Contemporary World Politics Class 12 Ncert Book

Chapter 1
The End of Bipolarity
Overview
The Berlin Wall, which had been
built at the height of the Cold
War and was its greatest symbol,
was toppled by the people in
1989. This dramatic event was
followed by an equally dramatic
and historic chain of events that
led to the collapse of the ‘second
world’ and the end of the Cold
War. Germany, divided after the
Second World War, was unified.
One after another, the eight East
European countries that were
part of the Soviet bloc replaced
their communist governments in
response to mass demonstrations.
The Soviet Union stood by as the
Cold War began to end, not by
The Berlin Wall
military means but as a result
symbolised the division
of mass actions by ordinary men between the capitalist
and women. Eventually the Soviet and the communist
Union itself disintegrated. In this world. Built in 1961
chapter, we discuss the meaning, to separate East Berlin from West Berlin, this more than
150 kilometre long wall stood for 28 years and was finally
the causes and the consequences
broken by the people on 9 November 1989. This marked the
of the disintegration of the ‘second unification of the two parts of Germany and the beginning of
world’. We also discuss what the end of the communist bloc. The pictures here depict:
happened to that part of the world 1. People making a tiny hole in the wall
2. A section of the wall opened to allow free movement
after the collapse of communist
3. The Berlin Wall as it stood before 1989
regimes and how India relates to Credit: 1. and 2. Frederik Ramm,
these countries now. www.remote.org/frederik/culture/berlin
3. www.cs.utah.edu
Rationalised 2023-24
Chapter 1.indd 1 14 September 2022 11:01:41

2 Contemporary World Politics
What was the Soviet machinery production, and a

transport sector that connected
System? its remotest areas with efficiency.
It had a domestic consumer
LEADERS OF THE The Union of Soviet Socialist
industry that produced everything
SOVIET UNION Republics (USSR) came into being
from pins to cars, though their
after the socialist revolution in
quality did not match that of the
Russia in 1917. The revolution was
Western capitalist countries. The
inspired by the ideals of socialism,
Soviet state ensured a minimum
as opposed to capitalism, and the
standard of living for all citizens,
need for an egalitarian society.
and the government subsidised
This was perhaps the biggest
basic necessities including
attempt in human history to
abolish the institution of private health, education, childcare and
property and consciously design other welfare schemes. There
Vladimir Lenin
a society based on principles of was no unemployment. State
(1870-1924)
Founder of the equality. In doing so, the makers of ownership was the dominant
Bolshevik the Soviet system gave primacy to form of ownership: land and
Communist party; the state and the institution of the productive assets were owned
leader of the party. The Soviet political system and controlled by the Soviet state.
Russian Revolution
centred around the communist The Soviet system, however,
of 1917 and the
founder-head of party, and no other political became very bureaucratic and
the USSR during party or opposition was allowed. authoritarian, making life very
the most difficult The economy was planned and difficult for its citizens. Lack of
period following controlled by the state. democracy and the absence of
the revolution freedom of speech stifled people
(1917-1924); an After the Second World War,
the east European countries that who often expressed their dissent
outstanding
theoretician and the Soviet army had liberated in jokes and cartoons. Most of
practitioner of from the fascist forces came the institutions of the Soviet
Marxism and under the control of the USSR. state needed reform: the one-
a source of The political and the economic party system represented by
inspiration for the Communist Party of the
systems of all these countries
communists all Soviet Union had tight control
over the world. were modelled after the USSR.
This group of countries was called over all institutions and was
the Second World or the ‘socialist unaccountable to the people.
bloc’. The Warsaw Pact, a military The party refused to recognise
alliance, held them together. The the urge of people in the fifteen
USSR was the leader of the bloc. different republics that formed
the Soviet Union to manage
The Soviet Union became their own affairs including their
a great power after the Second cultural affairs. Although, on
World War. The Soviet economy paper, Russia was only one of
was then more developed than the the fifteen republics that together
rest of the world except for the US. constituted the USSR, in reality
It had a complex communications Russia dominated everything,
network, vast energy resources and people from other regions felt
including oil, iron and steel, neglected and often suppressed.

The End of Bipolarity 3
In the arms race, the Soviet Gorbachev, did not intervene

Union managed to match the US when the disturbances occurred,
from time to time, but at great and the communist regimes
cost. The Soviet Union lagged collapsed one after another.
behind the West in technology, LEADERS OF THE
These developments were SOVIET UNION
infrastructure (e.g., transport, accompanied by a rapidly
power), and most importantly, in escalating crisis within the USSR
fulfilling the political or economic that hastened its disintegration.
aspirations of citizens. The Soviet Gorbachev initiated the policies
invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 of economic and political reform
weakened the system even further. and democratisation within
Though wages continued to grow, the country. The reforms were
productivity and technology fell opposed by leaders within the
considerably behind that of the Communist Party. Joseph Stalin
West. This led to shortages in all (1879-1953)
consumer goods. Food imports A coup took place in 1991 that Successor to Lenin
was encouraged by Communist and led the Soviet
increased every year. The Soviet
Party hardliners. The people had Union during its
economy was faltering in the late consolidation
1970s and became stagnant. tasted freedom by then and did
(1924-53);
not want the old-style rule of the began rapid
Communist Party. Boris Yeltsin industrialisation
Gorbachev and the emerged as a national hero in and forcible
collectivisation
Disintegration opposing this coup. The Russian
Republic, where Yeltsin won a of agriculture;
Mikhail Gorbachev, who had credited with
popular election, began to shake Soviet victory
become General Secretary of off centralised control. Power in the Second
the Communist Party of the began to shift from the Soviet World War; held
Soviet Union in 1985, sought centre to the republics, especially responsible for
to reform this system. Reforms in the more Europeanised part the Great Terror
were necessary to keep the USSR of the 1930s,
of the Soviet Union, which saw
authoritarian
abreast of the information and themselves as sovereign states. functioning and
technological revolutions taking The Central Asian republics elimination of
place in the West. However, did not ask for independence rivals within the
Gorbachev’s decision to normalise and wanted to remain with the party.
relations with the West and Soviet Federation. In December
democratise and refor m the 1991, under the leadership of
Soviet Union had some other Yeltsin, Russia, Ukraine and
effects that neither he nor anyone Belarus, three major republics
else intended or anticipated. The of the USSR, declared that the
people in the East European Soviet Union was disbanded. The
countries which were part of the Communist Party of the Soviet
Soviet bloc started to protest Union was banned. Capitalism
against their own governments and democracy were adopted
and Soviet control. Unlike in the as the bases for the post-Soviet
past, the Soviet Union, under republics.

A Communist Party bureaucrat drives down from Moscow to a collective

farm to register a potato harvest.
“Comrade farmer, how has the harvest been this year?” the official asks.
LEADERS OF THE “Oh, by the grace of God, we had mountains of potatoes,” answers the
SOVIET UNION farmer.
“But there is no God,” counters the official.
“Huh”, says the farmer, “And there are no mountains of potatoes either.”
The declaration on the there may be more general

disintegration of the USSR and the lessons to be drawn from this
formation of the Commonwealth of very important case.
Independent States (CIS) came as
There is no doubt that
a surprise to the other republics,
Nikita Khrushchev the inter nal weaknesses of
(1894-1971)
especially to the Central Asian
Soviet political and economic
Leader of the ones. The exclusion of these
institutions, which failed to meet
Soviet Union republics was an issue that was
(1953-64);
the aspirations of the people, were
quickly solved by making them
denounced responsible for the collapse of
founding members of the CIS.
Stalin’s leadership the system. Economic stagnation
Russia was now accepted as
style and for many years led to severe
introduced
the successor state of the Soviet
consumer shortages and a large
some reforms in Union. It inherited the Soviet seat
in the UN Security Council. Russia section of Soviet society began to
1956; suggested
“peaceful accepted all the international doubt and question the system
coexistence” treaties and commitments of the and to do so openly.
with the West;
Soviet Union. It took over as the Why did the system become
involved in
suppressing
only nuclear state of the post- so weak and why did the economy
popular rebellion Soviet space and carried out some stagnate? The answer is partially
in Hungary and in nuclear disarmament measures c l e a r. T h e S o v i e t e c o n o m y
the Cuban missile with the US. The old Soviet Union used much of its resources in
crisis. was thus dead and buried. maintaining a nuclear and military
arsenal and the development of its
Why did the Soviet Union satellite states in Eastern Europe
and within the Soviet system (the
Disintegrate? five Central Asian Republics in
How did the second most particular). This led to a huge
powerful country in the world economic burden that the system
suddenly disintegrate? This is a could not cope with. At the same
question worth asking not just to time, ordinary citizens became
I am amazed! How
understand the Soviet Union and more knowledgeable about the
could so many the end of communism but also economic advance of the West.
sensitive people because it is not the first and may They could see the disparities
all over the world not be the last political system to between their system and the
admire a system like collapse. While there are unique systems of the West. After years
this?
features of the Soviet collapse, of being told that the Soviet

system was better than Western impossible to control. There were

capitalism, the reality of its sections of Soviet society which
backwardness came as a political felt that Gorbachev should have
and psychological shock. moved much faster and were
disappointed and impatient with LEADERS OF THE
The Soviet Union had become SOVIET UNION
his methods. They did not benefit
stagnant in an administrative
in the way they had hoped,
and political sense as well. The
or they benefited too slowly.
Communist Party that had ruled
Others, especially members of the
the Soviet Union for over 70
Communist Party and those who
years was not accountable to
were served by the system, took
the people. Ordinary people
exactly the opposite view. They
were alienated by slow and
felt that their power and privileges
stifling administration, rampant
were eroding and Gorbachev was
corruption, the inability of the Leonid Brezhnev
system to correct mistakes it had moving too quickly. In this ‘tug
(1906-82)
made, the unwillingness to allow of war’, Gorbachev lost support Leader of the
more openness in government, on all sides and divided public Soviet Union (1964-
and the centralisation of authority opinion. Even those who were 82); proposed
with him became disillusioned as Asian Collective
in a vast land. Worse still, the
they felt that he did not adequately Security system;
party bureaucrats gained more associated with
privileges than ordinary citizens. defend his own policies.
the détente phase
People did not identify with the All this might not have led to in relations with
system and with the rulers, and the collapse of the Soviet Union the US; involved
the government increasingly lost but for another development that in suppressing a
popular backing. popular rebellion
surprised most observers and
in Czechoslovakia
Gorbachev’s reforms promised indeed many insiders. The rise and in invading
to deal with these problems. of nationalism and the desire Afghanistan.
Gorbachev promised to reform the for sovereignty within various
economy, catch up with the West, republics including Russia and
and loosen the administrative the Baltic Republics (Estonia,
system. You may wonder why the Latvia and Lithuania), Ukraine,
Soviet Union collapsed in spite of Georgia, and others proved to
Gorbachev’s accurate diagnosis be the final and most immediate
of the problem and his attempt cause for the disintegration of
to implement reforms. Here is the USSR. Here again there are
where the answers become more differing views.
controversial, and we have to One view is that nationalist
depend on future historians to
urges and feelings were very much
guide us better.
at work throughout the history of
The most basic answer seems the Soviet Union and that whether
to be that when Gorbachev carried or not the reforms had occurred
out his reforms and loosened the there would have been an internal
system, he set in motion forces and struggle within the Soviet Union.
expectations that few could have This is a ‘what-if’ of history, but
predicted and became virtually surely it is not an unreasonable

view given the size and diversity of Ironically, during the Cold War
the Soviet Union and its growing many thought that nationalist
internal problems. Others think unrest would be strongest in the
that Gorbachev’s reforms speeded Central Asian republics given their
LEADERS OF THE up and increased nationalist ethnic and religious differences
SOVIET UNION dissatisfaction to the point that with the rest of the Soviet Union
the government and rulers could and their economic backwardness.
not control it. However, as things turned out,
TIMELINE OF DISINTEGRATION
OF THE SOVIET UNION
1985 March: Mikhail Gorbachev elected as the General Secretary of the
Mikhail Communist Party of the Soviet Union; appoints Boris Yeltsin as the head of the
Gorbachev Communist Party in Moscow; initiates a series of reforms in the Soviet Union
(Born 1931)
Last leader 1988: Independence movement begins in Lithuania; later spreads to Estonia
of the Soviet and Latvia
Union (1985-
91); introduced 1989 October: Soviet Union declares that the Warsaw Pact members are free
economic to decide their own futures; Berlin Wall falls in November
and political
reform policies 1990 February: Gorbachev strips the Soviet Communist Party of its 72-year-long
of perestroika monopoly on power by calling on the Soviet parliament (Duma) to permit
(restructuring) multi-party politics
and glasnost
(openness); 1990 March: Lithuania becomes the first of the 15 Soviet republics to declare
stopped the its independence
arms race with
the US; withdrew 1990 June: Russian parliament declares its independence from the Soviet Union
Soviet troops from
Afghanistan and 1991 June: Yeltsin, no longer in the Communist Party, becomes the President
eastern Europe; of Russia
helped in the
unification of 1991 August: The Communist Party hardliners stage an abortive coup against
Germany; ended Gorbachev
the Cold War;
blamed for the 1991 September: Three Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania become
disintegration of UN members (later join NATO in March 2004)
the Soviet Union.
1991 December: Russia, Belarus and Ukraine decide to annul the 1922 Treaty
on the Creation of the USSR and establish the Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS); Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan join the CIS (Georgia joins later in 1993); Russia
takes over the USSR seat in the United Nations
1991 December 25: Gorbachev resigns as the President of the Soviet Union; the
end of the Soviet Union

nationalist dissatisfaction with the changed. The end of the Cold War
Soviet Union was strongest in the left open only two possibilities:
more “European” and prosperous either the remaining superpower
part – in Russia and the Baltic would dominate and create a
areas as well as Ukraine and unipolar system, or different LEADERS OF THE
Georgia. Ordinary people here countries or groups of countries SOVIET UNION
felt alienated from the Central could become important players
Asians and from each other and in the international system,
concluded also that they were thereby bringing in a multipolar
paying too high an economic price system where no one power could
to keep the more backward areas dominate. As it turned out, the
within the Soviet Union. US became the sole superpower.
Backed by the power and prestige of
the US, the capitalist economy was
Consequences of now the dominant economic system
Boris Yeltsin
Disintegration internationally. Institutions like (1931-2007)
the World Bank and International The first elected
The collapse of the second world of Monetary Fund became powerful President of
the Soviet Union and the socialist advisors to all these countries Russia (1991-
since they gave them loans for their 1999); rose to
systems in eastern Europe had
power in the
profound consequences for world transitions to capitalism. Politically,
Communist
politics. Let us note here three the notion of liberal democracy Party and was
broad kinds of enduring changes emerged as the best way to organise made the Mayor
that resulted from it. Each of political life. of Moscow by
these had a number of effects that Gorbachev; later
Third, the end of the Soviet bloc joined the critics
we cannot list here. meant the emergence of many new of Gorbachev
countries. All these countries had and left the
First of all, it meant the end
their own independent aspirations Communist Party;
of Cold War confrontations. The
and choices. Some of them, led the protests
ideological dispute over whether against the Soviet
especially the Baltic and east
the socialist system would beat European states, wanted to join regime in 1991;
the capitalist system was not an the European Union and become played a key
issue any more. Since this dispute role in dissolving
part of the North Atlantic Treaty
had engaged the military of the the Soviet Union;
Organisation (NATO). The Central blamed for
two blocs, had triggered a massive Asian countries wanted to take hardships suffered
arms race and accumulation of advantage of their geographical by Russians in
nuclear weapons, and had led to location and continue their close their transition
the existence of military blocs, ties with Russia and also to from communism
the end of the confrontation establish ties with the West, to capitalism.
demanded an end to this arms the US, China and others. Thus,
race and a possible new peace. the international system saw
many new players emerge, each
Second, power relations in with its own identity, interests,
world politics changed and, and economic and political
therefore, the relative influence difficulties. It is to these issues
of ideas and institutions also that we now turn.

Shock Therapy in Each of these countries was

required to make a total shift
Post-Communist Regimes to a capitalist economy, which
The collapse of communism was meant rooting out completely
followed in most of these countries any structures evolved during the
by a painful process of transition Soviet period. Above all, it meant
from an authoritarian socialist that private ownership was to be
system to a democratic capitalist the dominant pattern of ownership
system. The model of transition of property. Privatisation of state
I heard someone
in Russia, Central Asia and east assets and corporate ownership
say “The end of the
Soviet Union does Europe that was influenced by patterns were to be immediately
not mean the end the World Bank and the IMF came brought in. Collective farms were
of socialism.” Is that to be known as ‘shock therapy’. to be replaced by private farming
possible? Shock therapy varied in intensity and capitalism in agriculture.
and speed amongst the former This transition ruled out any
second world countries, but its alternate or ‘third way’, other
direction and features were quite than state-controlled socialism
similar. or capitalism.
Map of Central, Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States
Locate the
Central Asian
Republics on Source: https://www.unicef.org/hac2012/images/HAC2012_CEE-CIS_map_REVISED.gif
the map. Note: The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply
official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.

Shock therapy also involved were put up for sale to private

a drastic change in the external individuals and companies.
orientation of these economies. Since the restructuring was
Development was now envisaged carried out through market
through more trade, and thus a forces and not by government-
sudden and complete switch to free directed industrial policies, it
trade was considered essential. led to the virtual disappearance
The free trade regime and foreign of entire industries. This was
direct investment (FDI) were to be called ‘the largest garage sale in
the main engines of change. This history’, as valuable industries
also involved openness to foreign were undervalued and sold at
investment, financial opening up throwaway prices. Though all
or deregulation, and currency citizens were given vouchers to
convertibility. participate in the sales, most
citizens sold their vouchers in
Finally, the transition also the black market because they
involved a break up of the needed the money.
existing trade alliances among
the countries of the Soviet bloc. The value of the ruble, the
Each state from this bloc was now Russian currency, declined
linked directly to the West and not dramatically. The rate of inflation
to each other in the region. These was so high that people lost
states were thus to be gradually all their savings. The collective
a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e We s t e r n farm system disintegrated leaving
economic system. The Western people without food security, and
Russia started to import food. The
capitalist states now became
real GDP of Russia in 1999 was
the leaders and thus guided and
below what it was in 1989. The old
controled the development of the
trading structure broke down with
region through various agencies
no alternative in its place.
and organisations.
The old system of social welfare
was systematically destroyed.
Consequences of Shock The withdrawal of government
Therapy subsidies pushed large sections
of the people into poverty. The
The shock therapy administered middle classes were pushed to
in the 1990s did not lead the the periphery of society, and
people into the promised utopia the academic and intellectual
of mass consumption. Generally, manpower disintegrated or
it brought ruin to the economies migrated. A mafia emerged in
and disaster upon the people of most of these countries and I can see the shock.
the entire region. In Russia, the started controlling many economic But where is the
large state-controlled industrial activities. Privatisation led to new therapy? Why do
disparities. Post-Soviet states, we talk in such
complex almost collapsed, as
euphemisms?
about 90 per cent of its industries especially Russia, were divided

between rich and poor regions. Tensions and Conflicts

Unlike the earlier system,
Most of the former Soviet
there was now great economic
Republics are prone to conflicts,
inequality between people.
and many have had civil wars
The construction of and insurgencies. Complicating
As a result of democratic institutions was the picture is the growing
‘shock therapy’
not given the same attention involvement of outside powers.
about half of
Russia’s 1,500 and priority as the demands In Russia, two republics,
banks and other of economic transformation. Chechnya and Dagestan,
finacial institutions The constitutions of all these have had violent secessionist
went bankrupt. countries were drafted in a hurry movements. Moscow’s method of
This image is that and most, including Russia, had dealing with the Chechen rebels
of Inkombank,
Russia’s second
a strong executive president with and indiscriminate military
largest bank, that the widest possible powers that bombings have led to many
went bankrupt in rendered elected parliaments human rights violations but
1998. As a result, relatively weak. In Central Asia, failed to deter the aspirations for
the money of the presidents had great powers, independence.
10,000 corporate
and several of them became very
and private In Central Asia, Tajikistan
shareholders was authoritarian. For example, the
witnessed a civil war that went on
lost, along with presidents of Turkmenistan and for ten years till 2001. The region
the money kept Uzbekistan appointed themselves as a whole has many sectarian
in the bank by to power first for ten years and
customers.
conflicts. In Azerbaijan’s province
then extended it for another ten of Nagorno-Karabakh, some
years. They allowed no dissent or local Armenians want to secede
opposition. A judicial culture and and join Armenia. In Georgia,
independence of the judiciary the demand for independence
was yet to be established in most has come from two provinces,
of these countries. resulting in a civil war. There are
Most of these economies, movements against the existing
especially Russia, started regimes in Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan
reviving in 2000, ten years and Georgia. Countries and
after their independence. The provinces are fighting over
reason for the revival for most river waters. All this has led to
of their economies was the instability, making life difficult
export of natural resources like for the ordinary citizen.
What is the difference oil, natural gas and minerals. The Central Asian Republics
between nationalism Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, are areas with vast hydrocarbon
and secessionism? Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan resources, which have brought
If you succeed, you are major oil and gas producers. them economic benefit. Central
are celebrated as a
Other countries have gained Asia has also become a zone of
nationalist hero, and
because of the oil pipelines that competition between outside
if you fail you are
condemned for crimes cross their territories for which powers and oil companies. The
of secessionism. they get rent. Some amount of region is next to Russia, China,
manufacturing has restarted. Afghanistan, and Pakistan, and

close to West Asia. After 11 embedded in a history of trust

Make a list of
September 2001, the US wanted and common interests and are
the similarities
military bases in the region matched by popular perceptions.
between
and paid the governments of all Indian heroes from Raj Kapoor to
India and the
Central Asian states to hire bases Amitabh Bachchan are household
USSR in their
and to allow airplanes to fly over names in Russia and many post-
political and
their territory during the wars in Soviet countries. One can hear
economic
Afghanistan and Iraq. However, Hindi film songs all over the
ideologies.
Russia perceives these states as region, and India is part of the
its ‘Near Abroad’ and believes that popular memory.
they should be under Russian
Russia and India share a vision
influence. China has interests
of a multipolar world order. What
here because of the oil resources,
they mean by a multipolar world
and the Chinese have begun to
settle around the borders and
conduct trade.
BOLLYWOOD STIRS UZBEK
In eastern Europe,
PASSIONS
Czechoslovakia split peacefully
Seven years after the Soviet Union collapsed, the Uzbek
into two, with the Czechs and passion for Indian films continues. Within months of the
the Slovaks forming independent release of the latest film in India, pirate copies were already
countries. But the most severe on sale in the Uzbek capital, Tashkent.
conflict took place in the Balkan
Mohammed Sharif Pat runs a shop selling Indian films near
republics of Yugoslavia. After
one of Tashkent’s biggest markets. He is an Afghan who
1991, it broke apart with several brings videos from the Pakistani frontier town Peshawar.
provinces like Croatia, Slovenia “There are many people who love Indian films here. I’d say
and Bosnia and Herzegovina at least 70% of the people in Tashkent buy them. We sell
declaring independence. Ethnic about 100 videos a day. I’ve just had to put in an order for
Serbs opposed this, and a a thousand more,” he says. “The Uzbeks are Central Asians,
massacre of non-Serb Bosnians they are part of Asia. They have a common culture. That’s
followed. The NATO intervention why they like Indian films.”
and the bombing of Yugoslavia Despite the shared history, for many Indians living in
followed the inter-ethnic civil war. Uzbekistan, the passion the Uzbeks have for their films and film
stars has come as a bit of a surprise. “Wherever we go and
meet local dignitaries - even ministers or cabinet ministers -
India and Post-communist during our conversation it is always mentioned,” says Ashok
Shamer from the Indian embassy in Tashkent. “This shows
Countries that Indian films, culture, songs and especially Raj Kapoor
have been household names here. Most of them can sing
India has maintained good some Hindi songs, they may not know the meaning but their
relations with all the post- pronunciation is correct and they know the music,” he says.
communist countries. But the “I have found out that almost all my neighbours can sing and
strongest relations are still those play Hindi songs. This was really a big surprise to me when I
between Russia and India. India’s came to Uzbekistan.”
relations with Russia are an A report by the BBC’s Central Asia Correspondent Louise Hidalgo
important aspect of India’s foreign
policy. Indo-Russian relations are

order is the co-existence of several powers in the

FLASHBACK: INDIA international system, collective security (in which an
AND THE USSR attack on any country is regarded as a threat to all
countries and requires a collective response), greater
regionalism, negotiated settlements of international
During the Cold War era, India and the
USSR enjoyed a special relationship
conflicts, an independent foreign policy for all countries,
which led critics to say that India was and decision making through bodies like the UN that
part of the Soviet camp. It was a multi- should be strengthened, democratised, and empowered.
dimensional relationship: More than 80 bilateral agreements have been signed
between India and Russia as part of the Indo-Russian
Economic: The Soviet Union assisted Strategic Agreement of 2001.
India’s public sector companies
at a time when such assistance India stands to benefit from its relationship
was difficult to get. It gave aid and with Russia on issues like Kashmir, energy supplies,
technical assistance for steel plants sharing information on international terrorism,
like Bhilai, Bokaro, Visakhapatnam,
and machinery plants like Bharat
Heavy Electricals Ltd., etc. The Soviet
Union accepted Indian currency for
trade when India was short of foreign
exchange.
Political: The Soviet Union supported

