English in Use – OA3 Torbjörn Stålberg

The Building Blocks of Language

1. Vocabulary

A. Examples of different word formation processes.

Affixation is when new words are formed from old. The affixation process consists in adding one or
more affixes to the original form of the word, the root. The root is the base of the word and carries
the original meaning. (Thornbury, 2002, p. 4-5).

Affixes represent add-ons that modify the words or form new words. Affixes can be added either in
front or in the end of words (prefixes and suffixes). Modifying the word’s root provide a
grammatical purpose forming inflexions. Examples of this are: expressing plural of nouns (root +
suffix = inflexion) “shark” + “s” = “sharks”. Affixes serve to express different grammatical features
e.g. “walk” + “s” (“She walks”, or “She takes walks every day.” Both verbal and noun modifier) or
“walk+-ed” (Different tenses).

A newly formed word, with a different meaning from the root, is called a derivative, e.g. sing (root);
sing-er; sing-able. (2002, p. 4).

Another process of word formation is compounding. This process consists in the combination of
two or more independent words. e.g. armchair or gingerbread. Thornbury discusses two common
patterns in compounding in English: noun + noun e.g. typewriter, and noun + verb + er e.g.
goalkeeper. (2002, p. 5).
To blend represents another word formation process. This consists in merging two words to form
on, e.g. spoon + fork = spork.
New words are also created through clipping, cutting words partially e.g. uni (from university).
Words can also “move” from one speech to another e.g. a noun transformed into a verb e.g. Let’s
brunch tomorrow or verbs turning into nouns e.g. It is a must to see that movie (2002, p. 5).
Compared to how grammar and vocabulary were taught separate in the past, today this separation
moved into an “interdependence of these two systems”, (2002, p. 4) where the two disciplines
combined forms the so called lexical approach.
The lexical approach facilitates e.g. the learning of more words with different meaning but deriving
from the same root. This enables the learning of words in clusters rather than focusing on one
singular word at the time.

B. What are idioms, and why (and how) can knowledge about idioms be relevant to
vocabulary teaching and learning? See “Teaching vocabulary”.
How difficult it is to teach idioms as the belong to context, time & space.
 English in Use – OA3 Torbjörn Stålberg

“It is raining cats and dogs.”

Idioms are words, or phrases, where the meaning is not deducible from the primary meaning as we
know them. Idioms usually conceal an abstruse meaning which lays in the idiom itself and its
context. One may understand each word singularly e.g. put and up, but not combined in the
sentence I put up with her for a week. Individual words can be used symbolically e.g Your room is a
pigsty. Some are fixed such as the coast is clear and others less fixed e.g run a business.
Idioms often have a narrow register (2002, p. 127) and used in certain context to produce certain
effects therefore do not allow variation. This makes the teaching of idioms a difficult task.
Traditionally these are taught by grouping them into categories e.g related to parts of the body foot
the bill, down at heel, head over heels. Another strategy could be to only focus on those idioms that
occur in the text the students are working with at the present.

C. Determine the word class of the underlined words in the text on pages 4-5 (“The
decanter of Tokay”), lines 1, 15, 20, 29, 46, 49 and 59. Explain, with linguistic
terminology, how you arrive at your classification using your knowledge of the building
blocks of language.

Darkening – present participle/gerund of “to darken”. However, it seems that by being put
right before the head it might be and adjective describing this, the hall.
Fussing – non-finite lexical verb expressing an action. With the present participle/gerund
form it conveys a noun feeling, stop the fussing. However, one may also consider the whole
a VP where fussing is performing the function of an object “Stop IT”.
Darted – lexical verb. The word “darted” indicates an action. Its form, simple past tense of
“to dart”, also suggests that it is a verb.
Oval – adjective. Belongs to the NP an oval table describing the head, table, of the phrase.
Talk – verb. “talk” is connected to the subject of the phrase they and conveys an action. Its
form, simple present tense, also demonstrates that this is a verb.
Her – determiner. It precedes and “determines” the noun breath expressing possession.
Aerodock – common noun. The determiner the refers to and precedes a noun, hence
“aerodock” is a noun.
Laboriously – adverb. Adverbs describe the action, a verb, in this case ending with one of
the possible adverb suffixes -ly. Here it describes the “to pull on”, phrasal verb.
 English in Use – OA3 Torbjörn Stålberg

2. Sentence pairs

B.
S V dO Adv
1. Lyra saw the decanter on the table.

V S V dO Adv
2. Did you see the decanter on the table?

