CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: WORKBOOK

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Workbook answers
Chapter 16
Exercise 16.1 Describing meiosis
1, 2, 3
Sequence Name of stage Events during this stage
3 anaphase 1 Centromeres split and chromatids are pulled to the
poles by the spindle fibres.
6 metaphase 2 Chromatids arrive at the poles and nuclear membranes
form around them.
1 prophase 1 * Pairs of homologous chromosomes line up on the
equator of the spindle.
4 telophase 1 Individual chromosomes, each made of a pair of
chromatids joined at a centromere, line up on the
equator of the spindle.
5 prophase 2 Homologous chromosomes separate and are pulled to
the poles by the spindle fibres.
8 telophase 2 Homologous chromosomes form groups at either end
of the cell; a nuclear membrane may form.
2 metaphase 1 * Chromosomes condense and become visible; the
homologous chromosomes associate to form bivalents.
7 anaphase 2 The nuclear membrane breaks down, and individual
chromosomes are visible.

4 Statement Mitosis Meiosis

can produce haploid cells from haploid cells ✓ ✗
can produce haploid cells from diploid cells ✗ ✓
can produce diploid cells from diploid cells ✓ ✗
can only take place in a cell with an even number of chromosomes ✗ ✓
produces genetically identical daughter cells ✓ ✗
involves independent assortment of chromosomes ✗ ✓
involves crossing over between chromatids of homologous chromosomes ✗ ✓
takes place in the formation of gametes ✓ ✓
takes place in gametes ✗ ✗
takes place in a zygote ✓ ✗

Exercise 16.2 Terms in genetics 4 gene

1 genes, locus 5 phenotype, genotype

2 locus (or loci), alleles 6 recessive, dominant

3 X, Y, sex linkage 7 homozygous, F1, heterozygous, F2

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8 codominant, alleles, heterozygous We can tell that the allele for having horns is
recessive, because this characteristic was seen in the
9 multiple alleles
offspring of a bull with horns and a cow with horns.
10 autosomal linkage
Genotype Phenotype
11 allele, test cross CRCRHH red, no horns
12 epistasis CRCRHh red, no horns
CRCRhh red, horns
Exercise 16.3 Answering questions CRCWHH roan, no horns
CRCWHh roan, no horns
involving a dihybrid cross
CRCWhh roan, horns
1 Genotype Phenotype CWCWHH white, no horns
AABB short hair, rough CWCWHh white, no horns
AaBB short hair, rough CWCWhh white, horns
aaBB long hair, rough Cross with the first cow:
AABb short hair, rough
Parents’ phenotypes red,   white,
AaBb short hair, rough no horns × horns
aaBb long hair, rough
Parents’ genotypes CRCRHh CWCWhh
AAbb short hair, smooth
Aabb short hair, smooth Gametes’ genotypes CRH CRh CWh
aabb long hair, smooth Offspring genotypes and phenotypes

2 answer given in the question CWh

CRCWHh
3 3 short, rough: 3 short, smooth: 1 long rough: CRH
roan, no horns
1 long, smooth
CRCWhh
4  he chances are 1 in 9, so on average we
T CR h roan, horns
would expect 1 guinea pig in a litter of 11 to
have long, smooth hair. Cross with the second cow:
Parents’ phenotypes red, no horns × white, no horns
5 a 
One with long, smooth hair. First, this
is the only type of guinea pig for which Parents’ genotypes CRCRHh CWCWHh
we know the genotype just by looking Gametes’ genotypes CRH CRh CWH CWh
at it. Second, we will be able to tell the
Offspring genotypes and phenotypes
other parent’s genotype by looking at the
offspring. CWH CW h
b 
If any of the offspring have long hair, then CRCWHH CRCW Hh
C RH
we know that the other parent must have roan, no horns roan, no horns
the allele a, and so its genotype must be CRCWHh CRCW hh
CR h
Aa. Similarly, if any of the offspring have roan, no horns roan, horns
smooth hair, then the other parent must
have the allele b, and so its genotype must
be Bb.
Exercise 16.5 Autosomal linkage
1 a Genotype Phenotype
Exercise 16.4 Another dihybrid RRTT red, serrated
cross question RRTt red, serrated
RRtt red, smooth
1
RrTT red, serrated
Symbols for alleles:
RrTt red, serrated
CR for the allele for red hair, CW for the allele for Rrtt red, smooth
white hair rrTT yellow, serrated
H for the allele for no horns, and h is the allele for rrTt yellow, serrated
horns rrtt yellow, smooth