India’s positions on the Kashmir issue in STEPS
the UN. It also supported India during  Select any five Cold War allies each of the Soviet
its major conflicts, especially during Union and the US.
the war with Pakistan in 1971. India
too supported Soviet foreign policy in  Divide the class accordingly (10 groups). Allot
some crucial but indirect ways. a country to each group. Assign the group to
collect information on the political, social and
Military: India received most of its economic profile of these countries during the
military hardware from the Soviet Cold War days.
Union at a time when few other
countries were willing to part with  They should also prepare a profile of that country
military technologies. The Soviet Union after the collapse of communism and say what
entered into various agreements difference, if any, the disintegration of the
allowing India to jointly produce second world made to that country.
military equipment.
 Each group is to present its findings to the entire
Culture: Hindi films and Indian culture class. Ensure that students talk about how
were popular in the Soviet Union. A people of these countries felt about themselves
large number of Indian writers and as citizens.
artists visited the USSR. Ideas for the Teacher
 You could link the students’ findings to the working of the
democratic system and communist system and highlight
the pros and cons of both these systems.
 You could encourage the students to discuss if there is an
alternative to both communism and capitalism.

access to Central Asia, and imports from Russia and the

balancing its relations with republics of Kazakhstan and
China. Russia stands to benefit Turkmenistan. Cooperation
from this relationship because with these republics includes
India is the second largest arms partnership and investment in
market for Russia. The Indian oilfields. Russia is important
military gets most of its hardware for India’s nuclear energy plans
from Russia. Since India is an and assisted India’s space
oil-importing nation, Russia industry by giving, for example,
is important to India and has the cryogenic rocket when India
repeatedly come to the assistance needed it. Russia and India have
of India during its oil crises. India collaborated on various scientific
is seeking to increase its energy projects.
1. Which among the following statements that describe the nature
E x e r c i s e s
of Soviet economy is wrong?
a. Socialism was the dominant ideology
b. State ownership/control existed over the factors of production
c. People enjoyed economic freedom
d. Every aspect of the economy was planned and controlled by
the State
2. Arrange the following in chronological order:
a. Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
b. Fall of the Berlin Wall
c. Disintegration of the Soviet Union
d. Russian Revolution
3. Which among the following is NOT an outcome of the disintegration
of the USSR?
a. End of the ideological war between the US and USSR
b. Birth of CIS
c. Change in the balance of power in the world order
d. Crises in the Middle East
4. Match the following:
i. Mikhail Gorbachev a. Successor of USSR
ii. Shock Therapy b. Military pact
iii. Russia c. Introduced reforms
iv. Boris Yeltsin d. Economic model
v. Warsaw e. President of Russia

5. Fill in the blanks.

a. The Soviet political system was based on ___________________
ideology.
b. _________________ was the military alliance started by the USSR.
c. ____________________ party dominated the Soviet Union’s
E x e r c i s e s
political system.
d. ______________________ initiated the reforms in the USSR in 1985.
e. The fall of the ____________________ symbolised the end of the
Cold War.
6. Mention any three features that distinguish the Soviet economy
from that of a capitalist country like the US.
7. What were the factors that forced Gorbachev to initiate the reforms
in the USSR?
8. What were the major consequences of the disintegration of the
Soviet Union for countries like India?
9. What was Shock Therapy? Was this the best way to make a transition
from communism to capitalism?
10. Write an essay for or against the following proposition: “With the
disintegration of the second world, India should change its foreign
policy and focus more on friendship with the US rather than with
traditional friends like Russia”.

Chapter 2
Contemporary
Centres of Power
Overview
After the end of the bipolar
structure of world politics in
the early 1990s, it became
clear that alternative centres of
political and economic power
could limit America’s dominance.
Thus, in Europe, the European
Union (EU) and, in Asia, the
Association of South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN), have emerged
as forces to reckon with. While
evolving regional solutions to
their historical enmities and
weaknesses, both the EU and the
ASEAN have developed alternative
institutions and conventions
that build a more peaceful and
cooperative regional order and
have transformed the countries
in the region into prosperous
economies. The economic rise
of China has made a dramatic The two images here represent two phases of the history of
impact on world politics. In this China. The red poster – “The Socialist Road is the Broadest
of All” – represents the ideology that guided China during its
chapter, we take a look at some
early phase after the Revolution. The photograph below is that
of these emerging alternative of the city of Shanghai, the symbol of China’s new economic
centres of power and assess their power.
possible role in the future.

European Union (OEEC) was established in 1948 to

channel aid to the west European
As the Second World War came to states. It became a forum where
an end, many of Europe’s leaders the western European states
grappled with the ‘Question began to cooperate on trade and
of Europe’. Should Europe be economic issues. The Council of
allowed to revert to its old rivalries Europe, established in 1949, was
or be reconstructed on principles another step forward in political
and institutions that would cooperation. The process of
contribute to a positive conception economic integration of European
of international relations? The capitalist countries proceeded
Second World War shattered many step by step (see Timeline of
of the assumptions and structures
European Integration) leading to
on which the European states had
the formation of the European
based their relations. In 1945, the
Economic Community in 1957.
European states confronted the
This process acquired a political
ruin of their economies and the
dimension with the creation
destruction of the assumptions
of the European Parliament.
and structures on which Europe
The collapse of the Soviet bloc
had been founded.
put Europe on a fast track and
European integration after resulted in the establishment
1945 was aided by the Cold of the European Union in 1992.
War. America extended massive The foundation was thus laid for
financial help for reviving Europe’s a common foreign and security
economy under what was called policy, cooperation on justice and
the ‘Marshall Plan’. The US also home affairs, and the creation of
created a new collective security a single currency.
structure under NATO. Under the
Marshall Plan, the Organisation for The European Union has
European Economic Cooperation evolved over time from an
economic union to an
increasingly political one. The
EU has started to act more as a
nation state. While the attempts
to have a Constitution for the
EU have failed, it has its own
flag, anthem, founding date, and
currency. It also has some form
The European Union Flag of a common foreign and security
The circle of gold stars stands for solidarity and harmony between policy in its dealings with other
the peoples of Europe. It has twelve stars, as the number twelve is nations. The European Union
traditionally the symbol of perfection, completeness and unity. has tried to expand areas of
Source: http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/emblem/index_en.htm cooperation while acquiring new

Contemporary Centres of Power 17
European Union Map

Older Members
New Members Finland
Sweden
Estonia
Latvia
Denmark
Lithuania
Ireland Netherlands
United
Kingdom Poland
Belgium Germany
Czech
Republic
kia
Luxembourg Slova
Austria
Hungary
France
Romania
Croatia
Ita
ly Slovenia
Bulgaria
Portugal
Spain
Greece
Malta
Cyprus
members, especially from the GDP of more than $17 trillion in

erstwhile Soviet bloc. The process 2016, next to that of the United
has not proved easy, for people States of America. Its currency,
in many countries are not very the euro, can pose a threat to
enthusiastic in giving the EU the dominance of the US dollar.
powers that were exercised by Its share of world trade is much
the government of their country. larger than that of the United Oh, now I know what a
There are also reservations about States allowing it to be more Schengen visa means!
including some new countries assertive in trade disputes with Under the Schengen
within the EU. the US and China. Its economic agreement, you have to
get a visa from just one of
The EU has economic, political power gives it influence over its
the EU countries and that
and diplomatic, and military closest neighbours as well as in allows you entry in most
influence. The EU is the world’s Asia and Africa. It also functions as of the other European
second biggest economy with a an important bloc in international Union countries.

of the EU, France, holds permanent

TIMELINE OF EUROPEAN seat on the UN Security Council.
INTEGRATION The EU includes several non-
1951 April: Six west European countries, France, West
per manent members of the
Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg UNSC. This has enabled the EU
sign the Treaty of Paris establishing the European Coal and to influence some US policies
Steel Community (ECSC). such as the current US position
1957 March 25: These six countries sign the Treaties of Rome on Iran’s nuclear programme.
establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and Its use of diplomacy, economic
the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). investments, and negotiations
1973 January: Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom rather than coercion and military
join the European Community (EC). force has been effective as in the
1979 June: First direct elections to the European Parliament case of its dialogue with China on
human rights and environmental
1981 January: Greece joins the EC.
degradation.
1985 June: The Schengen Agreement abolishes border
controls among the EC members. Militarily, the EU’s combined
armed forces are the second
1986 January: Spain and Portugal join the EC.
largest in the world. Its total
1990 October: Unification of Germany. spending on defence is second
1992 February 7: The Treaty of Maastricht was signed after the US. One EU member
establishing the European Union (EU). state, France, also has nuclear
1993 January: The single market was created. arsenals of approximately
335 nuclear warheads. It is
1995 January: Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU.
also the world’s second most
2002 January: Euro, the new currency, was introduced in
important source of space and
the 12 EU members.
communications technology.
2004 May: Ten new members, Cyprus, the Czech Republic,
Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia As a supranational organi-
and Slovenia join the EU. sation, the EU is able to intervene
2007 January: Bulgaria and Romania join the EU. Slovenia in economic, political and social
adopts the Euro. areas. But in many areas its
member states have their own
2009 December: The Lisbon Treaty came into force.
foreign relations and defence
2012 : The EU is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
policies that are often at odds
2013: Croatia becomes the 28th member of the EU. with each other. Thus, Britain’s
2016: Referendum in Britain, 51.9 per cent voters decide that Prime Minister Tony Blair was
Britain exit (Brexit) from the EU. America’s partner in the Iraq
invasion, and many of the EU’s
newer members made up the
economic organisations such as
US-led ‘coalition of the willing’
the World Trade Organisation
whereas Germany and France
(WTO).
opposed American policy. There
The EU also has political and is also a deep-seated ‘Euro-
diplomatic influence. One member skepticism’ in some parts

© Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

The cartoon appeared in 2003 when the European Union’s initiative to draft a
common constitution failed. Why does the cartoonist use the image of the ship
Titanic to represent EU?
of Europe about the EU’s region of Asia? Before and during

integrationist agenda. Thus, for the Second World War, this region
example, Britain’s former prime of Asia suffered the economic and
minister, Margaret Thatcher, political consequences of repeated
kept the UK out of the European colonialisms, both European and
Market. Denmark and Sweden Japanese. At the end of the war,
have resisted the Maastricht it confronted problems of nation-
Treaty and the adoption of the building, the ravages of poverty
euro, the common European and economic backwardness and
currency. This limits the ability of the pressure to align with one
the EU to act in matters of foreign great power or another during
relations and defence. the Cold War. This was a recipe
for conflict, which the countries
Association of South of Southeast Asia could ill afford.

Efforts at Asian and Third World
East Asian Nations unity, such as the Bandung Imagine what would
(ASEAN) Conference and the Non-Aligned happen if they have

a European Union
Movement, were ineffective in
football team!
Take a look at the political map of establishing the conventions
the world. Which countries would for informal cooperation and
you say fall in the southeastern interaction. Hence, the Southeast

Map of East Asia and Pacific Cambodia joined ASEAN

taking its strength to ten.
Unlike the EU there is
little desire in ASEAN for
supranational structures
and institutions. ASEAN
countries have celebrated
what has become known as
the ‘ASEAN Way’, a form of
interaction that is informal,
non-confrontationist and
cooperative. The respect
for national sovereignty is
critical to the functioning
of ASEAN.
With some of the fastest
growing economies in the
world, ASEAN broadened
its objectives beyond
the economic and social
Source: http://www.unicef.org/eapro/EAP_map_final.gif spheres. In 2003, ASEAN
Note: Maps on this site do not reflect a position by UNICEF on the legal status of any moved along the path of the
country or territory or the delimitation of any frontiers. EU by agreeing to establish
an ASEAN Community
Asian alternative by establishing comprising three pillars,
the Association of South East namely, the ASEAN Security
Asian Nations (ASEAN). Community, the ASEAN Economic
Community and the ASEAN Socio-
ASEAN was established in
Cultural Community.
Locate 1967 by five countries of this
the ASEAN region — Indonesia, Malaysia,
members on the Philippines, Singapore
the map. Find and Thailand — by signing
the location the Bangkok Declaration. The
of the ASEAN objectives of ASEAN were primarily
Secretariat. to accelerate economic growth
and through that ‘social progress
and cultural development’. A
secondary objective was to
promote regional peace and The ASEAN Flag
stability based on the rule of law In the ASEAN logo, the ten stalks of
and the principles of the United paddy (rice) represent the ten Southeast
Asian countries bound together in
Nations Charter. Over the years,
friendship and solidarity. The circle
Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, symbolises the unity of ASEAN.
Lao PDR, Myanmar (Burma) and Source : www.aseansec.org

The ASEAN security organisation. Its Vision 2020 has

community was based on the defined an outward-looking role
conviction that outstanding for ASEAN in the international
territorial disputes should not community. This builds on the
escalate into armed confrontation. existing ASEAN policy to encourage
By 2003, ASEAN had several negotiation over conflicts in the
Isn’t India a part of
agreements in place by which region. Thus, ASEAN has mediated
Southeast Asia? The
member states promised to uphold the end of the Cambodian conflict, north-eastern states
peace, neutrality, cooperation, the East Timor crisis, and meets are so close to the
non-interference, and respect annually to discuss East Asian ASEAN countries.
for national differences and cooperation.
sovereign rights. The ASEAN The current economic strength
Regional Forum (ARF), which of ASEAN, especially its economic
was established in 1994, is the r elevance as a trading and
organisation that carries out investment partner to the growing
coordination of security and Asian economies such as India and
foreign policy. Who
China, makes this an attractive
are the
ASEAN was and still proposition. During the Cold War
members
remains principally an economic years Indian foreign policy did not
of the
association. While the ASEAN pay adequate attention to ASEAN.
ASEAN
region as a whole is a much But in recent years, India has tried
Regional
smaller economy compared to to make amends. It signed trade
Forum
the US, the EU, and Japan, its agreements with three ASEAN
(ARF)?
economy is growing much faster members, Malaysia, Singapore and
than all these. This accounts for
the growth in its influence both
in the region and beyond. The
objectives of the ASEAN Economic
Community are to create a
common market and production
base within ASEAN states and
to aid social and economic
development in the region. The
Economic Community would also
like to improve the existing ASEAN
Dispute Settlement Mechanism to
resolve economic disputes. ASEAN
has focused on creating a Free
Trade Area (FTA) for investment,
labour, and services. The US and
China have already moved fast to
Keshav, The Hindu
negotiate FTAs with ASEAN.
India’s ‘Look East’ Policy since the early 1990s and ‘Act East’ Policy
ASEAN is rapidly growing since 2014 have led to greater economic interaction with the East
into a very important regional Asian nations (ASEAN, China, Japan and South Korea).

Thailand. The ASEAN-India regional affairs. The strength of

FTA came into effect in 2010. its economy, together with other
ASEAN’s strength, however, lies factors such as population, land
in its policies of interaction and mass, resources, regional location
consultation with member states, and political influence, adds to its
with dialogue partners, and with power in significant ways.
Why did ASEAN other non-regional organisations.
After the inception of the
succeed where It is the only regional association
SAARC did not? Is this People’s Republic of China in
in Asia that provides a political
because they do not 1949, following the communist
have one dominant forum where Asian countries and revolution under the leadership
country in that the major powers can discuss of Mao, its economy was based on
region? political and security concerns. the Soviet model. The economically
backward communist China chose
to sever its links with the capitalist
world. It had little choice but to
fall back on its own resources
and, for a brief period, on Soviet
aid and advice. The model was
to create a state-owned heavy
industries sector from the capital
accumulated from agriculture. As
Leaders release postal stamps to commemorate silver jubilee of India
it was short of foreign exchange
and ASEAN partnership in New Delhi on 25 January 2018 that it needed in order to buy
technology and goods on the
The Rise of the Chinese world market, China decided to
substitute imports by domestic
Economy goods.
Let us now turn to the third major This model allowed China
alternative centre of power and to use its resources to establish
our immediate neighbour, China. the foundations of an industrial
The cartoon on the following economy on a scale that did not
page sums up the current mood exist before. Employment and
all over the world about the rise social welfare was assured to all
of China as an economic power. citizens, and China moved ahead
China’s economic success since of most developing countries
1978 has been linked to its rise in educating its citizens and
as a great power. China has been ensuring better health for them.
the fastest growing economy since The economy also grew at a
the reforms first began there. It is respectable rate of 5-6 per cent.
projected to overtake the US as But an annual growth of 2-3
the world’s largest economy by per cent in population meant
2040. Its economic integration that economic growth was
into the region makes it the driver insufficient to meet the needs of a
of East Asian growth, thereby growing population. Agricultural
giving it enormous influence in production was not sufficient to

generate a surplus for industry. In

Chapter 1, we discussed the crisis
of the state controlled economy
in the USSR. A similar crisis was
to face China too: its industrial
production was not growing fast
enough, international trade was
minimal and per capita income
was very low.
© Deng Coy Miel, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

The Chinese leadership took
major policy decisions in the
1970s. China ended its political
and economic isolation with
the establishment of relations
with the United States in 1972.
Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the
‘four modernisations’ (agriculture,
industry, science and technology
and military) in 1973. By 1978,
the then leader Deng Xiaoping
announced the ‘open door’ policy The Great Wall and Dragon are two symbols most commonly
and economic reforms in China. associated with China. This cartoon uses both these to depict
The policy was to generate higher China’s economic rise. Who do you think is the little man in this
cartoon? Can he stop the dragon?
productivity by investments of
capital and technology from
abroad. Privatisation of agriculture led to
a remarkable rise in agricultural
China followed its own path
production and rural incomes.
in introducing a market economy.
High personal savings in the rural
The Chinese did not go for ‘shock
economy lead to an exponential
therapy’ but opened their economy
growth in rural industry. The
step by step. The privatisation of
Chinese economy, including
agriculture in 1982 was followed by
both industry and agriculture,
the privatisation of industry in 1998.
grew at a faster rate. The new
Trade barriers were eliminated only
trading laws and the creation
in Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
of Special Economic Zones led
where foreign investors could
to a phenomenal rise in foreign
set up enterprises. In China, the
trade. China has become the most
state played and continues to
important destination for foreign
play a central role in setting up a
direct investment (FDI) anywhere
market economy. A total of 6 SEZs in
in the world. It has large foreign
China and more than
The new economic policies exchange reserves that now allow 200 approved SEZs in
helped the Chinese economy it to make big investment in other India! Is this good for
to break from stagnation. countries. China’s accession to the India?

WTO in 2001 has been a further

© Mike Lane, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
step in its opening to the outside

world. The country plans to
deepen its integration into the
world economy and shape the
future world economic order.
While the Chinese economy
has improved dramatically, not
everyone in China has received
the benefits of the reforms.
Unemployment has risen in
China with nearly 100 million
people looking for jobs. Female
employment and conditions of
work are as bad as in Europe of
the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. Environmental
degradation and corruption
have increased besides a rise
in economic inequality between
rural and urban residents and
coastal and inland provinces.
China then and now
H o w e v e r, r e g i o n a l l y an d
globally, China has become an
economic power to reckon with.

The integration of China’s economy
and the inter-dependencies that
this has created has enabled China
to have considerable influence
with its trade partners. Hence, its
outstanding issues with Japan,
the US, ASEAN, and Russia
have been tempered by economic
considerations. It hopes to resolve
its differences with Taiwan, which
it regards as a renegade province,
by integrating it closely into its
economy. Fears of China’s rise
Chinese bicycle have also been mitigated by its
Like the opening images for this chapter, the first cartoon contributions to the stability of the
comments on the change in China’s orientation. The second ASEAN economies after the 1997
cartoon uses the symbol of the bicycle — China is the largest user
financial crisis. Its more outward
of bicycles in the world — to comment on a duality in today’s
China. What is this duality? Can we call this a contradiction? looking investment and aid

policies in Latin America and military conflict over a border

Africa are increasingly projecting dispute between the two countries
it as a global player on the side of marred that hope. Soon after
developing economies. independence, both states were
involved in differences arising
India – China Relations from the Chinese takeover of Tibet
in 1950 and the final settlement of
India and China were great the Sino-Indian border. China and
powers in Asia before the advent India were involved in a border
of Western imperialism. China conflict in 1962 over competing
had considerable influence and territorial claims principally in
control on the periphery of its Arunachal Pradesh and in the
borders based on its unique Aksai Chin region of Ladakh.
tributary system. At different
times in China’s long history of The conflict of 1962, in which
dynastic rule, Mongolia, Korea, India suffered military reverses,
parts of Indo-China, and Tibet had long-ter m implications
accepted China’s authority. for India–China relations.
Various kingdoms and empires Diplomatic relations between the
in India also extended their two countries were downgraded
influence beyond their borders. until 1976. Thereafter, relations
In both cases this influence was between the two countries began
political, economic and cultural. to improve slowly. After the change
However, the regions where India in China’s political leadership
and China exercised influence from the mid to late 1970s,
rarely ever overlapped. Thus, China’s policy became more
there was limited political and pragmatic and less ideological.
cultural interaction between So it was prepared to put off
the two. The result was that the settlement of contentious
neither country was very familiar issues while improving relations
with the other. In the twentieth with India. A series of talks to
century, when both nations resolve the border issue were also
confronted each other, they had initiated in 1981.
some difficulty evolving a foreign Since the end of the Cold
policy to deal with each other. War, there have been significant
After India regained its changes in India–
independence from Britain, and China relations. Their Chinese President
China expelled the foreign powers, relations now have a Xi Jinping paid a visit
there was hope that both would strategic as well as an to India in 2019. Prime
come together to shape the future economic dimension. Minister Narendra Modi
Both view themselves visited China in 2018.
of the developing world and of
Find out about the
Asia particularly. For a brief as rising powers in
agreements signed
while, the slogan of ‘Hindi-Chini global politics, and
during their visits.
bhai-bhai’ was popular. However, both would like to play

countries have agreed to cooperate

with each other in areas that could
otherwise create conflict between
the two, such as bidding for energy
deals abroad. At the global level,
STEPS India and China have adopted
 Divide the classroom into three groups. similar policies in international
 Assign each group one organisation to work on a economic institutions like the
fact file on the EU, ASEAN and SAARC. World Trade Organisation.
 Students have to prepare a fact file that contains
India’s nuclear tests in
information on the objectives, functions and recent
activities of these organisations. Pictures of the
1998, sometimes justified on
the grounds of a threat from
conferences / summit meetings can be collected.
China, did not stop greater
 Each group is to present its fact file before the class. interaction. It is true that China
Ideas for the Teacher was seen as contributing to the
 The teacher is to focus on the functions of these organisations. build up of Pakistan’s nuclear
 Draw the attention of students to the achievements of regional programme. China’s military
organisations. relations with Bangladesh and
 Link the role of regional economic organisations to the over all Myanmar were viewed as hostile
development of the member countries. to Indian interests in South Asia.
 Sensitise students to the growing importance of regional However, none of these issues is
economic organisations as an alternative approach to the likely to lead to conflict between
peace and security of the world.
the two. One sign of this is that
a major role in the Asian economy the talks to resolve the boundary
question have continued without
and politics.
interruption and military-to-
Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China military cooperation is increasing.
in December 1988 provided the Indian and Chinese leaders and
impetus for an improvement in officials visit Beijing and New
India–China relations. Since then Delhi with greater frequency,
both governments have taken and both sides are now becoming
measures to contain conflict and more familiar with each other.
maintain ‘peace and tranquility’ on Increasing transportation and
the border. They have also signed communication links, common
economic interests and global
agreements on cultural exchanges
concerns should help establish
and cooperation in science and
a more positive and sound
technology, and opened four
relationship between the two most
border posts for trade. With India–
populous countries of the world.
China trade growing at 30 per Recently the relation between
cent per year since 1999, a more the two countries has taken
positive perspective on relations a downslide. Border disputes,
with China has emerged. Bilateral China-Pakistan economic corridor
Some people say
Chinese products are
trade between India and China and China’s support to Pakistan
going to flood our has increased from $338 million in UN against India’s move to
market? But where in 1992 to more than $84 billion counter terrorism are some of the
are they? in 2017. More recently, both factors for it.