Firstly, between these two sentences there is a lexical difference. The first sentence has a proper
noun “Lyra” functioning as subject. In the second we find a 2 nd person singular pronoun as the
subject of the sentence. There is also the simple past form of the grammatical auxiliary verb to do –
did.
Secondly, the clause pattern is also different. The first sentence is a statement formed by
S+V+dO+Adv, while the second sentence is a question and the clause pattern is V+S+V+dO+Adv.
The verbal in the sentence 1 is expressed by a verb phrase consisting of one word “saw” which is
the simple past tense form of the verb “to see”. The verbal in sentence 2 consists the verb phrase
did + see, where did is the grammatical aux. verb to do in finite form (simple past) and see is the
main verb in non-finite form (infinitive).
Thirdly, the difference in the meaning of these two sentences is that the first sentence is a
statement, expressing that the subject of the sentence performed the action at a certain point of time
in the past. The second sentence is a question ”did you see it or not?”. A second meaning
difference between the sentences is that in the first the narrator states that the 3 rd person singular,
not present, did something in the past. In the second sentence a person inquires directly whether
the 2nd person singular has seen this decanter on the table.

D.

S V Adv Adv
1. Lyra hid behind the chair when she heard them come in.

S V Adv Adv
2. Lyra was hiding behind the chair when she heard them come in.

These two sentences have both the same identical pattern, S+V+Adv (location)+Adv(time).
However, the form of the sentences is different. Focusing on the verbal, in the first sentence it is
 English in Use – OA3 Torbjörn Stålberg

represented by a verb phrase with one verb hid, simple past tense of to hide, in the second sentence,
the verbal is represented with an auxiliary verb + a lexical verb, was hiding.
This consists of the simple past tense of the grammatical auxiliary was and the main verb, with the
same lexical verb to hide from the first sentence, but now in the progressive form hiding, making
the verb phrase into past progressive tense.
The meaning differences of these two sentences stand in the form of the verbal. The time and
location adverbials are in the exact same position in both sentences.
The actions, the hiding and the coming, in the first sentence both took place in the past at a
specific time but the hiding occurred before the coming.
In the second sentence the hiding had occurred before the coming, Lydia was already there, in her
hiding place, when she heard them coming.

E.

S V Adv Adv
1. The sound rang clearly through the hall.

Adv S V Adv
2. Clearly, the sound rang through the hall.

There are both lexically and syntactically differences in these two sentences. The syntactical pattern in
sentence 1: S+V+Adv (manner) +Adv (location) and in the second sentence: Adv (manner)
+S+V+Adv (location).
The keyword is clearly an adverb which in this phrase gives further information about the action, the
verbal. In the first sentence clearly is positioned after the verbal. Hence the meaning here of clearly is
to comment on how, in which manner the sound rang through the hall. In the second sentence the same
clearly starts the sentence and is followed by a comma. Here, the adverb is rather a comment directly
from the speaker, namely a stance adverbial. There the adverb does not describe the sound that rang
through the hall but rather that it unquestionably did ring through the hall.
 English in Use – OA3 Torbjörn Stålberg

3. Give a full syntactic analysis (tree diagram or table) of one of the following sentences.

D: Composed sentence; I main clause + coordinating conjugation+ II main clause

The Master took from his pocket a folded paper

--------S----- --V-- ---------A-------- -------dO-----

NP VP ---PP------------------- --------NP-------------
det.+HEAD HEAD prep. compl. det. premod. HEAD
NP AdjP
poss. det.+HEAD HEAD
det. proper noun lexical verb prep. det. noun det. adjective noun

and
conjugation (coordinating)

laid it on the table beside the wine.

