Predicate

Birds can fly.

P(x): X can fly.
Men are giants.
M(x): x is giant.

Quantifier
Universal quantifiers ∀: for all, for each, for every
All birds can fly : ∀ x, P(x) where x is bird.
P(x): X can fly
All men are giants: ∀ x, M(x) where x stand for
man
M(x): x is giant
Existential quantifiers ∃: for some
Some numbers are rational: ∃x, R(x)
R(x): x is rational
Operators:
∼ , ∧, ∨ ,⊕ , → ,↔

If x is a man then x is a giant.: ∀x, M(x) →G(x)

M(x): x is a man
G(x): x is a giant
There is a student who likes mathematics but not
history. : ∃x, M(x) ∧ ∼H(x)

M(x): x likes mathematics.

H(x): x likes history

Every number either is negative or has a square

root.
N(x): x is negative
S(x): x has a square root.
∀ x, N(x) ∨ S(x)
Negation:
∀ x, F(x) negation is ∃ x, ∼ F(x)
∃ x, F(x) negation is ∀ x, ∼ F(x)
Ex:
No men are giants : ∼ ∀x, G(x) or ∃x, ∼ G(x)
G(x): x is giant
Some men are not giants:
∼∃ x, G(x) or ∀x, ∼ G(x)

Ex :Write the following sentence in symbolic

form using predicate, variable, quantifier and
also find the negation.
For each integer x, if x2 is even then x is even.
Ans:
S(x): x2 is even
E(x): x is even
∀ x , S(x) → E(x)
∃ x, ∼ ( S(x) → E(x)) ≅ ∃ x,∼ (∼S(x) ∨ E(x))
≅ ∃ x,( S(x) ∧ ∼E(x))
For some x, x2 is even and x is not even.
Ex: write it in symbolic form
X is a prime and x is greater than 2.
Ans:
P(x): x is a prime
G(x): x is greater than 2
P(x) ∧ G(x)

Ex: C(x): x is a comedian

F(x): x is funny
∀ x , C(x) → F(x) write in English.
Ans: for every x , if x is a comedian then x is
funny.
Ex:
∀ n, (n+1 > n) where n is an integer
∀ x, ∀y (x2>y)
For every real number x there is a real number y
such that x + y = 10 : ∀x, ∃y, Q (x, y)
Q(x, y) : x+y =10

Inference Rules:
 1.Modus Ponens: (P ∧ (P→Q)) →Q
P
P→Q
Q
Ex:
P: It is snowing today.
P→Q :If it snows today, then we will go to skiing.
Q : we will go to skiing
If Socrates is human, then Socrates is mortal.
Socrates is human.
………………………………………
∴ Socrates is mortal
2.Modus tollens ((P→Q) ∧ Q)) → P
P→Q
Q
……………………….
P
Ex:
If George does not have eight legs, then he is not
an insect.
George is an insect.
………………………………………
George has eight legs.
3.Hypothetical syllogism
P →Q
Q →R
……………………..
P →R

Ex: If it rains today, then we will not have a

barbecue today.
If we do not have a barbecue today, then we
will have a barbecue tomorrow.
…………………………………
If it rains today, then we will have a
barbecue tomorrow.
 4.Disjunctive syllogism
P∨Q
P
……………………..
Q

5.Addition
P
………………
P∨Q
6.Simplification
P∧Q
……………….
P
7.Conjuction
P
Q
…………………..
P∧Q
 8.Resolution
P∨Q
PR
∼ ∨

…………………
Q ∨R
Contrapositive, converse, inverse
 Ex
It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than
yesterday. ∼ p ∧q
We will go swimming only if it is sunny. r → p
If we do not go swimming then we take a canoe
trip. r → s
If we take a canoe trip then we will be home by
sunset. s →t
P: it is sunny this afternoon.
Q: it is colder than yesterday.
R: We will go swimming.
S: We take canoe trip.
T: We will be home by sunset.
Step1. ∼ p ∧q
Step 2. ∼ p {by simplification}
Step 3. r → p
Step 4. ∼ r {Modus tollens}
Step 5. r →s

Step 6. S {Modus ponens}

Step 7. s →t
Step 8. t {Modus ponens}
Conclusion : we will be home by sunset.
Ex: If today is Tuesday, I have a test in
mathematics or Economics. P →(Q∨R)
If my Economic professor is sick, I will not have a
test in Economics.S→ ∼R
Today is Tuesday and my Economic professor is
sick. P∧S
P: today is Tuesday
Q: I have a test in mathematics.
R: I have a test in Economics.
S: my economic professor is sick.
1.P∧S
2.P (simplification rule)
3.P →(Q∨R)
4.(Q∨R) ( Modus Ponens)
5.P∧S
6.S (simplification rule)
7.S→ ∼R
8. ∼R ( Modus Ponens)
 9.Q (Disjunctive syllogism & step 4)

Conclusion: I have a test in mathematics.

Ex:
∼t →∼r
∼s
t→w
r∨s

…………………………………………………………………………
w