Japan
You might have heard about famous Japanese brands such as
Sony, Panasonic, Canon, Suzuki, Honda, Toyota, Mazda. They have
a reputation for making high-technology products. Japan has very
few natural resources and imports most of its raw materials. Even then
it progressed rapidly after the end of the Second World War. Japan
became a member of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) in 1964. In 2017, it is the third largest economy
in the world. It is the only Asian member of the G-7. It is the eleventh
most populous nation in the world.
Japan is the only nation that suffered the destruction caused by
nuclear bombs. It is the second largest contributor to the regular
budget of the UN, contributing almost 10 per cent of the total. Japan
has a security alliance with the US since 1951. As per Article 9 of the
Japanese Constitution, “the Japanese people forever renounce war as
a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means
of settling international disputes.” Although Japan’s military expenditure
is only one per cent of its GDP, it is the seventh largest in the world. ASIMO, the world’s most advanced
Keeping all this in mind, do you think Japan can effectively function humanoid robot, walking with a
person while holding hand
as an alternative centre of power?
Credit: http://asimo.honda.com
Also find out about major agreements signed during high-level bilateral
visits between the two nations in the recent past.
South Korea
The Korean peninsula was divided into South Korea (Republic of Korea) and North Korea (Democratic
People’s Republic of Korea) at the end of the Second World War along the 38th Parallel. The Korean War
during 1950-53 and dynamics of the Cold War era further intensified the rivalries between the two sides.
Both the Koreas finally became Members of the UN on 17 September 1991.
Meanwhile, South Korea emerged as a centre of power
in Asia. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, it rapidly
developed into an economic power, which is termed
as “Miracle on the Han River”. Signalling its all-round
development, South Korea became a Member of
the OECD in 1996. In 2017, its economy is the eleventh
largest in the world and its military expenditure is the
tenth largest.
According to the Human Development Report 2016, the HDI Skyline of Seoul city near the Han River
rank of South Korea is 18. The major factors responsible for its Credit: http://english.seoul.go.kr
high human development include “successful land reforms,
rural development, extensive human resources development and rapid equitable economic growth.”
Other factors are export orientation, strong redistribution policies, public infrastructure development,
effective institutions and governance.
The South Korean brands such as Samsung, LG and Hyundai have become renowned in India. Numerous
agreements between India and South Korea signify their growing commercial and cultural ties. Find out
about major agreements signed in the recent past.

1. Arrange the following in chronological order.

a. China’s accession to WTO b. Establishment of the EEC
c. Establishment of the EU d. Birth of ARF
2. The ‘ASEAN Way’
a. Reflects the life style of ASEAN members
E x e r c i s e s
b. A form of interaction among ASEAN members that is informal
and cooperative
c. The defence policy followed by the ASEAN members
d. The road that connects all the ASEAN members
3. Which of the following nations adopted an ‘open door’ policy?
a. China b. South Korea c. Japan d. USA
4. Fill in the blanks:
a. The border conflict between China and India in 1962 was
principally over ______________ and __________________ region.
b. ARF was established in the year ______________________ .
c. China entered into bilateral relations with __________ (a major
country) in 1972.
d. ________________ Plan influenced the establishment of the
Organisation for European Economic Cooperation in 1948.
e. ___________ is the organisation of ASEAN that deals with security.
5. What are the objectives of establishing regional organisations?
6. How does geographical proximity influence the formation of
regional organisations?
7. What are the components of the ASEAN Vision 2020?
8. Name the pillars and the objectives of the ASEAN Community.
9. In what ways does the present Chinese economy differs from its
command economy?
10. How did the European countries resolve their post-Second World
War problem? Briefly outline the attempts that led to the formation
of the European Union.
11. What makes the European Union a highly influential regional
organisation?
12. The emerging economies of China and India have great potential
to challenge the unipolar world. Do you agree with the statement?
Substantiate your arguments.
13. The Peace and prosperity of countries lay in the establishment
and strengthening of regional economic organisations. Justify this
statement.
14. Identify the contentious issues between China and India. How could
these be resolved for greater cooperation? Give your suggestions.

Chapter 3
Contemporary South Asia
Overview
Let us shift our gaze from the larger
global developments in the post-
Cold War era to developments in
our own region, South Asia. When
India and Pakistan joined the club
of nuclear powers, this region
suddenly became the focus of global
attention. The focus was, of course,
on the various kinds of conflict
in this region: there are pending
border and water sharing disputes
between the states of the region.
Besides, there are conflicts arising
out of insurgency, ethnic strife and
resource sharing. This makes the
region very turbulent. At the same
time, many people in South Asia
recognise the fact that this region
can develop and prosper if the
states of the region cooperate with
each other. In this chapter, we try
to understand the nature of conflict
and cooperation among different
countries of the region. Since much
of this is rooted in or conditioned
by the domestic politics of these
countries, we first introduce the
region and the domestic politics Source: Subhas Rai’s adaptation of ‘Liberty Leading the People’,
of some of the big countries in the painted by Eugene Delacroix in 1830. Courtesy of Himal Southasian,
region. (January 2007) The Southasia Trust, Nepal

What is South Asia? The various countries in South

Asia do not have the same kind of
We are all familiar with the political systems. Despite many
gripping tension during an problems and limitations, Sri
Identify some India-Pakistan cricket match. Lanka and India have successfully
features We have also seen the goodwill operated a democratic system
common to and hospitality shown to visiting since their independence from
all the South Indian and Pakistani fans by their the British. You will study more
Asian countries hosts when they come to watch a about the evolution of democracy
but different cricket match. This is symbolic of in India in the textbook that
from countries the larger pattern of South Asian deals with politics in India since
in West Asia or affairs. Ours is a region where independence. It is, of course,
Southeast Asia. rivalry and goodwill, hope and possible to point out many
despair, mutual suspicion and limitations of India’s democracy;
trust coexist. but we have to remember the
Let us begin by asking an fact that India has remained
elementary question: what is a democracy throughout its
South Asia? The expression existence as an independent
‘South Asia’ usually includes the country. The same is true of Sri
following countries: Bangladesh, Lanka.
Bhutan, India, the Maldives,
Pakistan and Bangladesh
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The
have experienced both
mighty Himalayas in the north and
civilian and military rulers,
the vast Indian Ocean, the Arabian
Sea and the Bay of Bengal in the with Bangladesh remaining a
south, west and east respectively democracy in the post-Cold War
provide a natural insularity to the period. Pakistan began the post-
region, which is largely responsible Cold War period with successive
for the linguistic, social and democratic governments under
cultural distinctiveness of the sub- Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz
continent. The boundaries of the Sharif respectively. But it
region are not as clear in the east suffered a military coup in
and the west, as they are in the 1999. It has been run by a
north and the south. Afghanistan civilian government again since
and Myanmar are often included 2008. Till 2006, Nepal was a
in discussions of the region as constitutional monarchy with
a whole. China is an important the danger of the king taking
player but is not considered to be a over executive powers. In 2008,
part of the region. In this chapter, the monarchy was abolished and
we shall use South Asia to mean Nepal emerged as a democratic
the seven countries mentioned republic. From the experience of
Is there a fixed
above. Thus defined, South Asia Bangladesh and Nepal, we can
definition of these
stands for diversity in every sense say that democracy is becoming
regions? Who
decides that? and yet constitutes one geo- an accepted norm in the entire
political space. region of South Asia.

Contemporary South Asia 31
Similar changes are taking place in the

two smallest countries of the region. Bhutan
became a constitutional monarchy in 2008.
Under the leadership of the king, it emerged
as a multi-party democracy. The Maldives,
the other island nation, was a Sultanate till
1968 when it was transformed into a republic
with a presidential form of government. In
June 2005, the parliament of the Maldives
voted unanimously to introduce a multi-party
system. The Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP)
dominates the political affairs of the island. The
MDP won the 2018 Elections.
Despite the mixed record of the democratic
experience, the people in all these countries
share the aspiration for democracy. A recent
survey of the attitudes of the people in the
five big countries of the region showed that
there is widespread support for democracy
in all these countries. Ordinary citizens, rich
as well as poor and belonging to different
religions, view the idea of democracy positively
and support the institutions of representative
democracy. They prefer democracy over any
other form of government and think that
democracy is suitable for their country. These are
Both these graphs are based on interviews with more
significant findings, for it was earlier believed
than 19,000 ordinary citizens in the five countries of
that democracy could flourish and find South Asia. Source: SDSA Team, State of Democracy
support only in prosperous countries of the world. in South Asia, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007
SDG 4.6 SDG 4.1 SDG 8.1 SDG 3.2 SDG 3.3 SDG 1.1
SDG 3 Adult literacy Gross GDP per Infant mortality TB cases Population living below
Life expectancy rate (% ages enrolment ratio capita (2011 rate (per 1,000 (per 100,000 income poverty line (%)
at birth (years) 15 and older) (Secondary) PPP $) live births) people) PPP $1.90 a day HDI
Countries 2017 2006-2016 2012-2017 2017 2016 2016 Rank
2006-2016
World 72.2 82.1 79 15,439 29.9 140.0 – –

Developing 70.7 81.1 75 10,199 32.7 164.5 – –
countries
South Asia 69.3 68.7 71 6,485 37.8 206.3 – –
Bangladesh 72.8 72.8 69 3,524 28.2 221.0 14.8 136
India 68.8 69.3 75 6,427 34.6 211.0 21.2 130
Nepal 70.6 59.6 71 2,433 28.4 154.0 15.0 149
Pakistan 66.6 57.0 46 5,035 64.2 268.0 6.1 150
Sri Lanka 75.5 91.2 98 11,669 8.0 65.0 – 76
Source: United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report, 2018

In that sense the South Asian

TIMELINE OF SOUTH ASIA experience of democracy has
SINCE 1947 expanded the global imagination
1947: India and Pakistan emerge as independent nations
of democracy.
after the end of British rule Let us look at the experience
1948: Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) gains independence; Indo-Pak of democracy in each of the four
conflict over Kashmir
big countries of the region other
1954-55: Pakistan joins the Cold War military blocs, SEATO
than India.
and CENTO
1960: India and Pakistan sign the Indus Waters Treaty
1962: Border conflict between India and China The Military and
1965: Indo-Pak War; UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission
1966: India and Pakistan sign the Tashkent Agreement; Democracy in Pakistan
Six-point proposal of Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman for greater
After Pakistan framed its first
autonomy to East Pakistan
constitution, General Ayub Khan
1971 March: Proclamation of Independence by leaders of
Bangladesh
took over the administration
August : Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship signed for 20 years
of the country and soon got
himself elected. He had to give
December : Indo-Pak War, Liberation of Bangladesh
up office when there was popular
1972 July: India and Pakistan sign the Shimla Agreement
dissatisfaction against his rule.
1974 May: India conducts nuclear test
This gave way to a military
1976: Pakistan and Bangladesh establish diplomatic ties
takeover once again under General
1985 December: South Asian leaders sign the SAARC Charter
at the first summit in Dhaka
Yahya Khan. During Yahya’s
military rule, Pakistan faced the
1987: Indo-Sri Lanka Accord; Indian Peace Keeping Force
(IPKF) operation in Sri Lanka (1987-90) Bangladesh crisis, and after a
1988: India sends troops to the Maldives to foil a coup war with India in 1971, East
attempt by mercenaries Pakistan broke away to emerge
India and Pakistan sign the agreement not to attack nuclear as an independent country called
installations and facilities of each other Bangladesh. After this, an elected
1988-91: Democracy restoration in Pakistan, Bangladesh government under the leadership
and Nepal of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to
1996 December: India and Bangladesh sign the Farakka power in Pakistan from 1971 to
Treaty for sharing of the Ganga Waters 1977. The Bhutto government
1998 May: India and Pakistan conduct nuclear tests was removed by General Zia-
December: India and Sri Lanka sign the Free Trade Agreement ul-Haq in 1977. General Zia
(FTA) faced a pro-democracy movement
1999 February: Indian PM Vajpayee undertakes bus journey from 1982 onwards and an
to Lahore to sign a Peace Declaration
elected democratic government
June-July: Kargil conflict between India and Pakistan
was established once again in
2001 July: Vajpayee - Musharraf Agra Summit unsuccessful
1988 under the leadership of
2004 January: SAFTA signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in
Benazir Bhutto. In the period
Islamabad
that followed, Pakistani politics
2007: Afghanistan joins SAARC
centred around the competition
2014 November: The 18th SAARC Summit in Kathmandu,
between her party, the Pakistan
Nepal
People’s Party, and the Muslim

League. This phase of elective

democracy lasted till 1999
when the army stepped in again
and General Pervez Musharraf
removed Prime Minister Nawaz
Sharif. In 2001, General
Musharraf got himself elected as
the President. Pakistan continued
to be ruled by the army, though
the army rulers have held some
elections to give their rule a
democratic image. Since 2008,
democratically elected leaders
have been ruling Pakistan.
Several factors have
contributed to Pakistan’s failure
in building a stable democracy.
The social dominance of the Surendra, The Hindu
military, clergy, and landowning This cartoon comments on the dual role of Pakistan’s ruler Pervez
Musharraf as the President of the country and as the army General.
aristocracy has led to the frequent
Read the equations carefully and write down the message of this
overthrow of elected governments cartoon.
and the establishment of military
government. Pakistan’s conflict countries have encouraged the
with India has made the pro- military’s authoritarian rule in the
military groups more powerful. past, for their own reasons. Given
These groups have often said that their fear of the threat of what they
political parties and democracy
call ‘global Islamic terrorism’ and
in Pakistan are flawed, that
the apprehension that Pakistan’s
Pakistan’s security would be
nuclear arsenal might fall into the
harmed by selfish-minded parties
hands of these terrorist groups,
and chaotic democracy, and
the military regime in Pakistan
that the army’s stay in power
is, therefore, justified. While has been seen as the protector
democracy has not been fully of Western interests in West Asia
successful in Pakistan, there and South Asia.
has been a strong pro-democracy
sentiment in the country. Pakistan
has a courageous and relatively Democracy in Bangladesh
free press and a strong human Bangladesh was a part of Pakistan
rights movement. from 1947 to 1971. It consisted
of the partitioned areas of Bengal If Germany can be
The lack of genuine
reunited, why can’t
international support for and Assam from British India. The
the people of India
democratic rule in Pakistan has people of this region resented the and Pakistan at least
further encouraged the military domination of western Pakistan travel more easily
to continue its dominance. The and the imposition of the Urdu to each other’s
United States and other Western language. Soon after the partition, country?

they began protests against the arrested. Under the military

unfair treatment meted out to rule of General Yahya Khan, the
the Bengali culture and language. Pakistani army tried to suppress
They also demanded fair the mass movement of the Bengali
representation in administration
people. Thousands were killed by
and a fair share in political power.
the Pakistan army. This led to a
Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman led
the popular struggle against large scale migration into India,
West Pakistani domination. He creating a huge refugee problem
demanded autonomy for the for India. The government of India
easter n region. In the 1970 supported the demand of the
elections in the then Pakistan, people of East Pakistan for their
the Awami League led by Sheikh independence and helped them
Mujib won all the seats in East financially and militarily. This
Pakistan and secured a majority
resulted in a war between India
in the proposed constituent
and Pakistan in December 1971
assembly for the whole of
Pakistan. But the government that ended in the surrender of the
dominated by the West Pakistani Pakistani forces in East Pakistan
leadership refused to convene and the formation of Bangladesh
the assembly. Sheikh Mujib was as an independent country.
A mural in Dhaka University to remember Noor Hossain who was killed by the police during pro-democracy protests
against General Ershad in 1987. Painted on his back: “Let Democracy be Freed” . Photo credit: Shahidul Alam/ Drik

Bangladesh drafted its responsive system of government. Let’s know

constitution declaring faith in But the king, with the help of the more about
secularism, democracy and army, retained full control over Bangladesh’s
socialism. However, in 1975 the government and restricted the Grameen Bank.
Sheikh Mujib got the constitution expansion of democracy in Nepal. Can we make
amended to shift from the use of the idea
The king accepted the demand
parliamentary to presidential to reduce
for a new democratic constitution
form of government. He also poverty in
in 1990, in the wake of a strong pro-
abolished all parties except his India?
democracy movement. However,
own, the Awami League. This led
democratic governments had a
to conflicts and tensions. In a
short and troubled career. During
dramatic and tragic development,
the nineties, the Maoists of Nepal
he was assassinated in a military
were successful in spreading
uprising in August 1975. The new
their influence in many parts of
military ruler, Ziaur Rahman,
Nepal. They believed in armed
for med his own Bangladesh
insurrection against the monarch
National Party and won elections
and the ruling elite. This led to
in 1979. He was assassinated
a violent conflict between the
and another military takeover
Maoist guerrillas and the armed
followed under the leadership
forces of the king. For some time,
of Lt Gen H. M. Ershad. The
there was a triangular conflict
people of Bangladesh soon rose
among the monarchist forces,
in support of the demand for
the democrats and the Maoists.
democracy. Students were in In 2002, the king abolished the
the forefront. Ershad was forced parliament and dismissed the
to allow political activity on a government, thus ending even the
limited scale. He was later elected limited democracy that existed in
as President for five years. Mass Nepal.
public protests made Ershad
step down in 1990. Elections In April 2006, there were
were held in 1991. Since then massive, country wide, pro-
representative democracy based democracy protests. The
on multi-party elections has been struggling pro-democracy forces
working in Bangladesh. achieved their first major victory
when the king was forced to restore
the House of Representatives
Monarchy and that had been dissolved in April
2002. The largely non-violent
Democracy in Nepal movement was led by the Seven
Party Alliance (SPA), the Maoists
Nepal was a Hindu kingdom in
and social activists.
the past and then a constitutional
monarchy in the modern period Nepal’s transition to
for many years. Throughout democracy is almost complete.
this period, political parties and Nepal has undergone a unique
the common people of Nepal moment in its history because it
have wanted a more open and formed a constituent assembly to

draft the constitution for Nepal. since its independence in 1948.

Some sections in Nepal thought But it faced a serious challenge,
that a nominal monarchy was not from the military or monarchy
necessary for Nepal to retain its but rather from ethnic conflict
link with the past. The Maoist leading to the demand for
groups agreed to suspend
secession by one of the regions.
armed struggle. They wanted
Nepal sounds really
the constitution to include the After its independence, politics
exciting. I wish I was radical programmes of social and in Sri Lanka (it was then known as
in Nepal! economic restructuring. All the Ceylon) was dominated by forces
parties in the SPA did not agree that represented the interest of the
with this programme. The Maoists majority Sinhala community. They
and some other political groups were hostile to a large number of
were also deeply suspicious of
Tamils who had migrated from
the Indian government and its
India to Sri Lanka and settled
role in the future of Nepal. In
2008, Nepal became a democratic there. This migration continued
republic after abolishing the even after independence. The
monarchy. In 2015, it adopted a Sinhala nationalists thought
new constitution. that Sri Lanka should not give
‘concessions’ to the Tamils because
Sri Lanka belongs to the Sinhala
Ethnic Conflict and people only. The neglect of Tamil
Democracy in Sri Lanka concerns led to militant Tamil
nationalism. From 1983 onwards,
We have already seen that Sri the militant organisation, the
Lanka has retained democracy Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
Democracy activist, Durga Thapa,

participating in a pro-democracy rally in
Kathmandu in 1990. The second picture
shows the same person in 2006, this time
celebrating the success of the second
democracy movement.
Photo credit: Min Bajracharya

(LTTE) has been fighting an armed

struggle with the army of Sri Lanka
and demanding ‘Tamil Eelam’ or a
separate country for the Tamils of
Sri Lanka. The LTTE controls the
northeastern parts of Sri Lanka.
The Sri Lankan problem
involves people of Indian origin,
and there is considerable pressure
from the Tamil people in India
to the effect that the Indian
government should protect the
interests of the Tamils in Sri
Lanka. The government of India
has from time to time tried to
Keshav, The Hindu
negotiate with the Sri Lankan
The cartoon depicts the dilemma of the Sri Lankan leadership in
government on the Tamil question. trying to balance Sinhala hardliners or the Lion and Tamil militants or
But in 1987, the government of the Tiger while negotiating peace.
India for the first time got directly
involved in the Sri Lankan Tamil In spite of the conflict,
question. India signed an accord Sri Lanka has registered
with Sri Lanka and sent troops considerable economic growth
to stabilise relations between the and recorded high levels of
Sri Lankan government and the human development. Sri Lanka
Tamils. Eventually, the Indian was one of the first developing
Army got into a fight with the countries to successfully control
LTTE. The presence of Indian the rate of growth of population,
troops was also not liked much the first country in the region to
by the Sri Lankans. They saw liberalise the economy, and it has
this as an attempt by India to had the highest per capita gross
interfere in the internal affairs domestic product (GDP) for many
of Sri Lanka. In 1989, the Indian years right through the civil war.
Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) pulled Despite the ravages of internal
out of Sri Lanka without attaining conflict, it has maintained a
its objective. democratic political system.
The Sri Lankan crisis

continued to be violent. However, India-Pakistan Conflicts
international actors, particularly
the Scandinavian countries such Let us now move from domestic
as Norway and Iceland tried to politics and take a look at some of
bring the warring groups back to the areas of conflict in the inter-
negotiations. Finally, the armed national relations in this region.
conflict came to an end, as the The post-Cold War era has not
LTTE was vanquished in 2009. meant the end of conflicts and

Kashmir and the Indian province

of Jammu and Kashmir divided
by the Line of Control. In 1971,
India won a decisive war against
Pakistan but the Kashmir issue
remained unsettled.
India’s conflict with Pakistan
is also over strategic issues
like the control of the Siachen
glacier and over acquisition of
arms. The arms race between
the two countries assumed a
new character with both states
acquiring nuclear weapons and
missiles to deliver such arms
against each other in the 1990s.
In 1998, India conducted nuclear
explosion in Pokaran. Pakistan
responded within a few days by
Keshav, The Hindu
carrying out nuclear tests in the
A view of the current phase of the Indo-Pak negotiations. Chagai Hills. Since then India
and Pakistan seem to have built
tensions in this region. We have a military relationship in which
already noted the conflicts around the possibility of a direct and full-
internal democracy or ethnic scale war has declined.
differences. But there are also But both the governments
some very crucial conflicts of an continue to be suspicious of each
international nature. Given the other. The Indian government has
position of India in this region, blamed the Pakistan government
most of these conflicts involve for using a strategy of low-key
India. violence by helping the Kashmiri
The most salient and over- militants with arms, training,
whelming of these conflicts is, of money and protection to carry out
course, the one between India and terrorist strikes against India. The
Pakistan. Soon after the partition, Indian government also believes
the two countries got embroiled in that Pakistan had aided the pro-
a conflict over the fate of Kashmir. Khalistani militants with arms
The Pakistani government claimed and ammunitions during the
that Kashmir belonged to it. Wars period 1985-1995. Its spy agency,
Discussion on Kashmir
between India and Pakistan in Inter Services Intelligence (ISI), is
sounds like a property
1947-48 and 1965 failed to settle alleged to be involved in various
dispute between the
rulers of India and the matter. The 1947-48 war anti-India campaigns in India’s
Pakistan! What do the resulted in the division of the northeast, operating secretly
Kashmiris feel about it? province into Pakistan-occupied through Bangladesh and Nepal.