V dO --------Adv-------- -----------Adv-----------------
VP NP --------PP-------- ------------PP-----------------
main v. HEAD prep. + compl. prep. + compl.
NP NP
det. HEAD det. HEAD
lexical v. pronoun prep. det. comm.. noun prep. det. comm. noun

4. The building blocks of language:

a) Identify three sentences with the existential there in the text on pages 4-5 (“The decanter of
Tokay”). Use the sentences you identified to explain how and why structures with the
existential there may be problematic for Norwegian learners of English. It may help you to
translate the sentences into Norwegian! Can you find examples of there which are not
existential in the text extract? What is the function of there in each case?

The word there has a double use, both as a locative adverb as well as an anticipatory subject in a
sentence. When used as locative adverb, there indicates a location. As the anticipatory subject, there
introduces the actual subject of the sentence. When functioning as the subject in the sentence, there is
the existential “there” (Dypedahl & Hasselgård, 2018, p. 107).

These are examples of existential there in the text:

Line 4: … , the silver and the glass catching what little light there was, …
Line 19: "There's no one there," he whispered.
Line 30-31: On a sideboard nearby there was a little chafing dish and a basket of poppy heads.

What might be a challenge for Norwegian speakers is the distinction and use of the existential and
locative there. These are usually related to indicate the difference between it and there. Both it and
there happen to be det in Norwegian (p. 103).

The Norwegian speaker may find it difficult translating e.g. Det er varmt her. and Det er en flue i
suppen min. In English the first should be with it and the second with there.
On the contrary, in the sentence There is no one there, there occurs twice. Translating this sentence
into Norwegian, we will have Det er ingen der. This is actually the opposite of the previous example.
 English in Use – OA3 Torbjörn Stålberg

Here we find det (anticipatory subject) and der (locative). In English these need to be translated using
there for both det and der. It is a clear distinction between meaning of the anticipatory subject det and
the locative adverb der (serving as adverbial). For this reason it is advisable to point out and teach our
pupils of the appropriate uses of there.

However, teaching Norwegian pupils whose first language is not Norwegian but Sámi these pupils
relate to their first language, mother tongue rather than to Norwegian.
Sámi is a language based on cases. Suffixes indicate these. One Sámi word may be compared to a little
parcel containing more than one information. The locative case and the pronouns are incorporated in
the words and do not always need to be expressed separately together with another functional word e.g.
a preposition or a determiner. There is a fly in my soup - Mu mális lea čurot. The s in mális signals the
locative form – in the soup.
The verbs are conjugated and there is no need to express the pronouns. It is warm here – Dáppe lea
báhkas. Lea is translated it is. For the Sámi speaking pupils to comprehend and to learn the differences
between the English anticipated subject, existential there, and the locative there might be easier as they
are not effected by the Norwegian locative and existential there. They learn something completely
new.

b) Determine the phrase type of the eight underlined phrases in the text extract below. Give a
complete analysis of each phrase, including function and word class for each phrase
constituent.

pleasantly excited - AP funtions as the sP; premodifier (adverb) + HEAD (adjective)

greatly - AdvP functions as an adverbial. Greatly is the HEAD, an adverb.

never - AdvP functions as a circumstantial adverbial answering the question when?. Never is
the HEAD and it is an adverb.

fierce - AdvP acts as the sP and fierce is the HEAD, adjective.

folded - AdvP as a part of the NP acts as the dO with folded as HEAD, adjective.

beside the wine – PP has preposition + complement. In the this sentence it functions as adverbial
answering the question where?. The complement is a NP, determiner + plus head
(common noun).

