It seeks to address and reflect on developing human
skills and capacities, and the necessities of the future.
Conclusion
 Thus, pre-service and in-service teachers must
undertake continuous and sustained CPD to improve
standards.
 Expectations of parents and learners in pre-tertiary
schools are very high.
 Hence, teachers must be committed to, and continually
engage in pursuing, upgrading, reviewing and reflecting
on their professional learning to function as 21st
century teachers who are also reflective practitioners.
FOR MORE INFORMATION
VISIT
www.t-tel.org/hub.html
For More Information on the New Curriculum for Teacher

Education in Ghana.

All PNP

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

All PNP

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING

METHODS, TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES

How do you understand the following terms?

 He/she manipulates them according to the need of the

 Selection and manipulation of teaching strategies is done at

 For instance, if a teacher decides to use learner-centred

 The strategy would require the teacher to determine which of

 This should start from the general method to the speciﬁc

 Thus, methods, techniques and strategies of teaching

 Pick an elbow partner and discuss the advantages

 Share with the rest of the class the advantages

 It allows faster coverage of the syllabus/curriculum.

 The teacher has control of the teaching and learning situation

 Learners are exposed to new information/knowledge in a

 Pick a different elbow partner and discuss the

 Share with the rest of the class the advantages

 Learners play a more passive role in learning as listeners, and

 Drill and practice technique.

 Questioning and responding technique.

 Whole class discussion technique.

 Teacher-led demonstration technique.

 Read on the following for a forum discussion on the

 Meaning of integrated pedagogies.

 Objectives of integrated pedagogies.

 Examples of integrated pedagogies.

 It is the pedagogical plan that incorporates rich set of

 To differentiate matters by relevance

- It involves not just ﬁlling the learner’s head with knowledge.

- It includes teaching the learner to relate the learned material

- It also involves appraising the learner in a complex scenario

- Involves responding to one of society’s main tasks of

- This fourth objective is based on the close interlinking of the

 It requires learners to perform meaningful learning activities

 Active involvement is characterised by learner choice or

 It uses hands-on, authentic, real-world related activities with

 The core elements of active learning are learner

- asking questions to focus on what is to be learned,

- encouraging sharing of knowledge with other learners,

- recording anecdotal observations,

- providing learning materials and resources to enhance

 It aids in information retention.

 It helps develop good communication and critical thinking

 It provides variety of learning opportunities and improves

- When learners help, support, praise, and encourage each

- The role of the teacher in using this strategy is to describe,

- Group work activities should be structured to ensure that

- Individual feedback may be done through individual quizzes

- The ability to interact effectively is a learned skill.

- This may be achieved through clear and direct teaching.

- The role of the teacher in this strategy is to intentionally

- This is a situation where group members reﬂect and

- This process deepens cognitive and metacognitive learning

 Read on the following for our next lecture.

- Guided discovery learning

 Pure discovery learning is when the learner is not

 This could be achieved if the following are explicitly

- problem solving strategies.

- subordinate skills such as collaboration.

- rests on the organisation of their existing knowledge,

- what they notice, and

- how they represent problems.

 It promotes argumentation, provides opportunities for

 It is usually facilitated by small group or peer work