The government of Pakistan, unhappy with Bangladesh’s

in tur n, blames the Indian denial of illegal immigration to
government and its security India, its support for anti-Indian
agencies for fomenting trouble Islamic fundamentalist groups,
in the provinces of Sindh and Bangladesh’s refusal to allow
Balochistan. Indian troops to move through
its territory to northeaster n
India and Pakistan also have India, and its decision not
had problems over the sharing to export natural gas to India
of river waters. Until 1960, they Why is it that
or allow Myanmar to do so
were locked in a fierce argument every one of our
through Bangladeshi territory.
neighbours has a
over the use of the rivers of Bangladeshi governments have problem with India?
the Indus basin. Eventually, in felt that the Indian government Is there something
1960, with the help of the World behaves like a regional bully wrong with our
Bank, India and Pakistan signed over the sharing of river waters, foreign policy? Or is it
the Indus Waters Treaty which encouraging rebellion in the just our size?
has survived to this day in spite Chittagong Hill Tracts, trying to
of various military conflicts in extract its natural gas and being
which the two countries have unfair in trade. The two countries
been involved. There are still could not resolve their boundary
some minor differences about dispute for a long while.
the interpretation of the Indus Despite their differences, India
Waters Treaty and the use of the and Bangladesh do cooperate on
river waters. The two countries many issues. Economic relations
are not in agreement over the have improved considerably in
demarcation line in Sir Creek in the last 20 years. Bangladesh
the Rann of Kutch. The dispute is a part of India’s Look East
seems minor, but there is an (Act East since 2014) policy that
underlying worry that how the wants to link up with Southeast
dispute is settled may have an Asia via Myanmar. On disaster
impact on the control of sea management and environmental
resources in the area adjoining issues, the two states have
Sir Creek. India and Pakistan cooperated regularly. In 2015,
are holding negotiations on all they exchanged certain enclaves.
these issues. Efforts are on to broaden the
areas of cooperation further
by identifying common threats
India and its Other and being more sensitive to each
Neighbours other’s needs.
Nepal and India enjoy a very
The governments of India and special relationship that has very
Bangladesh have had differences few parallels in the world. A treaty
over several issues including between the two countries allows
the sharing of the Ganga and the citizens of the two countries
Brahmaputra river waters. The to travel to and work in the
Indian government has been other country without visas and

passports. Despite this special

relationship, the governments
of the two countries have had
trade-related disputes in the
past. The Indian government has
often expressed displeasure at
STEPS the warm relationship between
Nepal and China and at the
 Divide the classroom into eight groups (as many as Nepal government’s inaction
the number of countries). The number of students against anti-Indian elements.
in each group may vary, reflecting the size of the Indian security agencies see the
countries of South Asia. Maoist movement in Nepal as a
 Name each group after a country and hand over growing security threat, given
a brief country profile to respective groups. Besides the rise of Naxalite groups in
the basic information, include a short note on the various Indian states from Bihar
contentious issues/disputes among the South Asian in the north to Andhra Pradesh
countries. The issues could be those discussed in this in the south. Many leaders and
chapter or an issue of relevance but not discussed citizens in Nepal think that the
in the chapter. Indian government interferes in
its internal affairs, has designs
 Allow students to select an issue of their choice. The on its river waters and hydro-
dispute could be bilateral or multilateral (the issue electricity, and prevents Nepal, a
could be related to India, given the geographic landlocked country, from getting
peculiarity of the region). easier access to the sea through
 Assign each group to find out what initiatives the Indian territory. Nevertheless,
governments involved have taken and the reasons Indo-Nepal relations are fairly
for their failures in resolving the disputes.
stable and peaceful. Despite
dif ferences, trade, scientific
 Students should assume the role of representing cooperation, common natural
their respective countries and share their findings. resources, electricity generation
Ideas for the Teacher and interlocking water
management grids hold the two
 Pair up the countries sharing the common issue/dispute. It could
be two groups in the case of a bilateral issue or more in case countries together. There is a
of a multilateral issue (examples of bilateral issues include the hope that the consolidation of
Jammu and Kashmir dispute between India and Pakistan, the democracy in Nepal will lead to
migrant problem between India and Bangladesh; multilateral
improvements in the ties between
issues include the creation of a free trade zone or tackling
terrorism). the two countries.
 Groups should negotiate on the proposals and counter- The difficulties in the
proposals within a time limit. The teacher is to take note of the relationship between the
outcome of the negotiations. The focus should be on the areas
of agreement and disagreement. governments of India and Sri Lanka
are mostly over ethnic conflict in
 Link the outcome of the negotiations with the prevailing situation
among the countries of South Asia. Talk about the difficulties the island nation. Indian leaders
involved in negotiating on a political issue based on the and citizens find it impossible
observation made. Conclude by discussing the importance of to remain neutral when Tamils
accommodating each other’s interest for the sake of peaceful
coexistence. are politically unhappy and are
being killed. After the military
intervention in 1987, the Indian

government now prefers a policy the region. The smaller countries

of disengagement vis-à-vis Sri fear that India wants to be a
Lanka’s inter nal tr oubles. regionally-dominant power.
India signed a free trade
agreement with Sri Lanka, which Not all conflicts in South
strengthened relations between Asia are between India and its
two countries. India’s help in neighbours. Nepal and Bhutan, as
post-tsunami reconstruction in well as Bangladesh and Myanmar,
Sri Lanka has also brought the have had disagr eements in
the past over the migration of If the chapter, on
two countries closer.
US was called ‘US
ethnic Nepalese into Bhutan and
India enjoys a very special Hegemony’ why
the Rohingyas into Myanmar, is this chapter not
relationship with Bhutan too and
respectively. Bangladesh and called ‘Indian
does not have any major conflict
with the Bhutanese government. Nepal have had some differences Hegemony’?
The efforts made by the over the future of the Himalayan

Bhutanese monarch to weed out river waters. The major conflicts
the guerrillas and militants from and differences, though, are
northeastern India that operate between India and the others,
in his country have been helpful partly because of the geography
to India. India is involved in big of the region, in which India is
hydroelectric projects in Bhutan located centrally and is therefore
and remains the Himalayan the only country that borders the
kingdom’s biggest source of others.
development aid. India’s ties with
the Maldives remain warm and
cordial. In November 1988, when
some Tamil mercenaries from Sri
Lanka attacked the Maldives, the
Indian air force and navy reacted
quickly to the Maldives’ request
to help stop the invasion. India
has also contributed towards the
island’s economic development,
tourism and fisheries.
You may have noticed that
India has various problems
with its smaller neighbours in
the region. Given its size and
power, they are bound to be
suspicious of India’s intentions.
The Indian government, on the
other hand, often feels exploited
by its neighbours. It does not like Surendra, The Hindu
the political instability in these

countries, fearing it can help What does this cartoon tell you about the role of India and Pakistan
in the process of regional cooperation in South Asia?
outside powers to gain influence in

Peace and Cooperation

Do the states of South Asia cooperate with
each other? Or do they only keep fighting with
each other? In spite of the many conflicts, the
states of South Asia recognise the importance
of cooperation and friendly relationship, among
themselves. The South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is a major regional
initiative by the South Asian states to evolve
cooperation through multilateral means. It
began in 1985. Unfortunately, due to persisting
political differences, SAARC has not had much
Keshav, The Hindu
success. SAARC members signed the South
Asian Free Trade (SAFTA) agreement which
promised the formation of a free trade zone for
the whole of South Asia.
A new chapter of peace and cooperation
might evolve in South Asia if all the countries in
the region allow free trade across the borders.
This is the spirit behind the idea of SAFTA.
The Agreement was signed in 2004 and came
into effect on 1 January 2006. SAFTA aims at
lowering trade tariffs. But some of our neighbours
fear that SAFTA is a way for India to ‘invade’
Pakistan Tribune their markets and to influence their societies
The two cartoons, one from India and the other and politics through commercial ventures and
from Pakistan, interpret the role of two key a commercial presence in their countries. India
players who are also interested in the region. thinks that there are real economic benefits for
Do you notice any commonality between their all from SAFTA and that a region that trades
perspectives?
more freely will be able to cooperate better on
political issues. Some in India think that SAFTA
is not worth the trouble since India already has
bilateral agreements with Bhutan, Nepal and
Sri Lanka.
Although India-Pakistan relations seem to be
a story of endemic conflict and violence, there
have been a series of efforts to manage tensions
Every association
seems to have
and build peace. The two countries have agreed to
emerged for trade! undertake confidence building measures to reduce
Is trade more the risk of war. Social activists and prominent
important than personalities have collaborated to create an
people-to-people atmosphere of friendship among the people of
relations?
both countries. Leaders have met at summits to
understand each other better and to find solutions

to the major problems between American involvement in South

the two neighbours. A number of Asia has rapidly increased after
bus routes have been opened up the Cold War. The US has had
between the two countries. Trade good relations with both India
between the two parts of Punjab and Pakistan since the end of the
has increased substantially in the Cold War and increasingly works
last five years. Visas have been as a moderator in India-Pakistan
more easily given. relations. Economic reforms and
liberal economic policies in both
No region exists in a vacuum.
countries have greatly increased
It is influenced by outside powers
the depth of American participation
and events no matter how much
in the region. The large South Asian
it may try to insulate itself from
diasporas in the US and the huge
non-regional powers. China and
size of the population and markets
the United States remain key
of the region also give America
players in South Asian politics.
an added stake in the future of
Sino-Indian relations have
regional security and peace.
improved significantly in the last
ten years, but China’s strategic However, whether South Asia
partnership with Pakistan will continue to be known as a
remains a major irritant. The conflict prone zone or will evolve into
demands of development and a regional bloc with some common
globalisation have brought the cultural features and trade interests
two Asian giants closer, and their will depend more on the people and
economic ties have multiplied the governments of the region than
rapidly since 1991. any other outside power.
1. Identify the country:

Exercises
a. The struggle among pro-monarchy, pro-democracy groups
and extremists created an atmosphere of political instability:
b. A landlocked country with multi-party competition:
c. The first country to liberalise its economy in the South Asian
region:
d. In the conflict between the military and pro-democracy groups,
the military has prevailed over democracy:
e. Centrally located and shares borders with most of the South
Asian countries:
f. Earlier the island had the Sultan as the head of state. Now, it’s
a republic:
g. Small savings and credit cooperatives in the rural areas have
helped in reducing poverty:
h. A landlocked country with a monarchy:

2. Which among the following statements about South Asia is wrong?

a) All the countries in South Asia are democratic.
b) Bangladesh and India have signed an agreement on river-water
sharing.
c) SAFTA was signed at the 12th SAARC Summit in Islamabad.
E x e r c i s e s
d) The US and China play an influential role in South Asian politics.
3. What are some of the commonalities and differences between
Bangladesh and Pakistan in their democratic experiences?
4. List three challenges to democracy in Nepal.
5. Name the principal players in the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka. How do
you assess the prospects of the resolution of this conflict?
6. Mention some of the recent agreements between India and Pakistan.
Can we be sure that the two countries are well on their way to a
friendly relationship?
7. Mention two areas each of cooperation and disagreement between
India and Bangladesh.
8. How are the external powers influencing bilateral relations in South
Asia? Take any one example to illustrate your point.
9. Write a short note on the role and the limitations of SAARC as a
forum for facilitating economic cooperation among the South Asian
countries.
10. India’s neighbours often think that the Indian government tries to
dominate and interfere in the domestic affairs of the smaller countries
of the region. Is this a correct impression?

Chapter 4
International Organisations
Overview
In this chapter we shall discuss the
role of international organisations
after the collapse of the Soviet
Union. We shall examine how,
in this emerging world, there
were calls for the restructuring
of international organisations to
cope with various new challenges
including the rise of US power.
The potential reform of the United
Nations Security Council is an
interesting case of the reform
process and its difficulties. We
then turn to India’s involvement
in the UN and its view of Security
Council reforms. The chapter
closes by asking if the UN can play This is the United Nations’ logo. The emblem has a world map
with olive branches around it, signifying world peace.
any role in dealing with a world
Credit : www.un.org
dominated by one superpower.
In this chapter we also look
at some other trans-national
organisations that are playing a
crucial role.

Why International “Talking shop? Yes, there are

a lot of speeches and meetings
Organisations? at the U.N., especially during the
Read the two cartoons on this annual sessions of the General
page. Both the cartoons comment Assembly. But as Churchill put it,
on the ineffectiveness of the jaw-jaw is better than war-war.
United Nations Organisation, Isn’t it better to have one place
usually referred to as the UN, in where all… countries in the world
the Lebanon crisis in 2006. Both can get together, bore each other
the cartoons represent the kind of sometimes with their words rather
opinions that we often hear about than bore holes into each other on
the UN. the battlefield?” — Shashi Tharoor,
the former UN Under -Secretary-
On the other hand, we also General for Communications and
find that the UN is generally Public Information.
regarded as the most important
international organisation in These two quotes suggest
today’s world. In the eyes of many something important.
people all over the world, it is International organisations are
indispensable and represents the not the answer to everything, but
great hope of humanity for peace they are important. International
and progress. Why do we then organisations help with matters
need organisations like the UN? of war and peace. They also help
Let us hear two insiders: countries cooperate to make
That’s what they
better living conditions for us all.
say about the “The United Nations was
parliament too — not created to take humanity to Countries have conflicts and
a talking shop. Does
heaven, but to save it from hell.” differences with each other. That
it mean that we need
— Dag Hammarskjold, the UN’s does not necessarily mean they
talking shops?
second Secretary-General. must go to war to deal with their
© Petar Pismestrovic, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

© Harry Harrison, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
During June 2006, Israel attacked Lebanon, saying that it was necessary to control the militant group called Hezbollah.
Large numbers of civilians were killed and many public buildings and even residential areas came under Israeli
bombardment. The UN passed a resolution on this only in August and the Israel army withdrew from the region only in
October. Both these cartoons comment on the role of the UN and its Secretary-General in this episode.

International Organisations 47
antagonisms. They can, instead,

discuss contentious issues and IMF
find peaceful solutions; indeed, The International Monetary
even though this is rarely noticed, Fund (IMF) is an international
most conflicts and differences organisation that oversees those
financial institutions and regula-
are resolved without going to
tions that act at the international
war. The role of an international level. The IMF has 189 member
organisation can be important countries (as on 12 April 2016) but
in this context. An international they do not enjoy an equal say. The G-7 members
organisation is not a super-state US (16.52%), Japan (6.15%), Germany (5.32%),
with authority over its members. France (4.03%), UK (4.03%), Italy (3.02%) and
Canada (2.22%) have 41.29% of the votes.
It is created by and responds to
China (6.09%), India (2.64%), Russia (2.59%)
states. It comes into being when Brazil (2.22%) and Saudi Arabia (2.02%) are the
IMF
states agree to its creation. Once other major members.
created, it can help member states
resolve their problems peacefully.
International organisations actually cooperating are two
are helpful in another way. different things. Nations can
Nations can usually see that recognise the need to cooperate
there are some things they must but cannot always agree on how
do together. There are issues that best to do so, how to share the
are so challenging that they can costs of cooperating, how to
only be dealt with when everyone make sure that the benefits of
works together. Disease is an cooperating are justly divided,
example. Some diseases can only and how to ensure that others do
be eradicated if everyone in the not break their end of the bargain
world cooperates in inoculating or and cheat on an agreement. An
vaccinating their populations. Or international organisation can
take global warming and its effects. help produce information and
As temperatures rise because ideas about how to cooperate.
of the increase in greenhouse It can provide mechanisms,
gases in the atmosphere, there rules and a bureaucracy,
is a danger that sea levels will to help members have more
also rise, thereby submerging confidence that costs will be
many coastal areas of the world shared properly, that the benefits
including huge cities. Of course,
each country can try to find its
own solution to the effects of Make a list of issues or
global warming. But in the end a problems (other than
more effective approach is to stop the ones mentioned in
the warming itself. This requires the text) that cannot
at least all of the major industrial be handled by any one
powers to cooperate. country and require an
Unfortunately, recognising international organisation.
the need for cooperation and

government? We shall try to

FOUNDING OF THE UNITED NATIONS answer this question at the end
of the chapter.
1941 August: Signing of the Atlantic Charter by the US
President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British PM Winston S.
Churchill
Evolution of the UN
1942 January: 26 Allied nations fighting against the Axis
Powers meet in Washington, D.C., to support the Atlantic
The First World War encouraged
Charter and sign the ‘Declaration by United Nations’ the world to invest in an
international organisation to
1943 December: Tehran Conference Declaration of the deal with conflict. Many believed
Three Powers (US, Britain and Soviet Union)
that such an organisation would
1945 February: Yalta Conference of the ‘Big Three’ help the world to avoid war. As a
(Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin) decides to organise a United result, the League of Nations was
Nations conference on the proposed world organisation born. However, despite its initial
success, it could not prevent the
April-May: The 2-month long United Nations Conference on
International Organisation at San Francisco
Second World War (1939-45).
Many more people died and were
1945 June 26: Signing of the UN Charter by 50 nations (Poland wounded in this war than ever
signed on October 15; so the UN has 51 original founding before.
members)
The UN was founded as
1945 October 24: the UN was founded (hence October 24 a successor to the League of
is celebrated as UN Day)
Nations. It was established in
1945 October 30: India joins the UN 1945 immediately after the
S e c o n d Wo r l d Wa r. T h e
will be fairly divided, and that once

a member joins an agreement
it will honour the terms and
conditions of the agreement.
With the end of the Cold War,
we can see that the UN may
have a slightly different role.
As the United States and its
allies emerged victorious, there
was concer n amongst many
governments and peoples that
The US Office of War Information
the Western countries led by created the above poster during
the US would be so powerful the Second World War as per the
that there would be no check Declaration by United Nations of 1942.
against their wishes and desires. The poster features the flags of all
nations that were part of the Allied
Can the UN serve to promote Forces. It reflects the belligerent origins
dialogue and discussion with the of the UN.
US in particular, and could it
limit the power of the American

Adapted from http://www.newint.org/issue375/pics/un-map-big.gif

For more details about the UN System, visit www.un.org

organisation was set up through (1995-2002) and the UN High

Search for at
the signing of the United Nations Commissioner for Refugees
least one news
Charter by 51 states. It tried to (2005-2015).
item about
achieve what the League could The UN consists of many
the activities
not between the two world wars. different structures and
of each of the
UN agencies The UN’s objective is to prevent agencies. War and peace and
mentioned on international conflict and to differences between member
this page. facilitate cooperation among states are discussed in the
states. It was founded with the General Assembly as well as
hope that it would act to stop the the Security Council. Social and
conflicts between states escalating economic issues are dealt with
into war and, if war broke out, by many agencies including
to limit the extent of hostilities. the World Health Organisation
Furthermore, since conflicts (WHO), the United Nations
often arose from the lack of Development Programme (UNDP),
social and economic development, the United Nations Human Rights
the UN was intended to bring Commision (UNHRC), the United
countries together to improve the Nations High Commission for
prospects of social and economic Refugees (UNHCR), the United
development all over the world. Nations Children’s Fund
By 2011, the UN had 193 (UNICEF), and the United Nations
member states. These includeed Educational, Scientific, and
almost all independent states. Cultural Organisation (UNESCO),
In the UN General Assembly, all among others.
members have one vote each. In
the UN Security Council, there Reform of the UN after
are five permanent members.
These are: the United States, the Cold War
Russia, the United Kingdom, Reform and improvement are
France and China. These states fundamental to any organisation
were selected as per manent to serve the needs of a changing
members as they were the most environment. The UN is no
powerful immediately after the exception. In recent years, there
Second World War and because have been demands for reform of
Cold War or no
they constituted the victors in the world body. However, there is
Cold War, one
the War. little clarity and consensus on the
reform is needed
above all. Only The UN’s most visible public nature of reform.
democratic leaders figure, and the representative Two basic kinds of reforms
should be allowed head, is the Secretary-General. face the UN: r efor m of the
to represent their The present Secretary-General organisation’s structures and
countries in the UN.
is António Guterres. He is the pr ocesses; and a r eview of
How can they allow
dictators to speak
ninth Secretary-General of the the issues that fall within the
in the name of the UN. He took over as the Secretary- jurisdiction of the organisation.
people of their General on 1 January 2017. He Almost everyone is agreed that
country? was the Prime Minister of Portugal both aspects of r efor m ar e

necessary. What they cannot

agree on is precisely what is to UN SECRETARIES-GENERAL
be done, how it is to be done, and
Trygve Lie (1946-1952) Norway; lawyer and foreign
when it is to be done. minister; worked for ceasefire between India and
Pakistan on Kashmir; criticised for his failure to
On the reform of structures quickly end the Korean war; Soviet Union opposed
and processes, the biggest second term for him; resigned from the post.
discussion has been on the Dag Hammarskjöld (1953-1961) Sweden; Economist
functioning of the Security and lawyer; worked for resolving the Suez Canal
dispute and the decolonisation of Africa; awarded
Council. Related to this has Nobel Peace Prize posthumously in 1961 for his
been the demand for an increase efforts to settle the Congo crisis; Soviet Union and
in the UN Security Council’s France criticised his role in Africa.
permament and non-permanent U Thant (1961-1971) Burma (Myanmar); teacher and
diplomat; worked for resolving the Cuban Missile
membership so that the realities
Crisis and ending the Congo crisis; established the
of contemporary world politics are UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus; criticised the US
better reflected in the structure during the Vietnam War.
of the organisation. In particular, Kurt Waldheim (1972-1981) Austria; diplomat
and foreign minister; made efforts to resolve the
there are proposals to increase
problems of Namibia and Lebanon; oversaw the
membership from Asia, Africa and relief operation in Bangladesh; China blocked his
South America. Beyond this, the bid for a third term.
US and other Western countries Javier Perez de Cuellar (1982-1991) Peru; lawyer and
diplomat; worked for peace in Cyprus, Afghanistan
want improvements in the UN’s
and El Salvador; mediated between Britain and
budgetary procedures and its Argentina after the Falklands War; negotiated for
administration. the independence of Namibia.
Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1992-1996) Egypt; diplomat,
On the issues to be given jurist, foreign minister; issued a report, An Agenda
greater priority or to be brought for Peace; conducted a successful UN operation in
within the jurisdiciton of the UN, Mozambique; blamed for the UN failures in Bosnia,
Somalia and Rwanda; due to serious disagreements,
some countries and experts want the US blocked a second term for him.
the organisation to play a greater Kofi A. Annan (1997-2006) Ghana; UN official;
or more effective role in peace and created the Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis
security missions, while others and Malaria; declared the US-led invasion of Iraq
as an illegal act; established the Peacebuilding
want its role to be confined to Commission and the Human Rights Council in 2005;
development and humanitarian awarded the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize.
work (health, education, Ban Ki-moon (2007-2016) Republic of Korea (South
environment, population control, Korea); diplomat and foreign minister; the second
Asian to hold the post; highlighted climate change;
human rights, gender and social
focused on the Millennium Development Goals
justice). and Sustainable Development Goals; worked for
the creation of UN Women; emphasised conflict
Let us look at both sets of resolution and nuclear disarmament.
reforms, with an emphasis on António Manuel de Oliveira Guterres (2017- )
reform of the structures and Portugal; former Prime Minister of Portugal from 1995
processes. to 2002; was the United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees during 2005–2015; President of the
The UN was established Socialist International from 1999 to 2005. He is serving
as the ninth Secretary–General of the United Nations.
in 1945 immediately after the
Photo Credit: www.un.org
Second World War. The way it

terrorism, nuclear proliferation,

climate change, environmental
degradation, epidemics).
In this situation, in 1989, as
the Cold War was ending, the
question facing the world was:
is the UN doing enough? Is it
equipped to do what is required?
What should it be doing? And
how? What reforms are necessary
Ban Ki-moon, UN Secretary-General, launches UN @ 70 to celebrate
the 70th Anniversary in New Delhi in 2015 (UN Photo/Mark Garten)
to make it work better? For the
past decade and a half, member
states have been trying to find
was organised and the way it satisfactory and practical answers
functioned reflected the realities
to these questions.
of world politics after the Second
World War. After the Cold War,
those realities are different. Here Reform of Structures and
are some of the changes that have
occurred: Processes
The Soviet Union has While the case for reform has
collapsed. widespread support, getting
agreement on what to do is
The US is the strongest power.
difficult. Let us examine the
The relationship between debate over reform of the UN
Russia, the successor to the Security Council. In 1992, the
Soviet Union, and the US is UN General Assembly adopted
much more cooperative. a resolution. The resolution
China is fast emerging as a reflected three main complaints:
great power, and India also is The Security Council no longer
growing rapidly. represents contemporary
The economies of Asia are political realities.
growing at an unprecedented Its decisions reflect only
rate. Western values and interests
Many new countries have and are dominated by a few
joined the UN (as they became powers.
independent from the Soviet It lacks equitable representation.
Union or former communist
In view of these growing
states in eastern Europe).
demands for the restructuring of
A whole new set of challenges the UN, on 1 January 1997, the
confronts the world (genocide, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan
civil war, ethnic conflict, initiated an inquiry into how the