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Parents’ phenotypes red, serrated × yellow, smooth Genotype Phenotype

Parents’ genotypes RrTt rrtt GGLL green, long
Gametes’ genotypes RT Rt rT rt rt GGLl green, long
Offspring genotypes and phenotypes GGll green, short
GgLL green, long
rt GgLl green, long
RrTt Ggll green, short
RT
red, serrated ggLL brown, long
Rrtt ggLl brown, long
Rt
red, smooth ggll brown, short
rrTt
rT yellow, Parents’ phenotypes green,     brown,
long × short
serrated
rrtt Parents’ genotypes GgLl ggll
rt
yellow, smooth Gametes’ genotypes gl
If the genes are on different chromosomes, most GL gl
showing independent assortment, we would expect
a ratio of 1 red, serrated : 1 red, smooth : a few gL Gl
1 yellow, serrated : 1 yellow, smooth. Offspring genotypes and phenotypes
The linked alleles are r and t, because
b  gl
these are found in the yellow, smooth
GgLl
parent.
GL green, long
Parents’ phenotypes red, serrated × yellow, smooth ggll
gl
Parents’ genotypes RrTt rrtt brown, short
Gametes’ genotypes RT rt rt Ggll
Gl
green, short
Offspring genotypes and phenotypes ggLl
gL
rt brown, long
RrTt Most offspring would be green with long wings, or
RT brown with short wings, in the ratio 1 : 1. A small
red, serrated
number would be green with short wings, or brown
rrtt
rt with long wings, in the ratio 1 : 1.
yellow, smooth
If the genes are linked, we would therefore expect
the offspring to be red, serrated and yellow, Exercise 16.7 The chi-squared test
smooth in the ratio 1 : 1.
1 a
Parents’ phenotypes green stems, green stems,
Exercise 16.6 Linkage and crossing curly petals × curly petals
over Parents’ genotypes GgPp GgPp

1 Gametes’ genotypes GP Gp GP Gp

Symbols used: gP gp gP gp
G for the allele for green body, g for the allele for
brown body
L for allele for long wing, l for the allele for short
wings

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Offspring genotypes and phenotypes 2 a Using the symbols:

GP Gp gP gp B = allele for black stripe, b = allele for

GGPP GGPp GgPP GgPp blue stripe
GP green, green, green, green, curly F = allele for forked tail, f = allele for