a thin stream of white powder – NP acting as the dO. a, determiner, + thin (adjective), premodifier,
+stream (HEAD, common noun) + of white powder, postmodifier (preposition+
complement), white powder, NP, (premodifier (adjective) +HEAD (common noun)

had dissolved - VP acting as the verbal. had is a grammatical auxiliary verb, finite– past simple tense
of to have. dissolved is the main/lexical, verb – non-finite, past participle.

c) Identify at least three cohesive ties (see IEG ch. 16) in the text on pages 4-5 (“The decanter of
Tokay”), and explain your choice using linguistic terminology. How do the cohesive ties you
have identified contribute to making this text a coherent text, rather than a list of unconnected
sentences?
 English in Use – OA3 Torbjörn Stålberg

 Ellipsis – omission of a word

Lyra reached the dais and looked back at the open kitchen door, and, seeing no one, stepped up
beside the high table.

In this sentence, probably a pronoun ”she”, the subject, has been omitted stepped up beside the high
table.
From the context, the reader is already informed that Lyra/she is performing the action in this sentence.

 Linking adverbial – to mark the connection between, in this case, sentences.

Then he took a pencil from his pocket, stirred the wine until the powder had dissolved, and replaced
the stopper

These adverbs tell the reader that the occurring actions happen in a specific order and also indicates the
exact duration of a specific action.
Then, adverb of time, indicates when in the row of events the subject, he, took a pencil from his
pocket.
Until, adverb of time as well, describes up to what point, how far in time, the stirring was performed;
until the powder had dissolved.

 Personal pronouns, possessive pronouns and determiners also signal cohesion, grammatical
signals of cohesion. The context signals to the reader who or what is pointed to.

… Lyra darted along and through the door into the Retiring Room, where she stood up and looked
around. The only light in here came from the fireplace, where a bright blaze of logs settled slightly as
she looked, sending a fountain of sparks up into the chimney. She had lived most of her life in the
College,…

Although the proper noun, Lyra, and the pronoun she appear in clauses rather distant from each other,
the reader understands who she is pointing to. Omitting Lyra using a pronoun instead creates a
grammatical signal of cohesion.

d) In his chapter “Working with grammar” (2018), Dypedahl – following Nunan (1998) – argues for
an “organic approach” to grammar teaching. Explain (briefly) what you think is meant by this, and
give your opinion on the arguments presented by Dypedahl for such an approach.

When Dypedahl discusses the organic approach to grammar teaching he refers to Nunan’s metaphor
that grammar teaching is an constantly ongoing work similar to gardening. The organic approach refers
to a holistic way of grammar teaching stretching beyond the isolated grammar lesson, that grammar
teaching should be present while working with any topic.
However, Dypedahl states that discussing grammatical mistakes in a context of speech could have an
intimidating effect on pupils and inhibit them from speaking freely. (Dypedahl, 2018, p. 211).

I believe that isolated grammar teaching has its positive sides if combined with a holistic approach. In
a situation of e.g. reading a text in class certainly the previously learned grammar topic will come
handy when the pupils find it in a real text, not only as a grammatical rule with the traditional fill-in
worksheets. Using the organic approach pupils learn how the grammar works “in reality” in a text or a
speech. The organic approach will enable the pupils to understand and apply the appropriate usage of
the grammar in context in combination with other skills, topics and knowledge already acquired.
 English in Use – OA3 Torbjörn Stålberg

Reference list

Dypedahl, M. (2018). Working with Grammar. In H. Bøhn, M. Dypedahl, & G.-A. Myklevold (Eds.),
Teaching and Learning English (pp. 199-215). Oslo: Cappelen Damm Akademisk.

Dypedahl, M. & Hasselgård, H. (2018). Introducing English Grammar. Bergen: Fagbokforlaget.

Thornbury, S. (2002). How to Teach Vocabulary. Harlow: Pearson.

The Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training. (2013). English subject curriculum (ENG1-
03). Retrieved from http://data.udir.no/kl06/ENG1-03.pdf?lang=eng