UN should be reformed. How, for

instance, should new Security World Bank
Council members be chosen? The World Bank was created
In the years since then, the during the Second World War
in 1944. Its activities are focused
following are just some of the
on the developing countries. It
criteria that have been proposed works for human development
for new permanent and non- (education, health), agriculture
per manent members of the and rural development (irrigation, rural services),
Security Council. A new member, environmental protection (pollution reduction,
it has been suggested, should be: establishing and enforcing regulations),
infrastructure (roads, urban regeneration,
A major economic power
electricity) and governance (anti-corruption,
A major military power development of legal institutions). It provides
WORLD BANK
A substantial contributor to loans and grants to the member-countries. In
the UN budget this way, it exercises enormous influence on
A big nation in terms of its the economic policies of developing countries.
population It is often criticised for setting the economic
A nation that respects agenda of the poorer nations, attaching
democracy and human rights stringent conditions to its loans and forcing free
A country that would market reforms.
make the Council more
representative of the world’s
diversity in terms of geography,
economic systems, and culture Clearly, each of these criteria
Major contributors to the has some validity. Governments
UN regular budget for 2019 saw advantages in some criteria
No. Member State %
and disadvantages in others
1 USA 22.0 depending on their interests and
2 China 12.0 aspirations. Even if they had no
3 Japan 8.5 desire to be members themselves,
4 Germany 6.0 countries could see that the
5 UK 4.5
6 France 4.4 criteria were problematic. How
7 Italy 3.3 big an economic or military power
8 Brazil 2.9 did you have to be to qualify for
9 Canada 2.7 Security Council membership?
10 Russia 2.4
What level of budget contribution
11 Republic of Korea 2.2
12 Australia 2.2 would enable a state to buy its
13 Spain 2.1 way into the Council? Was a big
14 Turkey 1.3 population an asset or a liability
15 Netherlands 1.3 for a country trying to play a
16 Mexico 1.2
bigger role in the world? If respect
17 Saudi Arabia 1.1
18 Switzerland 1.1 for democracy and human rights
19 Argentina 0.9 was the criteria, countries with
20 Sweden 0.9 excellent records would be in line
21 India 0.8 to be members; but would they
Source: www.un.org be effective as Council members?

to members of the developing

world? Even here, there are
difficulties. The developing world
consists of countries at many
different levels of development.
What about culture? Should
STEPS different cultures or ‘civilisations’
 Divide the class into six groups. Each group is be given representation in a more
to follow one of the six criteria (or more if there balanced way? How does one
are more suggestions) listed here for permanent divide the world by civilisations or
membership of the UN Security Council. cultures given that nations have
so many cultural streams within
 Each group is to make its own list of the
their borders?
permanent members based on its given criterion
(e.g. the group working on the ‘population’ A related issue was to change
criterion will find out the which are five most the nature of membership
populous countries). altogether. Some insisted, for
 Each group can make a presentation of their instance, that the veto power
recommended list and reasons why their of the five permanent members
criterion should be accepted. be abolished. Many perceived
the veto to be in conflict with
Ideas for the Teacher
the concept of democracy and
 Allow the students to opt for the group whose criterion they
sovereign equality in the UN and
themselves favour.
thought that the veto was no
 Compare all the lists and see how many names are
longer right or relevant.
common and how often India features.
 Keep some time for an open ended discussion on which In the Security Council, there
criterion should be adopted. are five permanent members and
ten non-permanent members.
The Charter gave the permanent
members a privileged position
Furthermore, how was to bring about stability in the
the matter of representation world after the Second World
to be resolved? Did equitable War. The main privileges of the
representation in geographical five permanent members are
terms mean that there should be permanency and the veto power.
one seat each from Asia, Africa, and The non-permanent members
Latin America and the Caribbean? serve for only two years at a time
Should the representation, on the and give way after that period
other hand, be by regions or sub- to newly elected members. A
regions (rather than continents)? country cannot be re-elected
Why should the issue of equitable immediately after completing
representation be decided by a term of two years. The non-
geography? Why not by levels of permanent members are elected
economic development? Why not, in a manner so that they represent
in other words, give more seats all continents of the world.

Most importantly, the non- Jurisdiction of the UN

permanent members do not have
the veto power. What is the veto The question of membership is a
power? In taking decisions, the serious one. In addition, though,
Security Council proceeds by ther e ar e mor e substantial
voting. All members have one vote. issues before the world. As the
However, the permanent members That’s very unfair! It’s
UN completed 60 years of its
actually the weaker
can vote in a negative manner so existence, the heads of all the countries who need
that even if all other permanent member-states met in September a veto, not those
and non-permanent members 2005 to celebrate the anniversary who already have so
vote for a particular decision, any and review the situation. The much power.
permanent member’s negative leaders in this meeting decided
vote can stall the decision. This that the following steps should
negative vote is the veto. be taken to make the UN more
While there has been a move to relevant in the changing context.
abolish or modify the veto system,
Creation of a Peacebuilding
there is also a realisation that the
Commission
permanent members are unlikely
to agree to such a reform. Also, Acceptance of the responsibility
the world may not be ready for of the international community
such a radical step even though in case of failures of national
the Cold War is over. Without the governments to protect their
veto, there is the danger as in 1945 own citizens from atrocities
that the great powers would lose
Establishment of a Human
interest in the world body, that
Rights Council (operational
they would do what they pleased
since 19 June 2006) Find out
outside it, and that without their
about the
support and involvement the body Agreements to achieve the
Sustainable
would be ineffective. Millennium Development
Development
Goals (MDGs) Goals (SDGs).
Condemnation of terrorism in
all its forms and manifestations
Creation of a Democracy Fund
An agreement to wind up the
Trusteeship Council
It is not hard to see that
these are equally contentious
issues for the UN. What should
a Peacebuilding Commission do?
There are any number of conflicts all
over the world. Which ones should
it intervene in? Is it possible or
Source: www.un.org
even desirable for it to intervene in

each and every conflict? Similarly,

what is the responsibility of
the international community in
dealing with atrocities? What are
human rights and who should
© Pat Bagley, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
determine the level of human

rights violations and the course
of action to be taken when they
are violated? Given that so many
countries are still part of the
developing world, how realistic is it
for the UN to achieve an ambitious
set of goals such as those listed
in the Sustainable Development
The humanitarian crisis in Darfur, Sudan since 2003 has attracted Goals? Can there be agreement
empty promises by the International Community. How do you on a definition of terrorism? How
think the UN can intervene in situations like this? Would that
shall the UN use funds to promote
require a change in its jurisdiction?
democracy? And so on.
Source: www.un.org

India and the UN Reforms

WTO
India has supported the The World Trade Organisation
restructuring of the UN on (WTO) is an international
several grounds. It believes that a organisation which sets the rules
for global trade. This organisation
strengthened and revitalised UN
was set up in 1995 as the successor
is desirable in a changing world. to the General Agreement on
India also supports an enhanced Trade and Tariffs (GATT) created after the
role for the UN in promoting Second World War. It has 164 members (as on 29
development and cooperation July 2016). All decisions are taken unanimously
but the major economic powers such as the
among states. India believes that
US, EU and Japan have managed to use the
development should be central WTO to frame rules of trade to advance their
to the UN’s agenda as it is a vital own interests. The developing countries often
WTO
precondition for the maintenance complain of non-transparent procedures and
of international peace and security. being pushed around by big powers.
One of India’s major concerns

has been the composition of the
Security Council, which has India supports an increase in
remained largely static while the the number of both permanent
UN General Assembly member- and non-permanent members.
ship has expanded considerably. Its representatives have argued
India considers that this has that the activities of the Security
harmed the representative Council have greatly expanded in
character of the Security the past few years. The success
Council. It also argues that an of the Security Council’s actions
expanded Council, with more depends upon the political support
representation, will enjoy greater of the international community.
support in the world community. Any plan for restructuring of
the Security Council should,
We should keep in mind
therefore, be broad-based. For
that the membership of the UN
example, the Security Council
Security Council was expanded
should have more developing
from 11 to 15 in 1965. But, there
countries in it.
was no change in the number
of permanent members. Since Not surprisingly, India itself
then, the size of the Council has also wishes to be a permanent
remained stationary. The fact member in a restructured
remains that the overwhelming UN. India is the second most
majority of the UN General populous country in the world
Assembly members now are comprising almost one-fifth of
Do we want to
developing countries. Therefore, the world population. Moreover,
oppose the bossism
India argues that they should India is also the world’s largest
of the big five or
also have a role in shaping the democracy. India has participated do we want to join
decisions in the Security Council in virtually all of the initiatives them and become
which affect them. of the UN. Its role in the UN’s another boss?

that its difficulties with Pakistan

IAEA will make India ineffective as a
The International Atomic Energy permanent member. Yet others
Agency (IAEA) was established feel that if India is included, then
in 1957. It came into being to other emerging powers will have to
implement US President Dwight be accommodated such as Brazil,
Eisenhower’s “Atoms for Peace”
Germany, Japan, perhaps even
proposal. It seeks to promote the peaceful use of
nuclear energy and to prevent its use for military South Africa, whom they oppose.
purposes. IAEA teams regularly inspect nuclear There are those who feel that
IAEA
facilities all over the world to ensure that civilian Africa and South America must be
reactors are not being used for military purposes. represented in any expansion of
the permanent membership since
those are the only continents
peacekeeping efforts is a long and not to have representation in the
substantial one. The country’s present structure. Given these
concerns, it may not be very easy
economic emergence on the
for India or anyone else to become
world stage is another factor that
a permanent member of the UN
perhaps justifies India’s claim to
in the near future.
a permanent seat in the Security
Council. India has also made
regular financial contributions The UN in a Unipolar
to the UN and never faltered
on its payments. India is aware World
that permanent membership of Among the concerns about the
the Security Council also has reform and restructuring of the
symbolic importance. It signifies UN has been the hope of some
a country’s growing importance in countries that changes could help
world affairs. This greater status the UN cope better with a unipolar
is an advantage to a country in word in which the US was the
the conduct of its foreign policy: most powerful country without any
the reputation for being powerful serious rivals. Can the UN serve as
makes you more influential. a balance against US dominance?
Despite India’s wish to be a Can it help maintain a dialogue
permanent veto-wielding member between the rest of the world and
of the UN, some countries question the US and prevent America from
its inclusion. Neighbouring doing whatever it wants?
Pakistan, with which India has US power cannot be easily
troubled relations, is not the only checked. First of all, with the
country that is reluctant to see disappearance of the Soviet
India become a permanent veto Union, the US stands as the
What happens if the
member of the Security Council. only superpower. Its military and
UN invites someone
to New York but the Some countries, for instance, are economic power allow it to ignore
US does not issue concerned about India’s nuclear the UN or any other international
visa? weapons capabilities. Others think organisation.

Secondly, within the UN, the

influence of the US is considerable.
As the single largest contributor
to the UN, the US has unmatched
financial power. The fact that
the UN is physically located
within the US territory gives
Washington additional sources of
influence. The US also has many
nationals in the UN bureaucracy.
In addition, with its veto power
the US can stop any moves that
it finds annoying or damaging to
its interests or the interests of
its friends and allies. The power
of the US and its veto within the
organisation also ensure that
Washington has a considerable
degree of say in the choice of the
Secretary General of the UN. The
US can and does use this power to
“split” the rest of the world and to
reduce opposition to its policies.
The UN is not therefore a great
balance to the US. Nevertheless,
in a unipolar world in which © Mike Lane, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
the US is dominant, the UN can
and has served to bring the US
and the rest of the world into
discussions over various issues.
US leaders, in spite of their Amnesty
International
AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL
frequent criticism of the UN, do

see the organisation as serving Amnesty International is an NGO
that campaigns for the protection
a purpose in bringing together
of human rights all over the world.
over 190 nations in dealing with It promotes respect for all the
conflict and social and economic human rights in the Universal Declaration of
development. As for the rest of the Human Rights. It believes that human rights are
world, the UN provides an arena interdependent and indivisible. It prepares and
publishes reports on human rights. Governments
in which it is possible to modify
are not always happy with these reports since
US attitudes and policies. While a major focus of Amnesty is the misconduct of
the rest of the world is rarely government authorities. Nevertheless, these
united against Washington, and reports play an important role in research and
while it is virtually impossible advocacy on human rights.
to “balance” US power, the UN

be worse off. Given the growing

HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH
Human Rights Watch connections and links between

Human Rights Watch is another societies and issues—what we
international NGO involved in often call ‘interdependence’—it is
research and advocacy on
hard to imagine how more than
human rights. It is the largest
international human rights seven billion people would live
organisation in the US. It draws the together without an organisation
global media’s attention to human rights abuses. such as the UN. Technology
It helped in building international coalitions like promises to increase planetary
the campaigns to ban landmines, to stop the use
interdependence, and therefore
of child soldiers and to establish the International
Criminal Court. the importance of the UN will
only incr ease. Peoples and
governments will have to find
does provide a space within ways of supporting and using
which arguments against specific the UN and other international
US attitudes and policies are organisations in ways that
heard and compromises and are consistent with their own
concessions can be shaped.
interests and the interests of the
The UN is an imperfect body, international community more
but without it the world would broadly.
1. Mark correct or wrong against each of the following statements

Exercises
about the veto power.

a. Only the permanent members of the Security Council possess
the veto power.
b. It’s a kind of negative power.
c. The Secretary-General uses this power when not satisfied with
any decision.
d. One veto can stall a Security Council resolution.
2. Mark correct or wrong against each of the following statements
about the way the UN functions.
a. All security and peace related issues are dealt with in the
Security Council.
b. Humanitarian policies are implemented by the main organs
and specialised agencies spread across the globe.
c. Having consensus among the five permanent members on
security issues is vital for its implementation.
d. The members of the General Assembly are automatically the
members of all other principal organs and specialised agencies
of the UN.

3. Which among the following would give more weightage to India’s

proposal for permanent membership in the Security Council?
a. Nuclear capability
b. It has been a member of the UN since its inception
c. It is located in Asia
d. India’s growing economic power and stable political system
4. The UN agency concerned with the safety and peaceful use of
E x e r c i s e s
nuclear technology is:
a. The UN Committee on Disarmament
b. International Atomic Energy Agency
c. UN International Safeguard Committee
d. None of the above
5. WTO is serving as the successor to which of the following organisations
a. General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
b. General Arrangement on Trade and Tariffs
c. World Health Organisation
d. UN Development Programme
6. Fill in the blanks.
a. The prime objective of the UN is ___________________________
b. The highest functionary of the UN is called_________________
c. The UN Security Council has _____ permanent and _____non-
permanent members.
d. ______________________ is the present UN Secretary-General.
7. Match the principal organs and agencies of the UN with their
functions:
1. Economic and Social Council
2. International Court of Justice
3. International Atomic Energy Agency
4. Security Council
5. UN High Commission for Refugees
6. World Trade Organisation
7. International Monetary Fund
8. General Assembly
9. World Health Organisation
10. Secretariat

a. Oversees the global financial system

b. Preservation of international peace and security
c. Looks into the economic and social welfare of the member
countries
d. Safety and peaceful use of nuclear technology
E x e r c i s e s
e. Resolves disputes between and among member countries
f. Provides shelter and medical help during emergencies
g. Debates and discusses global issues
h. Administration and coordination of UN affairs
i. Providing good health for all
j. Facilitates free trade among member countries
8. What are the functions of the Security Council?

9. As a citizen of India, how would you support India’s candidature for the
permanent membership of the Security Council? Justify your proposal.
10. Critically evaluate the difficulties involved in implementing the
suggested reforms to reconstruct the UN.
11. Though the UN has failed in preventing wars and related miseries,
nations prefer its continuation. What makes the UN an indispensable
organisation?
12. ‘Reforming the UN means restructuring of the Security Council’. Do you
agree with this statement? Give arguments for or against this position.

Chapter 5
Security in the
Contemporary World
Overview
In reading about world politics, we
frequently encounter the terms
‘security’ or ‘national security’. Do
we know what these terms mean?
Often, they are used to stop debate
and discussion. We hear that an
issue is a security issue and that
it is vital for the well-being of the
country. The implication is that
it is too important or secret to be
debated and discussed openly.
We see movies in which everything
surrounding ‘national security’ is
shadowy and dangerous. Security
seems to be something that is
not the business of the ordinary
citizen. In a democracy, surely this
cannot be the case. As citizens of
a democracy, we need to know
more about the term security.
What exactly is it? And what are
India’s security concerns? This
chapter debates these questions.
It introduces two different ways of
looking at security and highlights
The concern about human security was reflected in the
the importance of keeping in mind
1994 UNDP’s Human Development Report, which contends,
different contexts or situations “the concept of security has for too long been interpreted
which determine our view of narrowly… It has been more related to nation states than
security. people… Forgotten were the legitimate concerns of ordinary
people who sought security in their daily lives.” The images
above show various forms of security threats.

What is Security? those things that threaten ‘core

values’ should be regarded as
At its most basic, security implies being of interest in discussions
freedom from threats. Human of security. Whose core values
existence and the life of a country though? The core values of the
are full of threats. Does that country as a whole? The core
mean that every single threat values of ordinary women and men
counts as a security threat? Every in the street? Do governments, on
Who decides about time a person steps out of his or behalf of citizens, always have the
my security? Some her house, there is some degree same notion of core values as the
leaders and experts?
of threat to their existence and ordinary citizen?
Can’t I decide what
way of life. Our world would be
is my security? Furthermore, when we speak
saturated with security issues if
of threats to core values, how
we took such a broad view of what
intense should the threats be?
is threatening.
Surely there are big and small
Those who study security, threats to virtually every value we
therefore, generally say that only hold dear. Can all those threats
be brought into the understanding
of security? Every time another
country does something or fails
to do something, this may damage
the core values of one’s country.
Every time a person is robbed
in the streets, the security of
ordinary people as they live their
daily lives is harmed. Yet, we
would be paralysed if we took
such an extensive view of security:
everywhere we looked, the world
would be full of dangers.
So we are brought to a
conclusion: security relates only
to extremely dangerous threats—
threats that could so endanger
core values that those values

would be damaged beyond repair
if we did not do something to deal
with the situation.
Having said that, we must
admit that security remains a
slippery idea. For instance, have
Taming Peace societies always had the same
Have you heard of ‘peacekeeping force’? Do you think this is conception of security? It would
paradoxical term?
be surprising if they did because

Security in the Contemporary World 65
so many things change in the

world around us. And, at any
given time in world history, do all
societies have the same conception
of security? Again, it would be
amazing if six hundred and fifty
crore people, organised in nearly
200 countries, had the same
conception of security! Let us begin
by putting the various notions
of security under two groups:
traditional and non-traditional
conceptions of security.
Traditional Notions:
External
Economy of war
Most of the time, when we read
and hear about security we are
talking about traditional, national breaks out so as to deny the
security conceptions of security. attacking country its objectives and
In the traditional conception of to turn back or defeat the attacking
security, the greatest danger forces altogether. Governments
to a country is from military may choose to surrender when
threats. The source of this actually confronted by war, but
danger is another country which they will not advertise this as the
by threatening military action policy of the country. Therefore,
endangers the core values of security policy is concer ned
sovereignty, independence and with preventing war, which is
territorial integrity. Military called deterrence, and with
action also endangers the lives limiting or ending war, which is
of ordinary citizens. It is unlikely called defence.
that in a war only soldiers will
Traditional security policy has
be hurt or killed. Quite often,
a third component called balance
ordinary men and women are
of power. When countries look
made targets of war, to break their
around them, they see that some
support of the war.
countries are bigger and stronger.
In responding to the threat of This is a clue to who might be a
war, a government has three basic threat in the future. For instance, War is all about
choices: to surrender; to prevent a neighbouring country may not insecurity, destruction
the other side from attacking by say it is preparing for attack. and deaths. How can
promising to raise the costs of war There may be no obvious reason a war make anyone
secure?
to an unacceptable level; and to for attack. But the fact that this
defend itself when war actually country is very powerful is a sign

formalised in written treaties

and are based on a fairly clear
identification of who constitutes
© Christo Komarnitski, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
the threat. Countries form

alliances to increase their
effective power relative to
another country or alliance.
Alliances are based on national
interests and can change when
national interests change. For
example, the US backed the
Islamic militants in Afghanistan
against the Soviet Union in the
1980s, but later attacked them
when Al Qaeda—a group of
How do the big powers react when new countries claim nuclear Islamic militants led by Osama
status? On what basis can we say that some countries can be bin Laden—launched terrorist
trusted with nuclear weapons while others can’t be?
strikes against America on 11
September 2001.
that at some point in the future In the traditional view of
it may choose to be aggressive. security, then, most threats
Governments are, therefore, very to a country’s security come
sensitive to the balance of power from outside its borders. That is
between their country and other because the international system
countries. They do work hard to is a rather brutal arena in which
maintain a favourable balance there is no central authority
of power with other countries, capable of controlling behaviour.
especially those close by, those Within a country, the threat
with whom they have differences, of violence is regulated by an
or with those they have had acknowledged central authority
conflicts in the past. A good — the government. In world
part of maintaining a balance of politics, there is no acknowledged
power is to build up one’s military central authority that stands
power, although economic and above everyone else. It is tempting
technological power are also to think that the United Nations is
important since they are the basis such an authority or could become
for military power. such an institution. However, as
A fourth and related presently constituted, the UN is a
component of traditional security creature of its members and has
policy is alliance building. An authority only to the extent that
alliance is a coalition of states the membership allows it to have
that coordinate their actions to authority and obeys it. So, in world
deter or defend against military politics, each country has to be
attack. Most alliances are responsible for its own security.

Traditional Notions: Again, we draw attention to

Browse through a
contexts and situations. We know
Internal that the period after the Second
week’s newspaper
and list all the
World War was the Cold War in
By now you will have asked external and
which the US-led Western alliance internal conflicts
yourself: doesn’t security depend
faced the Soviet-led Communist that are taking
on internal peace and order? How
alliance. Above all, the two place around the
can a society be secure if there is
alliances feared a military attack globe.
violence or the threat of violence
from each other. Some European
inside its borders? And how can
powers, in addition, continued
it prepare to face violence from
to worry about violence in their
outside its borders if it is not
colonies, from colonised people
secure inside its borders?
who wanted independence. We
Traditional security must have only to remember the French
also, therefore, concern itself with fighting in Vietnam in the 1950s or
internal security. The reason it the British fighting in Kenya in the
is not given so much importance 1950s and the early 1960s.
is that after the Second World
As the colonies became free
War it seemed that, for the most
from the late 1940s onwards,
powerful countries on earth,
their security concerns were
internal security was more or less
often similar to that of the
assured. We said earlier that it
European powers. Some of the
is important to pay attention to
newly-independent countries, like
contexts and situations. While
the European powers, became
internal security was certainly members of the Cold War alliances.
a part of the concerns of They, therefore, had to worry
governments historically, after about the Cold War becoming a
the Second World War there was hot war and dragging them into
a context and situation in which hostilities — against neighbours
internal security did not seem to who might have joined the other
matter as much as it had in the side in the Cold War, against
past. After 1945, the US and the leaders of the alliances (the
the Soviet Union appeared to be United States or Soviet Union), or
united and could expect peace against any of the other partners
within their borders. Most of the of the US and Soviet Union.
European countries, particularly The Cold War between the two
the powerful Western European superpowers was responsible for
countries, faced no serious threats approximately one-third of all
from groups or communities living wars in the post-Second World
within those borders. Therefore, War period. Most of these wars
these countries focused primarily were fought in the Third World.
on threats from outside their Just as the European colonial
borders. powers feared violence in the
colonies, some colonial people
What were the external threats feared, after independence, that
facing these powerful countries? they might be attacked by their

Internally, the new states

worried about threats from
separatist movements which
wanted to form independent
countries. Sometimes, the
external and internal threats
merged. A neighbour might help
or instigate an internal separatist
movement leading to tensions
between the two neighbouring
countries. Internal wars now
make up more than 95 per cent
of all armed conflicts fought
anywhere in the world. Between
1946 and 1991, there was a
twelve-fold rise in the number of
civil wars—the greatest jump in
200 years. So, for the new states,
Third World Arms © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc. external wars with neighbours
and internal wars posed a serious
former colonial rulers in Europe. challenge to their security.
They had to prepare, therefore,
to defend themselves against an
imperial war. Traditional Security and
The security challenges facing Cooperation
the newly-independent countries
of Asia and Africa were different In traditional security, there is a
from the challenges in Europe in recognition that cooperation in
two ways. For one thing, the new limiting violence is possible. These
countries faced the prospect of limits relate both to the ends and
military conflict with neighbouring the means of war. It is now an
countries. For another, they had almost universally-accepted view
to worry about internal military that countries should only go to
conflict. These countries faced war for the right reasons, primarily
threats not only from outside their self-defence or to protect other
borders, mostly from neighbours, people from genocide. War must
but also from within. Many newly- also be limited in terms of the
Those who fight independent countries came to means that are used. Armies
against their own fear their neighbours even more must avoid killing or hurting non-
country must be
than they feared the US or Soviet combatants as well as unarmed
unhappy about
Union or the former colonial and surrendering combatants.
something. Perhaps it
is their insecurity that powers. They quarrelled over They should not be excessively
creates insecurity for borders and territories or control violent. Force must in any case be
the country. of people and populations or all used only after all the alternatives
of these simultaneously. have failed.