curly curly curly smooth tail
GGPp GGpp GgPp Ggpp The F1 generation will all be BbFf
Gp green, green, green, green, Parents’ phenotypes black stripe, black stripe,
curly straight curly straight ×
forked tail forked tail
GgPP GgPp ggPP ggPp
Parents’ genotypes BbFf BbFf
gP green, green, red, curly red, curly
Gametes’ genotypes BF Bf BF Bf
curly curly
GgPp Ggpp ggPp ggpp bF bf bF bf
gp green, green, red, curly red, Offspring genotypes and phenotypes
curly straight straight BF Bf bF bf
We would therefore expect 9 green, curly : 3 green, BBFF BBFf BbFF BbFf
straight : 3 red, curly ; 1 red, straight BF black, black, black, black,
b i 192 forked forked forked forked
BBFf BBff BbFf Bbff
ii green, curly = 9/16 × 192 = 108
Bf black, black, black, black,
green, straight = 3/16 × 192 = 36 forked smooth forked smooth
red, curly = 3/16 × 192 = 36 BbFF BbFf bbFF bbFf
bF black, black, blue, blue,
red, straight = 1/16 × 192 = 12
forked forked forked forked
c i BbFf Bbff bbFf bbff
Phenotypes green, green, red, red, bf black, black, blue, blue,
curly straight curly straight forked smooth forked smooth
Observed 121 22 23 26 We would therefore expect 9 black, forked: 3
number (O) black, smooth: 3 blue, forked: 1 blue, smooth.
Expected   9 3 3   1
b 
The ratios are not the expected 9: 3: 3: 1.
ratio
Expected 108 36 36 12 It is likely that these two genes are both
number (E) on the same chromosome, and that the
O– E 13 –14 –13 14 results are due to autosomal linkage.
(O– E)2 169 196 169 196 Most of the gametes contain the parental
1.56 5.44 4.69 16.33 combinations BF or bf, with only a few
(O– E)2
recombinants containing Bf and bF.
E
c 
Null hypothesis: The alleles for stripe
chi-squared = 1.56 + 5.44 + 4.69 + 16.33
ii  colour and tail shape are on different
= 28.02 chromosomes, and do not show linkage.
iii 4 – 1 = 3
iv 
The chi-squared value that most
closely matches 28.02 in the row for
3 degrees of freedom is 16.27.
v 
There is a significant difference
between the observed results and the
expected results. This suggests that the
null hypothesis is not correct.

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Total number of offspring = 357 E allele. So both of them must have

the genotype Ee.
Phenotypes Black, Black, Blue, Blue,
forked smooth forked smooth The black stallion is black all over, so
Observed 189 52 53 63 he has two a alleles. So his genotype is
number (O) Eeaa.
Expected ratio 9 3 3 1 We know that the bay mare is Ee, and
ii 
Expected 201 67 67 22 that she is not aa (or she would be
number (E) black), but she could be either EeAA
O–E –12 –15 –14 41 or EeAa.
(O – E)2 144 225 196 1681
The foal has inherited an e allele from
(O – E)2 0.72 3.36 2.93 76.41 both of his parents, and must have
E inherited an a allele from his father. He
So chi-squared = 0.72 + 3.36 + 2.93 + 76.41 could have inherited either an A allele
= 83.42 or an a allele from his mother. His
genotype could therefore be either eeAa
We can use the same chi-squared probability table
or eeaa.
as in 1c. Again, there are 3 degrees of freedom.
Again, the value of chi-squared is well off the end
of the table, indicating that the probability that the Exercise 16.9 Control of gene
observed results differ from the expected results
just be chance is less than 0.001. We must therefore
expression
reject the null hypothesis. 1 a  he components should be arranged end
T
to end, touching, in this order: promoter
Exercise 16.8 Interacting genes for regulatory gene; regulatory gene;
promoter for structural gene; operator;
1 a Genotype Phenotype β-galactosidase gene.
EEAA bay b i β-galactosidase gene
EEAa bay
ii regulatory gene
EEaa black
EeAA bay iii operator
EeAa bay iv promoter for structural gene
Eeaa black
eeAA chestnut v β-galactosidase gene
eeAa chestnut vi promoter for regulatory gene
eeaa chestnut
c 
Lactose binds with the lac repressor
Allele E needs to be present in order for protein, preventing it binding with the
any black pigment to be made, so every operator. This allows RNA polymerase
horse with the genotype ee will be chestnut to bind with the promoter, so that
(without any black). transcription of the gene encoding lactase
All the horses with EE or Ee can produce (the structural gene) can take place.
black pigment. Those with AA or Aa will mRNA is therefore produced, and travels
be bay, and those with aa will be black all to a ribosome where β-galactosidase will
over. be synthesised.

b i 
The chestnut foal must have the
genotype ee, but we cannot tell which
alleles he has for the A/a gene.
He must therefore have inherited an
e allele from both his mother and his
father. But both of them have black in
their coats, so they must also have an

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