Example 8.1 Photons to Create Hole-Electron Pairs in Silicon.

What maximum
wavelength can a photon have to create hole-electron pairs in silicon? What minimum
frequency is that? Silicon has a band gap of 1.12 eV and 1 eV = 1.6× 10-19 J.

Solution:

λ =?

v =?

E = 1.12 eV

1 eV = 1.6× 10-19 J

hc
E=
λ

h = 6.626×10-34 Js

c = 3×108 m/s

hc
λ=
E
−34 8
6.626 ×10 ×3 × 10
= −19
1.12 ×1.6 × 10

= 1.11 µm

c = λv
8
c 3 ×10
v= = = 2.7×1014 Hz
λ 1.11×10−6

Example 8.2 A p-n Junction Diode. Consider a p-n junction diode at 25˚C with a reverse
saturation current of 10-9 A. Find the voltage drop across the diode when it is carrying the
following:

a. no current (open-circuit voltage)

b. 1 A

c. 10 A

Solution:

At 25˚C,

I0 = 10-9 A

Vd =?

a.no current, Id = 0 A
 38.9 V d
I d=I 0 ( e −1)

I d 38.9 V
=e −1 d

I0

Id 38.9 V
+1=e d

I0

Id
38.9 V d = ln ( +1)
I0

1 Id
Vd = ln ( +1)
38.9 I0

Vd = 0 (∵ i d=0 ¿

b. Id = 1 A

1 1
Vd = ln ( −9 +1)
38.9 10

V d = 0.5327 V

c. Id = 10 A

1 10
Vd = ln ( −9 +1)
38.9 10

V d = 0.5919 V

Example 8.3 The I-V Curve for a Photovoltaic Cell. Consider a 100-cm2 photovoltaic cell
with reverse saturation current I0 = 10-12 A/cm2. In full sun, it produces a short-circuit current
of 40 mA/cm2 at 25˚C. Find the open-circuit voltage at full sun and again for 50% sunlight.
Plot the results.

Solution:

I0 = 10-12 A/cm2

Isc = 40 mA/cm2 at 25˚C (full sun)

V oc = ?

I sc
V oc = 0.0257 ln( ¿ +1)¿
I0

For full sun, at 100-cm2 photovoltaic cell

1 cm2 I0 = 10-12 A

100 cm2 ?
 I0 = 100×10-12 = 10-10 A

1 cm2 Isc = 40 mA

100 cm2 ?

Isc = 100×40×10-3 = 4 A

4
V oc = 0.0257 ln ( −10 ¿
+1)¿
10

V oc = 0.627 V

Short circuit current is proportional to solar intensity.

For 50% sunlight,

Isc = 2 A

2
V oc = 0.0257 ln ( −10 ¿
+1)¿
10

V oc = 0.61 V

Example 8.4 Voltage and Current from a PV Module. A PV module is made up of 36

identical cells, all wired in series. With 1-sun insolation (1 kW/m 2), each cell has short-circuit
current Isc = 3.4 A and at 25˚C its reverse saturation current is I 0 = 6×10-10 A. Parallel
resistance Rp= 6.6 Ω and series resistance R s = 0.005 Ω.(a) Find the voltage, current, and
power delivered when the junction voltage of each cell is 50 V.(b) Set up a spreadsheet for I
and V and present a few lines of output to show how it works.

Solution:

n = 36 (in series)

1-sun = 1 kW/m2
Isc = 3.4 A at 25˚C

I0 = 6×10-10 A

Rp= 6.6 Ω

Rs = 0.005 Ω

(a) Vmodule = ?, I = ?, P = ?

Vd = 0.5 V

Vmodule = n (Vd – IRs)

Vd
I = Isc −¿ I 0 ( e −1 ) −
38.9 V d
RP

= 3.4−¿ 6 ×10
−10
( e38.9 × 0.5−1 )− 0.5
6.6

= 3.16 A

Vmodule = 36 (0.5 – (3.16×0.005))

= 17.43 V

P = Vmodule × I

= 17.43×3.16

= 55.08 V

(b) Number of cells, n = 36

Parallel resistance/ cell RP (ohms) = 6.6

Series resistance/ cell Rs (ohms) = 0.005

Reverse saturation current I0 (A) = 6×10-10

Short circuit current at 1-sun (A) = 3.4

Vd I Vmodule P
0.49 3.21 17.06 54.80
0.50 3.16 17.43 55.08
0.51 3.07 17.81 54.75
0.52 2.96 18.19 53.76
0.53 2.78 18.58 51.65
0.54 2.52 18.99 47.89
0.55 2.14 19.41 41.59
Example 8.5 Impact of Cell Temperature on Power for a PV Module. Estimate cell
temperature, open-circuit voltage, and maximum power output for the 150 W BP2150S
module under conditions of 1-sun insolation and ambient temperature 30˚C. The module has
a NOCT of 47˚C. Voc(STC)=42.8V,TSTC = 25˚C, temperature coefficient voltage -0.37%/ ˚C,
power -05%/ ˚C

Solution:

Tcell=? , Voc=? , Pmax =?

S = 1-sun = 1 kW/m2

Tamb = 30˚C

NOCT = 47˚C

NOCT −20 ˚
T cell=T amb +( )
0.8

47 ˚ −20˚
= 30˚+( )
0.8

= 63.75˚C = 64˚C

Voc = 42.8 V at 25˚C

Since Voc drops by 0.37% / ˚C , the new Voc will be

Voc = 42.8 [ 1 – 0.0037 ( 64 – 25 ) ] = 36.6 V

Pmax = 150 W at 25˚C

Maximum power expected to drop about 0.5% / ˚C.

Pmax = 150 [ 1 – 0.005 ( 64 – 25) ]

= 120.75 W = 121 W

Which is a rather significant drop of 19% from its rated power.

Example 8.6 Impacts of Shading on a PV Module. The 36-cell PV module had a parallel
resistance per cell of RP = 6.6 Ω and series resistance Rs = 0.005 Ω. In full sun and at current I
= 2.14 A the output voltage was found there to be V = 19.41 V. If one cell is shaded and this
current somehow stays the same, then:

a. What would be the new module output voltage and power?

b. What would be the voltage drop across the shaded cell?

c. How much power would be dissipated in the shaded cell?

Solution:
n = 36 (in series)

Rp= 6.6 Ω

Rs = 0.005 Ω

I = 2.14 A

V = 19.41 V

If one cell is shaded,

(a) module output voltage =?

module output power =?

module output voltage = V −∆ V

V
∆V = + I RP
n

19.41
= +(2.14 ×6.6)
36

= 14.66 V

module output voltage = 19.41 – 14.66

= 4.75 V

Pmodule = VI

= 4.75×2.14

= 10.165 W

(b) Voltage drop across the shaded cell, Vc =?

Vc = I (RP+Rs)

= 2.14 ( 6.6 + 0.005 )

= 14.135 V

(c) Power dissipated in the shaded cell, P =?

P = Vc I

= 14.135×2.14

= 30.25 W