Traditional views of security

do not rule out other for ms
of cooperation as well. The
most important of these are
disarmament, arms control, and
confidence building. Disarmament
requires all states to give up
certain kinds of weapons. For
example, the 1972 Biological
Weapons Convention (BWC) and
the 1992 Chemical Weapons
Convention (CWC) banned the
production and possession of The text says: “Whether Elevated or Under Attack, the Department
these weapons. More than 155 of Homeland Security Terror Meter takes the uncertainty out of
staying informed of the level of terror in our nation. Move the Terror
states acceded to the BWC and
Indicator to the current threat level, which corresponds to how
181 states acceded to the CWC. terrified the American people are of the threat of terror attacks.
Both conventions included all the Terror is all around us, and can strike at anytime. Thanks to the Terror
great powers. But the superpowers Meter, you will never have to wonder how terrified you should be.
— the US and Soviet Union — did Proceed with caution”.
not want to give up the third type

of weapons of mass destruction,
namely, nuclear weapons, so they to deploy a very limited number
pursued arms control. of defensive systems, it stopped
them from large-scale production
Arms control regulates the of those systems.
acquisition or development of
weapons. The Anti-ballistic The US and Soviet Union
Missile (ABM) Treaty in 1972 signed a number of other arms
tried to stop the United States and control treaties including the
Soviet Union from using ballistic Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty
missiles as a defensive shield II or SALT II and the Strategic
to launch a nuclear attack. Arms Reduction Treaty (START).
While it did allow both countries The Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Treaty (NPT) of 1968 was an
arms control treaty in the sense
that it regulated the acquisition
of nuclear weapons: those
countries that had tested and
manufactured nuclear weapons
How funny! First they
before 1967 were allowed to keep make deadly and
their weapons; and those that had expensive weapons.
not done so were to give up the Then they make
right to acquire them. The NPT complicated treaties
did not abolish nuclear weapons; to save themselves
from these weapons.
rather, it limited the number of
They call it security!
countries that could have them.

T raditional security also security conception, the referent

accepts confidence building as is the state with its territory and
a means of avoiding violence. governing institutions. In the
Confidence building is a process non-traditional conceptions, the
in which countries share ideas referent is expanded. When we
and information with their rivals. ask ‘Security for who?’ proponents
They tell each other about their of non-traditional security reply
military intentions and, up to a ‘Not just the state but also
point, their military plans. This individuals or communities or
is a way of demonstrating that indeed all of humankind’. Non-
they are not planning a surprise traditional views of security have
attack. They also tell each other been called ‘human security’ or
about the kind of forces they ‘global security’.
possess, and they may share
Human security is about the
information on where those forces
protection of people more than
are deployed. In short, confidence
the protection of states. Human
building is a process designed to
security and state security should
ensure that rivals do not go to
be — and often are — the same
war through misunderstanding
thing. But secure states do
or misperception.
not automatically mean secure
Overall, traditional conceptions peoples. Protecting citizens from
of security are principally foreign attack may be a necessary
concerned with the use, or threat of condition for the security of
use, of military force. In traditional individuals, but it is certainly not
security, force is both the principal
threat to security and the principal
means of achieving security.
Non-Traditional Notions
© Andy Singer, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Non-traditional notions of
security go beyond military
threats to include a wide range of
threats and dangers affecting the
conditions of human existence.
They begin by questioning the
traditional referent of security. In
doing so, they also question the
other three elements of security
— what is being secured, from
Now we are talking!
what kind of threats and the The cartoon comments on the massive
That is what I call approach to security. When we expenditure on defence and lack of
real security for real say referent we mean ‘Security money for peace-related initiatives in
the US. Is it any different in our country?
human beings. for who?’ In the traditional

a sufficient one. Indeed, during bird flu and so on. No country can
the last 100 years, more people resolve these problems alone. And,
have been killed by their own in some situations, one country
governments than by foreign may have to disproportionately
armies. bear the brunt of a global
All proponents of human problem such as environmental
security agree that its primary degradation. For example, due to
goal is the protection of global warming, a sea level rise
individuals. However, there are of 1.5–2.0 meters would flood 20
differences about precisely what percent of Bangladesh, inundate
threats individuals should be most of the Maldives, and threaten
protected from. Proponents of nearly half the population of
the ‘narrow’ concept of human Thailand. Since these problems
security focus on violent are global in nature, international
threats to individuals or, as cooperation is vital, even though
former UN Secretary-General Kofi it is difficult to achieve.
Annan puts it, “the protection
of communities and individuals New Sources of Threats
from internal violence”.
Proponents of the ‘broad’ concept The non-traditional conceptions—
of human security argue that the both human security and global
threat agenda should include security—focus on the changing
hunger, disease and natural nature of threats to security. We
disasters because these kill far will discuss some of these threats
more people than war, genocide in the section below.
and terrorism combined. Human
Terrorism refers to political
security policy, they argue,
violence that targets civilians
should protect people from these
threats as well as from violence. deliberately and indiscriminately.
In its broadest formulation, the International terrorism involves
human security agenda also the citizens or territory of more
encompasses economic security than one country. Terrorist
and ‘threats to human dignity’. groups seek to change a political
Put differently, the broadest context or condition that they
formulation stresses what do not like by force or threat of
has been called ‘freedom from force. Civilian targets are
want’ and ‘freedom from fear’, usually chosen to terrorise the
respectively. public and to use the unhappiness
of the public as a weapon against
The idea of global security
national governments or other
emerged in the 1990s in response
parties in conflict.
to the global nature of threats
such as global warming, The classic cases of terrorism
inter national terrorism, and involve hijacking planes or planting
health epidemics like AIDS and bombs in trains, cafes, markets

and other crowded places.

Since 11 September 2001 when
terrorists attacked the World
Trade Centre in America, other
governments and public have
paid more attention to terrorism,
though terrorism itself is not
new. In the past, most of the
terror attacks have occurred in
the Middle East, Europe, Latin
America and South Asia.
Human rights have come to
be classified into three types. The
first type is political rights such as
freedom of speech and assembly.
The second type is economic and
social rights. The third type is
the rights of colonised people or
ethnic and indigenous minorities.
While there is broad agreement
on this classification, there is no
Taking the train © Tab, Cagle Cartoons Inc. agreement on which set of rights
should be considered as universal
Why do we always
look outside when
talking about human
rights violations?
Don’t we have
examples from our
own country? He doesn’t exist!

human rights, nor what the population growth occurs in

international community should just six countries—India, China,
do when rights are being violated. Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh
and Indonesia. Among the world’s
Since the 1990s, developments
poorest countries, population
such as Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait,
the genocide in Rwanda, and the is expected to triple in the next
Indonesian military’s killing of 50 years, whereas many rich
people in East Timor have led to a countries will see population
debate on whether or not the UN shrinkage in that period. High per
should intervene to stop human capita income and low population
rights abuses. There are those growth make rich states or rich
who argue that the UN Charter social groups get richer, whereas
empowers the inter national low incomes and high population
community to take up ar ms growth reinforce each other to
in defence of human rights. make poor states and poor groups
Others argue that the national get poorer.
interests of the powerful states Globally, this disparity
will determine which instances of contributes to the gap between
human rights violations the UN the Norther n and Souther n
will act upon. countries of the world. Within
Global poverty is another the South, disparities have also
source of insecurity. World sharpened, as a few countries
population—now at 760 crore— have managed to slow down
will grow to nearly 1000 crore by population growth and raise
the middle of the 21st century. incomes while others have failed
Curr ently, half the world’s to do so. For example, most of the

world’s armed conflicts now take their country of origin, people

Take a map place in sub-Saharan Africa, who have fled their homes but
of Africa and which is also the poorest region of remain within national borders
plot various
the world. At the turn of the 21st are called ‘internally displaced
threats to
century, more people were being people’. Kashmiri Pandits that
the people’s
killed in wars in this region than fled the violence in the Kashmir
security on
that map. in the rest of the world combined. Valley in the early 1990s are an
example of an internally displaced
Poverty in the South has also
community.
led to large-scale migration
to seek a better life, especially The world refugee map tallies
better economic opportunities, almost perfectly with the world
in the North. This has created conflicts map because wars and
international political frictions. armed conflicts in the South have
International law and norms generated millions of refugees
make a distinction between seeking safe haven. From 1990
migrants (those who voluntarily to 1995, 70 states were involved
leave their home countries) and in 93 wars which killed about
refugees (those who flee from 55 lakh people. As a result,
war, natural disaster or political individuals, and families and, at
persecution). States are generally times, whole communities have
supposed to accept refugees, been forced to migrate because
but they do not have to accept of generalised fear of violence
migrants. While refugees leave or due to the destruction of
livelihoods, identities and living
Refugees in the world (2017)
environments. A look at the
Where the world’s displaced people are being hosted
correlation between wars and
refugee migration shows that in
16% the 1990s, all but three of the 60
Americas refugee flows coincided with an
11% internal armed conflict.
17%
Europe Asia and Pacific Health epidemics such as
HIV-AIDS, bird flu, and severe
acute respiratory syndrome
(SARS) have rapidly spread across
countries through migration,
30% business, tourism and military
26% Africa operations. One country’s success
Middle East and North Africa or failure in limiting the spread of
these diseases affects infections in
Source: http://www.unhcr.org other countries.

By 2003, an estimated 4 crore

people were infected with HIV-
AIDS worldwide, two-thirds of
them in Africa and half of the
rest in South Asia. In North
America and other industrialised
countries, new drug therapies
dramatically lowered the death
rate from HIV-AIDS in the late
1990s. But these treatments were
too expensive to help poor regions
like Africa where it has proved
to be a major factor in driving
the region backward into deeper
poverty.
Other new and poorly Keshav, The Hindu
understood diseases such as
How should the world address issues shown here?
ebola virus, hantavirus, and
hepatitis C have emerged, while
old diseases like tuberculosis,
malaria, dengue fever and cholera To qualify as a security problem,
have mutated into drug resistant therefore, an issue must share a
forms that are difficult to treat. minimum common criterion, say,
Epidemics among animals have of threatening the very existence
major economic effects. Since the of the referent (a state or group of
late 1990s, Britain has lost billions people) though the precise nature
of dollars of income during an of this threat may be different.
outbreak of the mad-cow disease, For example, the Maldives may
and bird flu shut down supplies feel threatened by global warming
of poultry exports from several because a big part of its territory
Asian countries. Such epidemics may be submerged with the rising
demonstrate the growing inter- sea level, whereas for countries
dependence of states making their in Southern Africa, HIV-AIDS
poses a serious threat as one in
borders less meaningful than in
six adults has the disease (one
the past and emphasise the need
in three for Botswana, the worst
for international cooperation.
case). In 1994, the Tutsi tribe
Expansion of the concept in Rwanda faced a threat to its
of security does not mean that existence as nearly five lakh of
we can include any kind of its people were killed by the rival
disease or distress in the ambit Hutu tribe in a matter of weeks.
of security. If we do that, the This shows that non-traditional
concept of security stands to conceptions of security, like
lose its coherence. Everything traditional conceptions of security,
could become a security issue. vary according to local contexts.

Cooperative development organisations),

businesses and corporations,
Security and great personalities
(e.g. Mother Teresa, Nelson

We can see that
Mandela).
dealing with many
of these non- Cooperative security may
traditional threats involve the use of force as a
to security require last resort. The international
cooperation rather community may have to sanction
than military the use of force to deal with
World Blindness
confrontation. Military force may governments that kill their own
have a role to play in combating people or ignore the misery of their
terrorism or in enforcing human populations who are devastated by
rights (and even here there is a poverty, disease and catastrophe.
limit to what force can achieve), It may have to agree to the use
but it is difficult to see what of violence against international
force would do to help alleviate terrorists and those who harbour
poverty, manage migration and them. Non-traditional security
refugee movements, and control is much better when the use of
epidemics. Indeed, in most cases, force is sanctioned and applied
the use of military force would collectively by the international
only make matters worse! community rather than when an
individual country decides to use
Far more effective is to
force on its own.
devise strategies that involve
international cooperation.
Cooperation may be bilateral India’s Security Strategy
(i.e. between any two countries),
regional, continental, or global. India has faced traditional
It would all depend on the nature (military) and non-traditional
of the threat and the willingness threats to its security that
and ability of countries to have emerged from within as
respond. Cooperative security well as outside its borders. Its
may also involve a variety of security strategy has four broad
other players, both international components, which have been
used in a varying combination
and national—inter national
from time to time.
o rg a n i s a t i o n s ( t h e U N , t h e
World Health Organisation, the The first component was streng-
I feel happy when
World Bank, the IMF etc.), non- thening its military capabilities
I hear that my gover nmental organisations because India has been involved
country has nuclear (Amnesty Inter national, the in conflicts with its neighbours
weapons. But I don’t Red Cross, private foundations — Pakistan in 1947–48, 1965,
know how exactly it and charities, churches and 1971 and 1999; and China in
makes me and my
religious organisations, trade 1962. Since it is surrounded
family more secure.
unions, associations, social and by nuclear-armed countries in

the South Asian region, India’s the country. Several militant

decision to conduct nuclear groups from areas such as the
tests in 1998 was justified by the Nagaland, Mizoram, the Punjab,
Indian government in terms of and Kashmir among others have,
safeguarding national security. from time to time, sought to
India first tested a nuclear device break away from India. India
in 1974. has tried to preserve national
unity by adopting a democratic
The second component of
political system, which allows
India’s security strategy has been
different communities and groups
to strengthen international norms
of people to freely articulate their
and international institutions
grievances and share political
to protect its security interests.
power.
India’s first Prime Minister,
Jawaharlal Nehru, supported Finally, there has been an
the cause of Asian solidarity, attempt in India to develop its
decolonisation, disarmament, economy in a way that the vast
and the UN as a forum in which mass of citizens are lifted out
international conflicts could be of poverty and misery and huge
settled. India also took initiatives economic inequalities are not
to bring about a universal allowed to exist. The attempt
and non-discriminatory non- has not quite succeeded; we are
proliferation regime in which all still a very poor and unequal
countries would have the same country. Yet democratic politics
rights and obligations with respect allows spaces for articulating
to weapons of mass destruction the voice of the poor and the
(nuclear, biological, chemical). deprived citizens. There is a
It argued for an equitable New pressure on the democratically
International Economic Order elected governments to combine
(NIEO). Most importantly, it used economic growth with human
non-alignment to help carve out development. Thus democracy
an area of peace outside the bloc is not just a political ideal; a
politics of the two superpowers. democratic government is also a
India joined 160 countries that way to provide greater security.
have signed and ratified the 1997 You will read more about the
Kyoto Protocol, which provides a successes and failures of Indian
roadmap for reducing the emissions democracy in this respect in the
of greenhouse gases to check global textbook on politics in India since Compare the
warming. Indian troops have been independence. expenditure
sent abroad on UN peacekeeping by the Indian
missions in support of cooperative government
security initiatives. on traditional
security with its
The third component of Indian expenditure on
security strategy is geared towards non-traditional
meeting security challenges within security.

STEPS
 Narrate the following imaginary situation of four villages settled on the banks of
a river.
Kotabagh, Gewali, Kandali and Goppa are villages adjoining each other beside
a river. People in Kotabagh were the first settlers on the riverbank. They had an
uninterrupted access to abundant natural resources available in the region.
Gradually, people from different regions started coming to this region because of
the abundant natural resources and water. Now there are four villages. With time
the population of these villages expanded. But resources did not expand. Each
village started making claims over natural resources including the boundary of their
respective settlement. Inhabitants of Kotabagh argued for a greater share in natural
resources, as they were the first settlers. Settlers of Kandali and Gewali said that as
they have bigger populations than the others they both need a greater share. The
people of Goppa said as they are used to an extravagant life they need a bigger
share, though their population is smaller in size. All four villages disagreed with each
other’s demands and continued to use the resources as they wished. This led to
frequent clashes among the villagers. Gradually, everybody felt disgusted with the
state of affairs and lost their peace of mind. Now they all wish to live the way they
had lived earlier. But they do not know how to go back to that golden age.
 Make a brief note describing the characteristics of each village — the description
should reflect the actual nature of present-day nations.
 Divide the classroom into four groups. Each group is to represent a village. Hand
over the village notes to the respective groups.
 The teacher is to allot a time (15 minutes) for group discussions on how to go
back to the golden age. Each should develop its own strategy.
All groups are to negotiate freely among themselves as village representatives,
to arrive at a solution (within 20 minutes). Each would put forth its arguments and
counter arguments. The result could be: an amicable agreement accommodating
the demands of all, which seldom happens; or, the entire negotiation/discussion
ends without achieving the purpose.
 Link the villages to nations and connect to the problems of security (threat to geographical territory/
access to natural resources/insurgency, and so on).
 Talk about the observations made during the negotiation and explain how similarly the nations
behave while negotiating on related issues.
 The activity could be concluded by making reference to some of the current security issues between
and among nations.

1. Match the terms with their meaning:

i. Confidence Building Measures (CBMs)
ii. Arms Control
iii. Alliance
iv. Disarmament
E x e r c i s e s
a. Giving up certain types of weapons
b. A process of exchanging information on defence matters
between nations on a regular basis
c. A coalition of nations meant to deter or defend against military
attacks
d. Regulates the acquisition or development of weapons
2. Which among the following would you consider as a traditional
security concern / non-traditional security concern / not a threat?
a. The spread of chikungunya / dengue fever
b. Inflow of workers from a neighbouring nation
c. Emergence of a group demanding nationhood for their region
d. Emergence of a group demanding autonomy for their region
e. A newspaper that is critical of the armed forces in the country
3. What is the difference between traditional and non-traditional
security? Which category would the creation and sustenance of
alliances belong to?
4. What are the differences in the threats that people in the Third World
face and those living in the First World face?
5. Is terrorism a traditional or non-traditional threat to security?
6. What are the choices available to a state when its security is
threatened, according to the traditional security perspective?
7. What is ‘Balance of Power’? How could a state achieve this?
8. What are the objectives of military alliances? Give an example of
a functioning military alliance with its specific objectives.
9. Rapid environmental degradation is causing a serious threat to
security. Do you agree with the statement? Substantiate your
arguments.

10. Nuclear weapons as deterrence or defence have limited usage

against contemporary security threats to states. Explain the
statement.
11. Looking at the Indian scenario, what type of security has been given
priority in India, traditional or non-traditional? What examples could
you cite to substantiate the argument?
12. Read the cartoon below and write a short note in favour or against
E x e r c i s e s
the connection between war and terrorism depicted in this cartoon.

Chapter 6
Environment and
Natural Resources
Overview
This chapter examines the growing
significance of environmental as
well as resource issues in world
politics. It analyses in a comparative
perspective some of the important
environmental movements against
the backdrop of the rising profile of
environmentalism from the 1960s
onwar ds. Notions of common
property resources and the global
commons too are assessed. We
also discuss, in brief, the stand
taken by India in more recent
environmental debates. Next follows The 1992 Earth Summit has brought environmental issues to
the centre-stage of global politics. The pictures above show
a brief account of the geopolitics of
rainforest and mangroves.
resource competition. We conclude
by taking note of the indigenous
peoples’ voices and concerns from
the margins of contemporary world
politics.

Environmental Concerns Throughout the world,

cultivable area is barely
in Global Politics expanding any more, and a
substantial portion of existing
In this book we have discussed
agricultural land is losing
‘world politics’ in a fairly limited
fertility. Grasslands have been
sense: wars and treaties, rise
overgrazed and fisheries over-
and decline of state power,
harvested. Water bodies have
the relationship between the
Politics in forests, suffered extensive depletion
governments that represent their
politics in water, and pollution, severely
politics in countries in the international
restricting food production.
atmosphere! What is arena and the role of inter-
not political then? governmental organisations. In According to the Human
Chapter 5, we expanded the scope Development Report 2016 of the
of world politics to include issues United Nations Development
like poverty and epidemics. That Programme, 663 million people
may not have been a very difficult in developing countries have
step to take, for we all think that no access to safe water and
governments are responsible for 2.4 billion have no access to
controlling these. In that sense sanitation, resulting in the
they fall within the scope of world death of more than three
politics. Now consider some other million children every year.
issues. Do you think they fall Natural forests — which
within the scope of contemporary help stabilise the climate,
world politics? moderate water supplies,
and harbour a majority of the
planet’s biodiversity on land—
are being cut down and people
are being displaced. The loss
of biodiversity continues due
to the destruction of habitat
in areas which are rich in
species.
A steady decline in the total
amount of ozone in the Earth’s
stratosphere (commonly
referred to as the ozone
hole) poses a real danger
to ecosystems and human
Around the Aral Sea, thousands of people have had to leave their health.
homes as the toxic waters have totally destroyed the fishing industry.
The shipping industry and all related activities have collapsed. Coastal pollution too is
Rising concentrations of salt in the soil have caused low crop yields.
increasing globally. Although
Numerous studies have been conducted. In fact locals joke that if
everyone who’d come to study the Aral had brought a bucket of the open sea is relatively
water, the sea would be full by now. Source: www.gobartimes.org clean, the coastal waters are

Environment and Natural Resources 83
becoming increasingly polluted

largely due to land-based
activities. If unchecked,
intensive human settlement
of coastal zones across the
globe will lead to further
deterioration in the quality of
marine environment.
You might ask are we not
talking here about ‘natural
phenomena’ that should be
studied in geography rather than
in political science. But think
about it again. If the various
governments take steps to check
environmental degradation
of the kind mentioned above,
these issues will have political Global Warming © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
consequences in that sense.
Most of them are such that no Why do you think the fingers are designed like chimneys and the
world made into a lighter?
single government can address
them fully. Therefore they have dramatising the potential depletion
to become part of ‘world politics’. of the Earth’s resources against the
I s s ue s o f e nviro nment and backdrop of rapidly growing world
natural resources are political in population. International agencies,
another deeper sense. Who causes including the United Nations
environmental degradation? Environment Programme (UNEP),
Who pays the price? And who is began holding international
responsible for taking corrective conferences and promoting
action? Who gets to use how detailed studies to get a more
much of the natural resources coordinated and effective response
of the Earth? All these raise the to environmental problems. Since
issue of who wields how much then, the environment has emerged
power. They are, therefore, deeply as a significant issue of global
political questions. politics.
Although environmental The growing focus on Collect news
concerns have a long history, environmental issues within the clippings
awareness of the environmental arena of global politics was firmly on reports
consequences of economic growth consolidated at the United Nations linking
acquired an increasingly political Conference on Environment environment
character from the 1960s onwards. and Development held in Rio and politics
The Club of Rome, a global de Janeiro, Brazil, in June in your own
think tank, published a book in 1992. This was also called the locality.
1972 entitled Limits to Growth, Earth Summit. The summit was

countries of the First World,

generally referred to as the ‘global
North’ were pursuing a different
environmental agenda than the
poor and developing countries of
the Third World, called the ‘global
South’. Whereas the Northern
states were concerned with ozone
depletion and global warming, the
Southern states were anxious to
address the relationship between
economic development and
environmental management.
The Rio Summit produced
conventions dealing with climate
change, biodiversity, forestry, and
recommended a list of development
practices called ‘Agenda 21’. But
it left unresolved considerable
differences and difficulties. There
was a consensus on combining
economic growth with ecological
responsibility. This approach to
development is commonly known

as ‘sustainable development’.
The problem however was how
exactly this was to be achieved.
Some critics have pointed out
that Agenda 21 was biased
in favour of economic growth
rather than ensuring ecological
Are there different perspectives from which the rich and the poor
countries agree to protect the Earth? conservation. Let us look at some
of the contentious issues in the
attended by 170 states, thousands global politics of environment.
of NGOs and many multinational
corporations. Five years earlier,
the 1987 Brundtland Report, Our The Protection of Global
Common Future, had warned that Commons
traditional patterns of economic
growth were not sustainable in the ‘Commons’ are those resources
long term, especially in view of the which are not owned by anyone
demands of the South for further but rather shared by a community.
industrial development. What This could be a ‘common room’, a
was obvious at the Rio Summit ‘community centre’, a park or a
was that the rich and developed river. Similarly, there are some

ANTARCTICA
The Antarctic continental region extends

over 14 million square kilometres and
comprises 26 per cent of the world’s
wilderness area, representing 90 per cent
of all terrestrial ice and 70 per cent of
planetary fresh water. The Antarctic also
extends to a further 36 million square
kilometres of ocean. It has a limited
terrestrial life and a highly productive
marine ecosystem, comprising a few
plants (e.g. microscopic algae, fungi and
lichen), marine mammals, fish and hordes
of birds adapted to harsh conditions, as
well as the krill, which is central to marine
food chain and upon which other animals
are dependent. The Antarctic plays an
important role in maintaining climatic
equilibrium, and deep ice cores provide
an important source of information about
greenhouse gas concentrations and
atmospheric temperatures of hundreds
and thousands of years ago.
Who owns this coldest, farthest, and windiest continent on globe? There are two claims about it. Some
countries like the UK, Argentina, Chile, Norway, France, Australia and New Zealand have made legal
claims to sovereign rights over Antarctic territory. Most other states have taken the opposite view that
the Antarctic is a part of the global commons and not subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of any state.
These differences, however, have not prevented the adoption of innovative and potentially far-reaching
rules for the protection of the Antarctic environment and its ecosystem. The Antarctic and the Arctic polar
regions are subjected to special regional rules of environmental protection. Since 1959, activities in the
area have been limited to scientific research, fishing and tourism. Even these limited activities have not
prevented parts of the region from being degraded by waste as a result of oil spills.
areas or regions of the world which Cooperation over the global

are located outside the sovereign commons is not easy. There
jurisdiction of any one state, have been many path-breaking
and therefore require common agreements such as the 1959
governance by the international Antarctic Treaty, the 1987 Montreal
community. These are known Protocol, and the 1991 Antarctic
as res communis humanitatis or Environmental Protocol. A major
global commons. They include the problem underlying all ecological Very soon we will
earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica issues relates to the difficulty of have ecological
(see Box), the ocean floor, and achieving consensus on common degradation of the
outer space. environmental agendas on the moon!

One of the biggest catastrophes in Africa in the 1970s, a drought turned the best cropland in five countries into
cracked and barren earth. In fact, the term environmental refugees came into popular vocabulary after this. Many
had to flee their homelands as agriculture was no longer possible. Source: www.gobartimes.org
basis of vague scientific evidence issue here is technology and

and time frames. In that sense the industrial development. This is
discovery of the ozone hole over important because the benefits
the Antarctic in the mid-1980s of exploitative activities in outer
revealed the opportunity as well space are far from being equal
as dangers inherent in tackling either for the present or future
global environmental problems. generations.
Find out more Similarly, the history of outer
about the
Kyoto Protocol.
space as a global commons shows Common but Differentiated
that the management of these
Which major areas is thoroughly influenced Responsibilities
countries did by North-South inequalities.
not sign it? And We have noted above a difference
As with the earth’s atmosphere in the approach to environment
why? and the ocean floor, the crucial between the countries of the North

and the South. The developed responsibility that they bear

countries of the North want in the international pursuit of
to discuss the environmental sustainable development in view of
issue as it stands now and want the pressures their societies place
everyone to be equally responsible on the global environment and of
for ecological conservation. The the technological and financial
developing countries of the South resources they command.”
feel that much of the ecological
The 1992 United Nations
degradation in the world is the
Framework Convention on
product of industrial development
Climate Change (UNFCCC) also
undertaken by the developed
provides that the parties should
countries. If they have caused more
degradation, they must also take act to protect the climate system
more responsibility for undoing “on the basis of equity and in
the damage now. Moreover, the accordance with their common
developing countries are in the but differentiated responsibilities
process of industrialisation and and respective capabilities.” The
they must not be subjected to parties to the Convention agreed
the same restrictions, which that the largest share of historical
apply to the developed countries. and current global emissions of
Thus the special needs of the greenhouse gases has originated
developing countries must in developed countries. It was
be taken into account in the also acknowledged that per capita
development, application, and emissions in developing countries
interpretation of rules of inter- are still relatively low. China, India,
national environmental law. and other developing countries
This argument was accepted in were, therefore, exempted from
the Rio Declaration at the Earth the requirements of the Kyoto
Summit in 1992 and is called Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol
the principle of ‘common but is an international agreement
differentiated responsibilities’. setting targets for industrialised
The relevant part of the Rio countries to cut their greenhouse
Declaration says that “States gas emissions. Certain gases like
shall cooperate in the spirit of Carbon dioxide, Methane, Hydro-
global partnership to conserve, fluoro carbons etc. are considered
protect and restore the health at least partly responsible for
and integrity of the Earth’s global warming - the rise in global
ecosystem. In view of the temperature which may have
different contributions of global catastrophic consequences for
environmental degradation, states life on Earth. The protocol was
have common but differentiated agreed to in 1997 in Kyoto in That’s a cool
responsibilities. The developed Japan, based on principles set principle! A bit like
the reservation policy
countries acknowledge the out in UNFCCC.
in our country, isn’t it?

Common Property availability to the poor in much

of the world. The institutional
Resources arrangement for the actual
management of the sacred
Common property represents
groves on state-owned forest land
common property for the group.
appropriately fits the description
The underlying norm here is that
of a common property regime.
members of the group have both
Along the forest belt of South
rights and duties with respect to
India, sacred groves have been
the nature, levels of use, and the
traditionally managed by village
maintenance of a given resource.
communities.
Through mutual understanding
and centuries of practice, many
village communities in India, for India’s Stand on
example, have defined members’
rights and responsibilities. A Environmental Issues
combination of factors, including India signed and ratified the 1997
I heard about some
privatisation, agricultural intensi- Kyoto Protocol in August 2002.
rivers being sold fication, population growth and India, China and other developing
in Latin America. ecosystem degradation have countries were exempt from the
How can common caused common property to requirements of the Kyoto Protocol
property be sold? dwindle in size, quality, and because their contribution to the
SACRED GROVES IN INDIA
Protecting nature for religious reasons is an ancient practice in many traditional societies. Sacred
groves in India (parcels of uncut forest vegetation in the name of certain deities or natural or
ancestral spirits) exemplify such practice. As a model of community-based resource management,
groves have lately gained attention in conservation literature. The sacred groves can be seen as a
system that informally forces traditional communities to harvest natural resources in an ecologically
sustained fashion. Some researchers believe that sacred groves hold the potential for preserving
not only biodiversity and ecological functions, but also cultural diversity.
Sacred groves embody a rich set of forest preservation practices and they share characteristics
with common property resource systems. Their size ranges from clumps of a few trees to several
hundred acres. Traditionally, sacred groves have been valued for their embodied spiritual and
cultural attributes. Hindus commonly worshipped natural objects, including trees and groves. Many
temples have originated from sacred groves. Deep religious reverence for nature, rather than
resource scarcity, seems to be the basis for the long-standing commitment to preserving these
forests. In recent years, however, expansion and human settlement have slowly encroached on
sacred forests.
In many places, the institutional identity of these traditional forests is fading with the advent of new
national forest policies. A real problem in managing sacred groves arises when legal ownership
and operational control are held by different entities. The two entities in question, the state and the
community, vary in their policy norms and underlying motives for using the sacred grove.

emission of greenhouse gases responsibilities, India is of the

during the industrialisation view that the major responsibility
period (that is believed to be of curbing emission rests with the
causing today’s global warming developed countries, which have
and climate change) was not accumulated emissions over a
significant. However, the critics long period of time.
of the Kyoto Protocol point out
that sooner or later, both India India’s international
and China, along with other negotiating position relies
developing countries, will be heavily on principles of historical
among the leading countributors responsibility, as enshrined in
to greenhouse gas emissions. At UNFCCC. This acknowledges
the G-8 meeting in June 2005, that developed countries are
India pointed out that the per responsible for most historical and
capita emission rates of the current greenhouse gas emissions,
I get it! First they
developing countries are a tiny and emphasizes that ‘economic
destroyed the earth,
fraction of those in the developed and social development are the now it is our turn to
world. Following the principle first and overriding priorities of do the same! Is that
of common but differentiated the developing country parties’. So our stand?

India is wary of recent discussions by India in 1997. One of the key

within UNFCCC about introducing conclusions was that there had
binding commitments on rapidly been no meaningful progress
industrialising countries (such as with respect to transfer of new
Brazil, China and India) to reduce and additional financial resources
their greenhouse gas emissions. and envir onmentally-sound
India feels this contravenes the technology on concessional terms
very spirit of UNFCCC. Neither to developing nations. India
does it seem fair to impose finds it necessary that developed
restrictions on India when the countries take immediate
country’s rise in per capita carbon measures to provide developing
emissions by 2030 is likely to still countries with financial resources
represent less than half the world and clean technologies to enable
average of 3.8 tonnes in 2000. them to meet their existing
Indian emissions are predicted commitments under UNFCCC.
to rise from 0.9 tonnes per capita India is also of the view that the
in 2000 to 1.6 tonnes per capita SAARC countries should adopt a
in 2030. common position on major global
The Indian government is environment issues, so that the
already participating in global region’s voice carries greater
efforts through a number of weight.
programmes. For example,
India’s National Auto-fuel Policy
mandates cleaner fuels for Environmental Movements:
vehicles. The Energy Conservation One or Many?
Act, passed in 2001, outlines
initiatives to improve energy We have, so far, looked at the way
efficiency. Similarly, the Electricity governments have reacted at the
Act of 2003 encourages the use of international level to the challenge
renewable energy. Recent trends of environmental degradation.
in importing natural gas and But some of the most significant
encouraging the adoption of clean responses to this challenge have
coal technologies show that India come not from the governments
has been making real efforts. The but rather from groups of environ-
government is also keen to launch mentally conscious volunteers
a National Mission on Biodiesel, working in different parts of the
using about 11 million hectares world. Some of them work at
of land to produce biodiesel by the international level, but most
2011–2012. India ratified the of them work at the local level.
Paris Climate Agreement on These environmental movements
2 October 2016. And India has
are amongst the most vibrant,
one of the largest renewable
diverse, and power ful social
energy programmes in the world.
movements across the globe
A review of the implementation today. It is within social movements
of the agreements at the Earth that new forms of political action
Summit in Rio was undertaken are born or reinvented. These

movements raise new ideas and examples) are faced with enormous
long-term visions of what we pressures. Forest clearing in
should do and what we should t h e T h i r d Wo r l d c o n t i n u e s
Let’s find
not do in our individual and at an alarming rate, despite out about
collective lives. Here are just a few three decades of environmental ‘Chipko
examples to show that diversity activism. The destruction of the Movement’.
is an important trait of world’s last remaining grand
contemporary environmental forests has actually increased in
movements. the last decade.
The forest movements of the The minerals industry is one
South, in Mexico, Chile, Brazil, of the most powerful forms of
Malaysia, Indonesia, continental industry on the planet. A large
Africa and India (just to list a few number of economies of the South
ARE FORESTS “WILDERNESS”?

What distinguishes the forest movements of the South from
those of the North is that the forests of the former are still
peopled, whilst the forests of the latter are more or less
devoid of human habitat or, at least, are perceived as
thus. This explains to some extent the prevailing notion of
wilderness in the North as a ‘wild place’ where people
do not live. In this perspective, humans are not seen as
part of nature. In other words, ‘environment’ is perceived
as ‘somewhere out there’, as something that should be
protected from humans through the creation of parks and
reserves. On the other hand, most environmental issues in

the South are based on the assumption that people live in
the forests.
Wilderness-oriented perspectives have been predominant

in Australia, Scandinavia, North America and New Zealand.
In these regions, there are still large tracts of relatively
‘underdeveloped wilderness’, unlike in most European
countries. This is not to say that wilderness campaigns
are entirely missing in the South. In the Philippines, green
organisations fight to protect eagles and other birds of
Do you agree with the efforts
prey from extinction. In India, a battle goes on to protect
made by ecologists? Do you
the alarmingly low number of Bengal tigers. In Africa, a
agree with the way ecologists are
long campaign has been waged against the ivory trade portrayed here?
and the savage slaughter of elephants. Some of the most
famous wilderness struggles have been fought in the forests
of Brazil and Indonesia. All of these campaigns focus on individual species as well as the conservation
of the wilderness habitats, which support them. Many of the wilderness issues have been renamed
biodiversity issues in recent times, as the concept of wilderness has been proved difficult to sell in the
South. Many of these campaigns have been initiated and funded by NGOs such as the Worldwide
Wildlife Fund (WWF), in association with local people.

are now being re-opened present, there has been a spurt in

to MNCs through the mega-dam building in the South,
liberalisation of the from Turkey to Thailand to South
global economy. The Africa, from Indonesia to China.
mineral industry’s India has had some of the leading
extraction of earth, anti-dam, pro-river movements.
its use of chemicals, Narmada Bachao Andolan is
its pollution of one of the best known of these
An entire waterways and land, movements. It is significant to
community erupted its clearance of native vegetation, note that, in anti-dam and other
in protests against its displacement of communities, environmental movements in
a proposed India, the most important shared
open-cast coal
amongst other factors, continue
to invite criticism and resistance idea is non-violence.
mine project in
Phulbari town, in in various parts of the globe.
the North-West
district of Dinajpur,
One good example is that of the Resource Geopolitics
Bangladesh. Here Philippines, where a vast network
of groups and organisations Resource geopolitics is all
several dozen
women, one with about who gets what, when,
campaigned against the Western
her infant child, where and how. Resources have
Mining Corporation (WMC), an
are chanting provided some of the key means
slogans against the Australia-based multinational
and motives of global European
proposed coal mine company. Much opposition to
project in 2006. power expansion. They have
the company in its own country,
also been the focus of inter-
Australia, is based on anti-
state rivalry. Western geopolitical
nuclear sentiments and advocacy
thinking about resources has been
for the basic rights of Australian
dominated by the relationship of
indigenous peoples.
trade, war and power, at the core
Another group of movements of which were overseas resources
are those involved in struggles and maritime navigation. Since
against mega-dams. In every sea power itself rested on
country where a mega-dam is access to timber, naval timber
being built, one is likely to find supply became a key priority for
an environmental movement major European powers from
opposing it. Increasingly anti- the 17th century onwards. The
dam movements are pro-river critical importance of ensuring
movements for more sustainable uninterrupted supply of strategic
and equitable management of resources, in particular oil, was
river systems and valleys. The well established both during the
early 1980s saw the first anti-dam First World War and the Second
movement launched in the North, World War.
namely, the campaign to save the Throughout the Cold War
Franklin River and its surrounding the industrialised countries of
forests in Australia. This was a the North adopted a number of
wilderness and forest campaign methods to ensure a steady flow
as well as anti-dam campaign. At of resources. These included the

deployment of military forces

near exploitation sites and along
sea-lanes of communication, the
stockpiling of strategic resources,
efforts to prop up friendly
governments in producing
countries, as well as support
to multinational companies
and favourable international
agreements. Traditional Western
strategic thinking remained
concerned with access to supplies,
which might be threatened by
the Soviet Union. A particular
concern was Western control of oil
in the Gulf and strategic minerals

in Southern and Central Africa.
After the end of the Cold War and
the disintegration of the Soviet
Union, the security of supply
continues to worry government
and business decisions with
regard to several minerals, in
particular radioactive materials.
However, oil continues to be the
most important resource in global
strategy. satisfy any substantial rise in
oil demand. Saudi Arabia has
The global economy relied on
a quarter of the world’s total
oil for much of the 20th century
reserves and is the single largest
as a portable and indispensable
producer. Iraq’s known reserves
fuel. The immense wealth
are second only to Saudi Arabia’s.
associated with oil generates
And, since substantial portions of
political struggles to control it,
Iraqi territory are yet to be fully
and the history of petroleum
explored, there is a fair chance
is also the history of war and
that actual reserves might be
struggle. Nowhere is this more
far larger. The United States,
obviously the case than in West
Europe, Japan, and increasingly
Asia and Central Asia. West
India and China, which consume
Asia, specifically the Gulf region,
this petroleum, are located at a
accounts for about 30 per cent
considerable distance from the
of global oil production. But it
region.
has about 64 per cent of the
planet’s known reserves, and is Water is another crucial
therefore the only region able to resource that is relevant to global

EVERYONE IS PLAYING CRUDE!

“The list of petroleum based products in our lives is endless. Toothbrush, pacemaker, paints,
inks, ....Oil provides the energy for 95 per cent of the world’s transportation needs. The whole
industrialised world survives on petroleum. We cannot imagine living without it. There are
billions of barrels of it under the earth for us to use. Yet there are disputes between countries.
Why here is one of the problems”
I belong to the Royal Family of the Kingdom of Black Gold. I am

what they call filthy rich. Ever since black gold was found in my
Kingdom things have never been the same again. Mr. Bigoil and his
government came prospecting one day. We struck oil...and a deal.
They armed me to the teeth till it hurt. So when I grin my subjects
look at me with awe. In return Bigoil and sons get to buy all my oil
and loyalty. I am happy and rich and so are they. I turn my blind eye
to their military in this holy land.
I value precious things. Bigoil says his President values
freedom and democracy. So I keep both safely under lock and
key in my land. Sheikh Petrodollah
King of the land of Black Gold
As advised, I did ask myself what can I do for my country. My country has an
enormous appetite for oil. So ...provide it with oil of course! I believe in the
free market system. Free to dig up oil in far away countries, free to create
pliable tin-pot dictators to keep local populations at bay and free to destroy
ecology.
We play no politics but pay them at election campaigns and get them to
invest in our company. That way we don’t have to embarrass ourselves by
Mr. Bigoil foolishly waving and smiling at TV cameras.
CEO of Bigoil and sons
Leading the good life

A new beauty is parked outside our garage. Awesome! Isn’t it?...
sleek chrome finish, power steering, automatic gears. Excellent
pick up and great mileage too. It is low on emissions too...gentle on
the atmosphere, you know. Global warming and all that stuff. Now
we really are in hurry to zoom off and lead the good life...God Save
Everyone!...vvrrroooommmmm
Mr & Mrs Gobbledoo
Toppleton defends freedom and democracy. That’s why he is so generous with guns
and missiles. Like the ones he gave us to fight the invading Ruffians. He even trained
us. We did not realise that it was the oil they were after. Bigoil is always trying to woo
us. But we are too busy playing war games. Now we have rules of our own.
Toppleton’s govt. kept changing its rules. Not fair we said. Some of us now hate
Toppleton, his government and his people. Of course their bullets and missiles come in
handy when we have to beat them at their game.
Make no mistake, we are Errorists.

Errorists
Loose cannonballs
Adapted from http://www.gobartimes.org/gt_covfeature2.htm

(lower riparian) state’s objection

to pollution, excessive irrigation,
or the construction of dams by an
upstream (upper riparian) state,
which might decrease or degrade
the quality of water available to
the downstream state. States
have used force to protect or
seize freshwater resources. How are these
Examples of violence include conflicts different
from the many water
those between Israel, Syria, and
conflicts within our
Jordan in the 1950s and 1960s
own country?
over attempts by each side to
divert water from the Jordan and
Yarmuk Rivers, and more recent
threats between Turkey, Syria,
and Iraq over the construction
of dams on the Euphrates River.
A number of studies show that
countries that share rivers — and
many countries do share rivers —
are involved in military conflicts
with each other.

The Indigenous Peoples
The larger part of the Earth is water than
and Their Rights
the land and yet the cartoonist decides
to show larger image of the land than The question of indigenous
water. How does the image show the
people brings the issues of
scarcity of water?
environment, resources and
politics. Regional variations politics together. The UN defines
and the increasing scarcity of indigenous populations as
freshwater in some parts of the comprising the descendants
world point to the possibility of of peoples who inhabited the
disagreements over shared water present territory of a country
resources as a leading source of at the time when persons of a
conflicts in the 21st century. Some different culture or ethnic origin
commentators on world politics arrived there from other parts of
have referred to ‘water wars’ to the world and overcame them.
describe the possibility of violent Indigenous people today live more
conflict over this life-sustaining in conformity with their particular
resource. Countries that share social, economic, and cultural
rivers can disagree over many customs and traditions than the
things. For instance, a typical institutions of the country of
disagreement is a downstream which they now form a part.

island states in the Oceania

region (including Australia and
New Zealand), were inhabited
by the Polynesian, Melanesian
and Micronesian people over the
course of thousands of years.
They appeal to governments to
come to terms with the continuing
existence of indigenous nations
as enduring communities with an
identity of their own. ‘Since times
immemorial’ is the phrase used
by indigenous people all over the
world to refer to their continued
occupancy of the lands from which
they originate. The worldviews of
indigenous societies, irrespective
of their geographical location, are
In the context of world politics,
strikingly similar with respect
what are the common interests of
to land and the variety of life
approximately 30 crore indigenous
systems supported by it. The
peoples spread throughout the
loss of land, which also means
world including India? There the loss of an economic resource
are 20 lakh indigenous people base, is the most obvious threat
of the Cordillera region of the
Philippines, 10 lakh Mapuche
people of Chile, six lakh tribal
people of the Chittagong Hill
Tracts in Bangladesh, 35 lakh
North American natives, 50,000
Kuna living east of Panama Canal
and 10 lakh Small Peoples of the
Soviet North. Like other social © Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
movements, indigenous people
speak of their struggles, their
agenda and their rights.
The indigenous voices in world
politics call for the admission
Why don’t we
of indigenous people to the
hear much about
the indigenous world community as equals.
people and their Indigenous people occupy areas Spoonful of Ecology
movements? Is the in Central and South America, Do you agree with this perspective
media biased against Africa, India (where they are where a man from an urban
them? (developed!) area becomes greedy
known as Tribals) and Southeast
for nature?
Asia. Many of the present day

to the survival of indigenous of Indigenous Peoples was formed in 1975. The

people. Can political autonomy be Council became subsequently the first of 11
enjoyed without its attachment to indigenous NGOs to receive consultative status
the means of physical survival? in the UN. Many of the movements against
globalisation, discussed in Chapter 7, have
In India, the description
focussed on the rights of the indigenous people.
‘indigenous people’ is usually
applied to the Scheduled Tribes
who constitute nearly eight per
cent of the population of the
country. With the exception of
small communities of hunters
and gatherers, most indigenous
populations in India depend
for their subsistence primarily
on the cultivation of land. For
centuries, if not millennia, they STEPS
had free access to as much land
 Each student is asked to list any ten items they
as they could cultivate. It was
consume/use every day.
only after the establishment of
the British colonial rule that (The list could include — pen/paper/eraser/
areas, which had previously been computer/water etc.)
inhabited by the Scheduled Tribe  Ask students to calculate the amount of natural
communities, were subjected to resources being used to make these items. (For
outside forces. Although they finished products like pen/pencil/computer etc.,
enjoy a constitutional protection students will calculate the amount of resources
in political representation, they and for items like water they could calculate
have not got much of the benefits the amount of electricity used for purifying and
of development in the country. In pumping along with gallons of water). Each
fact they have paid a huge cost would calculate and arrive at an approximate
for development since they are figure.
the single largest group among Ideas for the Teacher
the people displaced by various  Collect the approximate figures from each student and sum
developmental projects since up all to arrive at total resources consumed by the students
independence. of that particular class. (Teacher is to act as a facilitator and
allow students to do the calculations.)
Issues related to the rights
 Project this figure to other classes of the same school, then
of the indigenous communities to schools across the country. The country figure could
have been neglected in domestic be used to measure the amount of resources being used
and international politics for very by schools in other countries too. (The teacher is to have
long. During the 1970s, growing background information about the resources being used by
students in a few select countries. While selecting countries,
international contacts among teacher should ensure that the selected countries belong
indigenous leaders from around to the developed / developing countries category).
the world aroused a sense of  Ask students to imagine the amount of resources we are
common concern and shared consuming and also to estimate future consumption.
experiences. The World Council

1. Which among the following best explains the reason for growing
concerns about the environment?
a. The developed countries are concerned about protecting nature.
b. Protection of the environment is vital for indigenous people and
natural habitats.
c. The environmental degradation caused by human activities has
become pervasive and has reached a dangerous level.
d. None of the above.
E x e r c i s e s
2. Mark correct or wrong against each of the following statements about

the Earth Summit:
a. It was attended by 170 countries, thousands of NGOs and many
MNCs.
b. The summit was held under the aegis of the UN.
c. For the first time, global environmental issues were firmly
consolidated at the political level.
d. It was a summit meeting.
3. Which among the following are TRUE about the global commons?
a. The Earth’s atmosphere, Antarctica, ocean floor and outer space
are considered as part of the global commons.
b. The global commons are outside sovereign jurisdiction.
c. The question of managing the global commons has reflected the
North-South divide.
d. The countries of the North are more concerned about the
protection of the global commons than the countries of the South.
4. What were the outcomes of the Rio Summit?
5. What is meant by the global commons? How are they exploited and
polluted?
6. What is meant by ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’? How
could we implement the idea?
7. Why have issues related to global environmental protection become
the priority concern of states since the 1990s?
8. Compromise and accommodation are the two essential policies
required by states to save planet Earth. Substantiate the statement
in the light of the ongoing negotiations between the North and South
on environmental issues.
9. The most serious challenge before the states is pursuing economic
development without causing further damage to the global
environment. How could we achieve this? Explain with a few examples.

Overview Chapter 7
In this final chapter of the book we
Globalisation
look at globalisation, something
that has been referred to in
many chapters of this book and
textbooks of many other subjects.
We begin by analysing the concept
of globalisation and then examine
its causes. We then discuss at
length the political, economic
and cultural consequences of
globalisation. Our interest is also in
studying the impact of globalisation
on India as well as how India is
affecting globalisation. We finally
draw attention to resistance to
globalisation and how social
movements in India also form part
of this resistance.

The Concept of college life by working very hard.

She now has an opportunity
Globalisation to take on a job and begin an
independent career, which the
Janardhan works in a call centre.
women of her family had never
He leaves late in the evening for
dreamt of earlier. While some
work, becomes John when he
of her relatives are opposed,
enters his office, acquires a new
she finally decides to go ahead
accent and speaks a different
because of the new opportunities
language (than he does when he is
that have been made available to
at home) to communicate with his
her generation.
clients who are living thousands
of miles away. He works all night, All three examples illustrate
So many Nepalese
workers come to which is actually day time for his an aspect each of what we call
India to work. Is that overseas customers. Janardhan is globalisation. In the first instance
globalisation? rendering a service to somebody Janardhan was participating
who in all probability he is never in the globalisation of services.
likely to meet physically. This is Ramdhari’s birthday purchases
his daily routine. His holidays tell us something about the
also do not correspond to the movement of commodities from
Indian calendar but to those of one part of the world to another.
his clients who happen to be from Sarika is faced with a conflict of
the US. values partly originating from
a new opportunity that earlier
Ramdhari has gone shopping was not available to the women
to buy a birthday gift for his in her family but today is part of
nine-year old daughter. He has a reality that has gained wider
promised her a small cycle and acceptability.
decides to search the market for
something he finds affordable as If we look for examples of the
well as of reasonable quality. He use of the term ‘globalisation’ in
finally does buy a cycle, which is real life, we will realise that it is
actually manufactured in China used in various contexts. Let us
but is being marketed in India. look at some examples, different
It meets his requirements of from the ones that we have looked
quality as well as affordability, above:
and Ramdhari decides to go Some far mers committed
ahead with his purchase. Last suicide because their crops
Go through year, Ramdhari on his daughter’s failed. They had bought very
newspapers insistence had bought her a expensive seeds supplied
for a week Barbie doll, which was originally by a multinational company
and collect manufactured in the US but was (MNC).
clippings being sold in India.
on anything An Indian company bought
related to Sarika is a first generation a major rival company based
globalisation. learner who has done remarkably in Europe, despite protests by
well throughout her school and some of the current owners.

Globalisation 101
Many retail shopkeepers fear

This chapter has
that they would lose their a series of images
livelihoods if some major about political,
international companies open economic and
retail chains in the country. cultural aspects of
globalisation, taken
A film producer in Mumbai
from different parts
was accused of lifting the of the world.
story of his film from another
film made in Hollywood.
A militant group issued a
statement threatening college
girls who wear western
clothes.
These examples show us that
globalisation need not always
be positive; it can have negative
consequences for the people.
Indeed, there are many who
believe that globalisation has
more negative consequences than
positive. These examples also
show us that globalisation need
not be only about the economic
issues, nor is the direction of
influence always from the rich to
the poor countries.
Since much of the usage
tends to be imprecise, it becomes
important to clarify what we mean
by globalisation. Globalisation as
a concept fundamentally deals
with flows. These flows could be
of various kinds — ideas moving
from one part of the world to
another, capital shunted between
two or more places, commodities
being traded across borders, and
people moving in search of better
livelihoods to different parts of the
world. The crucial element is the
Much of the Chinese
‘worldwide interconnectedness’ stuff that comes to
that is created and sustained as India is smuggled.
a consequence of these constant Does globalisation
flows. lead to smuggling?

Globalisation is a multi- While globalisation is not

dimensional concept. It has caused by any single factor,
political, economic and cultural technology remains a critical
manifestations, and these must element. There is no doubt that
be adequately distinguished. It is the invention of the telegraph,
wrong to assume that globalisation the telephone, and the microchip
has purely economic dimensions, in more recent times has
Isn’t globalisation just as it would also be mistaken
a new name for
revolutionised communication
to assume that it is a purely between different parts of the
imperialism? Why
cultural phenomenon. The impact
do we need a new world. When printing initially
name? of globalisation is vastly uneven —
came into being it laid the basis
it affects some societies more than
for the creation of nationalism.
others and some parts of some
So also today we should expect
societies more than others — and
that technology will affect the
it is important to avoid drawing
way we think of our personal but
general conclusions about the
impact of globalisation without also our collective lives.
paying sufficient attention to The ability of ideas, capital,
specific contexts. commodities and people to move
more easily from one part of the
Causes of Globalisation
world to another has been made
possible largely by technological
What accounts for globalisation? advances. The pace of these
If globalisation is about the flows flows may vary. For instance,
of ideas, capital, commodities, and the movement of capital and
people, it is perhaps logical to ask commodities will most likely
if there is anything novel be quicker and wider than the
about this phenomenon. movement of peoples across
Globalisation in terms of different parts of the world.
these four flows has taken
Globalisation, however, does
place through much of
not emerge merely because
human history. However,
of the availability of improved
those who argue that there
communications. What is
is something distinct about
contemporary globalisation important is for people in different
point out that it is the parts of the world to recognise
scale and speed of these these interconnections with the

flows that account for the rest of the world. Currently, we
uniqueness of globalisation are aware of the fact that events
in the contemporary era. taking place in one part of the
Globalisation has a strong world could have an impact on
historical basis, and it is another part of the world. The
important to view contem- Bird flu or tsunami is not confined
porary flows against this to any particular nation. It does
Digital Economy backdrop. not respect national boundaries.

Globalisation 103
Similarly, when major economic

events take place, their impact is
felt outside their immediate local,
national or regional environment
at the global level.
Political Consequences
One of the debates that has been
generated as a consequence
of contemporary processes of
globalisation relates to its ongoing
political impact. How does
globalisation affect traditional
conceptions of state sovereignty?
There are at least three aspects
that we need to consider when
answering this question.
At the most simple level,
globalisation results in an erosion
of state capacity, that is, the
ability of government to do what
they do. All over the world, the old
‘welfare state’ is now giving way
to a more minimalist state that
performs certain core functions
such as the maintenance of law
and order and the security of its
citizens. However, it withdraws
from many of its earlier welfare
functions directed at economic
and social well-being. In place
of the welfare state, it is the
market that becomes the prime
determinant of economic and
social priorities. The entry and the
increased role of multinational
companies all over the world leads
to a reduction in the capacity of
governments to take decisions on
their own.
At the same time, globalisation
does not always reduce state
capacity. The primacy of the state

continues to be the unchallenged Economic Consequences

basis of political community.
The old jealousies and rivalries While everything may not be
between countries have not ceased known about the economic
to matter in world politics. The facets of globalisation, this
state continues to discharge its particular dimension shapes
essential functions (law and order, a large part of the content and
national security) and consciously direction of contemporary debates
withdraws from certain domains surrounding globalisation.
from which it wishes to. States
A part of the problem has
continue to be important.
to do with defining economic
Indeed, in some respects state globalisation itself. The mention of
capacity has received a boost as a economic globalisation draws our
consequence of globalisation, with attention immediately to the role
enhanced technologies available of international institutions like
at the disposal of the state to the IMF and the WTO and the role
collect information about its they play in determining economic
citizens. With this information, policies across the world. Yet,
the state is better able to rule, globalisation must not be viewed
not less able. Thus, states become in such narrow terms. Economic
more powerful than they were globalisation involves many actors
earlier as an outcome of the new other than these international
technology. institutions. A much broader way
of understanding of economic
globalisation requires us to look
at the distribution of economic
gains, i.e. who gets the most from
globalisation and who gets less,
indeed who loses from it.
What is often called economic
globalisation usually involves
© Milt Priggee, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
greater economic flows among

different countries of the world.
Some of this is voluntary and
some forced by international
institutions and powerful
countries. As we saw in the
examples at the beginning of this
chapter, this flow or exchange can
take various forms: commodities,
capital, people and ideas.
Globalisation has involved greater
trade in commodities across the
globe; the restrictions imposed by

Globalisation 105
different countries on allowing

the imports of other countries
have been reduced. Similarly,
the restrictions on movement
of capital across countries have
also been reduced. In operational
terms, it means that investors in
the rich countries can invest their
money in countries other than
their own, including developing
countries, where they might get
better returns. Globalisation has
also led to the flow of ideas across
national boundaries. The spread
of internet and computer related
services is an example of that.
But globalisation has not led to
the same degree of increase in the
movement of people across the
globe. Developed countries have
carefully guarded their borders
with visa policies to ensure that
citizens of other countries cannot
take away the jobs of their own
citizens.
In thinking about the
consequences of globalisation, it
is necessary to keep in mind that
the same set of policies do not lead
to the same results everywhere.
While globalisation has led to
similar economic policies adopted
by governments in different parts
of the world, this has generated
vastly dif ferent outcomes in
different parts of the world. It is
again crucial to pay attention to
specific context rather than make
simple generalisations in this When we talk about
connection. ‘safety net’ it means
that we expect
Economic globalisation has
some people to fall
created an intense division of down because of
opinion all over the world. Those globalisation. Isn’t
who are concerned about social that right?

justice are worried about the What, however, cannot be denied

extent of state withdrawal is the increased momentum
caused by processes of economic towards inter-dependence and
globalisation. They point out that integration between governments,
it is likely to benefit only a small businesses, and ordinary people
section of the population while in different parts of the world as
impoverishing those who were a result of globalisation.
dependent on the government
for jobs and welfare (education,
health, sanitation, etc.). They Cultural Consequences
have emphasised the need to
The consequences of globalisation
ensure institutional safeguards
are not confined only to the
or creating ‘social safety nets’
sphere of politics and economy.
to minimise the negative effects
Globalisation affects us in our
of globalisation on those who
home, in what we eat, drink, wear
are economically weak. Many
and indeed in what we think. It
movements all over the world feel
shapes what we think are our
that safety nets are insufficient
Make a list of preferences. The cultural effect
or unworkable. They have called
products of of globalisation leads to the fear
for a halt to forced economic
multinational that this process poses a threat to
globalisation, for its results would
companies cultures in the world. It does so,
lead to economic ruin for the
(MNCs) that because globalisation leads to the
weaker countries, especially for
are used by rise of a uniform culture or what
the poor within these countries.
you or your is called cultural homogenisation.
Some economists have described
family. The rise of a uniform culture is
economic globalisation as re-
not the emergence of a global
colonisation of the world.
culture. What we have in the
Advocates of economic
globalisation argue that it
generates gr eater economic
growth and well-being for larger
sections of the population when
there is de-regulation. Greater
trade among countries allows
each economy to do what it does
best. This would benefit the

whole world. They also argue
that economic globalisation is
inevitable and it is not wise
to resist the march of history.
More moderate supporters of
globalisation say that globalisation
provides a challenge that can
be responded to intelligently
without accepting it uncritically. Invading new markets

Globalisation 107
name of a global culture is the

imposition of Western culture
on the rest of the world. This
phenomenon is known as the
soft power of US hegemony. The
popularity of a burger or blue
jeans, some argue, has a lot to
do with the powerful influence of
the American way of life. Thus, Why are we scared
the culture of the politically of Western culture?
and economically dominant Are we not confident
society leaves its imprint on a of our own culture?
less powerful society, and the
world begins to look more like
the dominant power wishes it
to be. Those who make this
argument often draw attention
to the ‘McDonaldisation’ of the
world, with cultures seeking to
buy into the dominant American
dream. This is dangerous not only
for the poor countries but for the
whole of humanity, for it leads to
the shrinking of the rich cultural
heritage of the entire globe.
At the same time, it would be
a mistake to assume that cultural
consequences of globalisation are
only negative. Cultures are not
static things. All cultures accept
outside influences all the time.
Some external influences are
negative because they reduce our Make a list of
choices. But sometimes external all the known
influences simply enlarge our ‘dialects’ of
choices, and sometimes they your language.
modify our culture without Consult
overwhelming the traditional. people of your
The burger is no substitute for grandparents’
a masala dosa and, therefore, generation
does not pose any real challenge. about this. How
It is simply added on to our many people
food choices. Blue jeans, on the speak those
other hand, can go well with a dialects today?
homespun khadi kurta. Here

the outcome of outside influence India and Globalisation

is a new combination that is
unique — a khadi kurta worn over We said earlier that globalisation
jeans. Interestingly, this clothing has occurred in earlier periods in
combination has been exported history in different parts of the
back to the country that gave us world. Flows pertaining to the
blue jeans so that it is possible movement of capital, commodities,
to see young Americans wearing ideas and people go back several
a kurta and jeans! centuries in Indian history.
While cultural homogenisation During the colonial period,

is an aspect of globalisation, the as a consequence of Britain’s
same process also generates imperial ambitions, India
precisely the opposite effect. It became an exporter of primary
leads to each culture becoming goods and raw materials and a
more different and distinctive. This consumer of finished goods. After
phenomenon is called cultural independence, because of this
heterogenisation. This is not to experience with the British, we
deny that there remain differences decided to make things ourselves
in power when cultures interact rather than relying on others.
but instead more fundamentally We also decided not to allow
to suggest that cultural exchange others to export to us so that our
is rarely one way. own producers could learn to
make things. This ‘protectionism’
generated its own problems.
‘Gosh, an Indian again!’ While some advances were made
in certain arenas, critical sectors
such as health, housing and
An insider’s view of a call centre job primary education did not receive
the attention they deserved.
Working in a call centre, in fact, can be enlightening in its
India had a fairly sluggish rate of
own way. As you handle calls from Americans, you get an
insight into the true American culture. An average American economic growth.
comes out as more lively and honest than we imagine… In 1991, responding to a
financial crisis and to the desire
However, not all calls and conversations are pleasant. You
can also receive irate and abusive callers. Sometimes the for higher rates of economic
hatred that they exhibit in their tone on knowing that their growth, India embarked on a
call has been routed to India is very stressful. Americans tend programme of economic reforms
to perceive every Indian as one who has denied them their that has sought increasingly to
rightful job... de-regulate various sectors including
trade and foreign investment.
One can receive a call, beginning on the lines of “I spoke to
a South African a few minutes ago and now I’m speaking
While it may be too early to say
to an Indian!” or “Oh gosh, an Indian again! Connect me to how good this has been for India,
an American please...”. It’s difficult to find the right response the ultimate test is not high
in situations of this kind. growth rates as making sure that
the benefits of growth are shared
Source: Report by Ranjeetha Urs in The Hindu, 10 January 2005.
so that everyone is better off.

Globalisation 109
Resistance to
Globalisation
We have already noted that
globalisation is a very contentious
subject and has invited strong
criticism all over the globe. Critics
of globalisation make a variety of
arguments. Those on the left argue
that contemporary globalisation It is true sometimes
represents a particular phase of I like the new songs.
global capitalism that makes the Didn’t we all like to
dance a bit? Does
rich richer (and fewer) and the
it really matter if
poor poorer. Weakening of the it is influenced by
state leads to a reduction in the western music?
capacity of the state to protect
the interest of its poor. Critics of
globalisation from the political
right express anxiety over the
political, economic and cultural
effects. In political terms, they
also fear the weakening of the
state. Economically, they want
a return to self-reliance and
protectionism, at least in certain
areas of the economy. Culturally,
they are worried that traditional
culture will be harmed and people
will lose their age-old values and
ways.
It is important to note here that
anti-globalisation movements too
participate in global networks,
allying with those who feel like
them in other countries. Many
anti-globalisation movements
are not opposed to the idea of
globalisation per se as much as
they are opposed to a specific
programme of globalisation,
which they see as a form of
imperialism.
In 1999, at the World Trade
Organisation (WTO) Ministerial
Meeting there were widespread

The activity enables students to understand how

globalisation has penetrated our lives and the
impact the all-inclusive nature of globalisation has
on an individual, a community and a nation as a
whole.
STEPS
 Students are to list the names of products — food
products, white goods, and luxuries, they are familiar
with.
 Students are to write down their favourite TV
programmes.
 The teacher is to collect the list and consolidate.
 Divide the classroom (into convenient groups) and
assign each group a number of items (depends on
how exhaustive the list is) and TV programmes.
 Let students find out who are the manufacturers of
the products they use everyday and the makers/
sponsors of their favourite TV programmes.
 The teacher is to (by involving students) classify
the names of manufacturers and makers/sponsors
collected by students into three categories: exclusive
foreign companies; exclusive Indian companies;
and companies working in collaboration.
 The teacher is to debrief the students focussing on:
How globalisation has been impacting our lives.
 Drawing the attention of the students to different faces of
globalisation. As we use more foreign goods, our own small-
scale industries have been losing their customers and are closing
down.
 The activity could be concluded by introducing students to
the ongoing debates about the impact of globalisation on the
developing and developed countries.

Globalisation 111
pr otests at Seattle alleging around them and finding ways

unfair trading practices by the to deal with matters that trouble
economically powerful states. It them. Resistance to globalisation
was argued that the interests of in India has come from different
the developing world were not quarters. There have been left wing
given sufficient importance in the protests to economic liberalisation
evolving global economic system. voiced through political parties
as well as through forums like
The World Social Forum (WSF) the Indian Social Forum. Trade
is another global platform, which unions of industrial workforce
brings together a wide coalition as well as those representing
composed of human rights farmer interests have organised
activists, environmentalists, protests against the entry of
l a b o u r, y o u t h a n d w o m e n multinationals. The patenting
activists opposed to neo-liberal of certain plants like Neem by
globalisation. The first WSF American and European firms
meeting was organised in Porto has also generated considerable
Alegre, Brazil in 2001. The fourth opposition.
WSF meeting was held in Mumbai Resistance to globalisation
in 2004. The latest WSF meeting has also come from the political
was held in Brazil in March 2018. right. This has taken the form
of objecting particularly to
various cultural influences —
India and Resistance to ranging from the availability
Globalisation o f f o r e i g n T. V. c h a n n e l s
provided by cable networks,
What has been India’s experience celebration of Valentine’s Day,
in resisting globalisation? Social and westernisation of the dress
movements play a role in helping tastes of girl students in schools
Exercises
people make sense of the world and colleges.
1. Which of the statements are TRUE about globalisation?

a. Globalisation is purely an economic phenomenon.
b. Globalisation began in 1991.
c. Globalisation is the same thing as westernisation.
d. Globalisation is a multi-dimensional phenomenon.
2. Which of the statements are TRUE about the impact of globalisation?
a. Globalisation has been uneven in its impact on states and
societies.
b. Globalisation has had a uniform impact on all states and
societies.

c. The impact of globalisation has been confined to the political

sphere.
d. Globalisation inevitably results in cultural homogeneity.
3. Which of the statements are TRUE about the causes of globalisation?
a. Technology is an important cause of globalisation.
b. Globalisation is caused by a particular community of people.
c. Globalisation originated in the US.
d. Economic interdependence alone causes globalisation.
4. Which of the statements are TRUE about globalisation?
a. Globalisation is only about movement of commodities
Exercises
b. Globalisation does not involve a conflict of values.

c. Services are an insignificant part of globalisation.
d. Globalisation is about worldwide interconnectedness.
5. Which of the statements are FALSE about globalisation?
a. Advocates of globalisation argue that it will result in greater
economic growth.
b. Critics of globalisation argue that it will result in greater economic
disparity.
c. Advocates of globalisation argue that it will result in cultural
homogenisation.
d. Critics of globalisation argue that it will result in cultural
homogenisation.
6. What is worldwide interconnectedness? What are its components?
7. How has technology contributed to globalisation?
8. Critically evaluate the impact of the changing role of the state in
the developing countries in the light of globalisation.
9. What are the economic implications of globalisation? How has
globalisation impacted on India with regard to this particular
dimension?
10. Do you agree with the argument that globalisation leads to cultural
heterogeneity?
11. How has globalisation impacted on India and how is India in turn
impacting on globalisation?

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Chapter 1

The End of Bipolarity

Chapter 1.indd 1 14 September 2022 11:01:41

What was the Soviet machinery production, and a

Chapter 1.indd 2 14 September 2022 11:01:41

In the arms race, the Soviet Gorbachev, did not intervene

Chapter 1.indd 3 14 September 2022 11:01:41

A Communist Party bureaucrat drives down from Moscow to a collective

The declaration on the there may be more general

Chapter 1.indd 4 14 September 2022 11:01:41

system was better than Western impossible to control. There were

Chapter 1.indd 5 14 September 2022 11:01:41

Chapter 1.indd 6 14 September 2022 11:01:43

Chapter 1.indd 7 14 September 2022 11:01:43

Shock Therapy in Each of these countries was

Map of Central, Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States

Chapter 1.indd 8 14 September 2022 11:01:44

Shock therapy also involved were put up for sale to private

Chapter 1.indd 9 14 September 2022 11:01:44

between rich and poor regions. Tensions and Conflicts

Chapter 1.indd 10 14 September 2022 11:01:44

close to West Asia. After 11 embedded in a history of trust

Chapter 1.indd 11 14 September 2022 11:01:44

order is the co-existence of several powers in the

Political: The Soviet Union supported

Chapter 1.indd 12 14 September 2022 11:01:45

access to Central Asia, and imports from Russia and the

1. Which among the following statements that describe the nature

Chapter 1.indd 13 14 September 2022 11:01:45

5. Fill in the blanks.

Chapter 1.indd 14 14 September 2022 11:01:45

Chapter 2.indd 15 14 September 2022 11:02:16

European Union (OEEC) was established in 1948 to

Chapter 2.indd 16 14 September 2022 11:02:17

European Union Map

members, especially from the GDP of more than $17 trillion in

Chapter 2.indd 17 14 September 2022 11:02:17

of the EU, France, holds permanent

Chapter 2.indd 18 14 September 2022 11:02:19

© Ares, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

of Europe about the EU’s region of Asia? Before and during

Association of South of Southeast Asia could ill afford.

(ASEAN) Conference and the Non-Aligned happen if they have

Chapter 2.indd 19 14 September 2022 11:02:19

Map of East Asia and Pacific Cambodia joined ASEAN

Chapter 2.indd 20 14 September 2022 11:02:20

The ASEAN security organisation. Its Vision 2020 has

Chapter 2.indd 21 14 September 2022 11:02:20

Thailand. The ASEAN-India regional affairs. The strength of

Chapter 2.indd 22 14 September 2022 11:02:20

generate a surplus for industry. In

© Deng Coy Miel, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Chapter 2.indd 23 14 September 2022 11:02:21

WTO in 2001 has been a further

step in its opening to the outside

economic power to reckon with.

Chapter 2.indd 24 14 September 2022 11:02:21

policies in Latin America and military conflict over a border

Chapter 2.indd 25 14 September 2022 11:02:21

countries have agreed to cooperate

Chapter 2.indd 26 14 September 2022 11:02:22

Chapter 2.indd 27 14 September 2022 11:02:22

1. Arrange the following in chronological order.

Chapter 2.indd 28 14 September 2022 11:02:22