Learning A long lasting change in ___________ resulting from _______________

Classical Conditioning
classical conditioning Learning by ________________ 2 stimuli together to condition (______)
a response

• Ivan Pavlov
o Russian _________________
o Found that dogs learn to _____________ to simply

the ____________ that they regularly hear before

being fed
 • Acquisition

o learning has occurred once the animals respond to the CS _________

the US

o ___________ pairings of CS and US yield a stronger CR

o most effective conditioning:

▪ present _________ first

▪ introduce _______ while ______ is still evident

• Ineffective learning methods

trace conditioning

simultaneous
conditioning

backward conditioning

• Extinction
o The _____ no longer elicits the _______

o Achieved by presenting the CS ___________ the US repeatedly

• Spontaneous Recovery

o After ____________, the CR briefly _____________ upon presentation of

the ___ sometimes

• Generalization
o The tendency to ______________ to stimuli that is similar in some way
to the _______

▪ subjects can be trained to _________________

• John Watson and Rosalie Rayner

To investigate whether a __________________ could be learned through

____________________
Aim

11 months old child

Method
Before the experiment, little albert showed ________________ to white rat

Struck ______________ with a hammer, causing a loud noise = scared him

Results
• Higher-Order Conditioning
o ______________ order conditioning

o The ______ acts as a ________ in order to condition a response to a

new stimulus

• Biology
o We are biologically ____________ to make certain connections more

easily than others

▪ learned _______________________

• pairing ________________ with a new food

• helpful for the _____________ of the species

o ____________ stimuli create a more powerful CR

o Garcia + Koelling
▪ Illustrated that rats make some ___________ more easily
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning Learning based on the association of _____________ with one’s
behavior

• Edward Thorndike

o Experiment

▪ locked a cat in a ____________ cage

▪ cat had to get out to get ________

▪ time required _______________ over

trials

▪ concluded that the cat learned

new behavior without _____________________

o Law of effect

▪ if the consequences of a behavior are ________________:

• the stimulus-response (S-R) connection will be

_______________

• the likelihood of the behavior will _______________

o Instrumental learning

▪ the consequence was instrumental in ______________ future

behaviors
 • B.F. Skinner

o Coined the term operant conditioning

o Skinner box

▪ has a way to deliver _______ to an animal and a

______ to press or disk to peck in order to get the food

Reinforcement

Punishment

Positive (+)

Negative (-)
 Positive (+)

Reinforcement

Positive (+)

Punishment

Negative (-)

Reinforcement

Negative (-)

Punishment
 • Punishment vs. Reinforcement
o Punishment is most effective if:

▪ delivered ______________________ after unwanted behavior

▪ Harsh punishment may result in _________________________

• rewarding ___________________ of the desired behavior

Shaping • increases the likelihood and speed of the subject __________
upon the desired behavior for the first time

teaching subjects to perform a number of responses successively in order to

Chaining get a reward

Acquisition

Extinction

Spontaneous recovery

Generalization

Discrimination
PIMARY REINFORCERS

SECONDARY
REINFORCERS

• Token economy

o a ____________________ application of generalized reinforcers

o used in ___________________________________

o every time people perform a desired behavior, they are given a

______________

▪ can be ____________________ for any one of a variety of

reinforcers
• Reinforcement Schedules

o Continuous reinforcement

▪ rewarding the behavior _______________

▪ best when ______________________ a new behavior

• once behavior is learned, ___________________________

schedules yield higher response rates

o Partial-reinforcement effect

▪ behaviors will be more ________________ to extinction if the

animal has not been reinforced __________________

▪ Ways they differ

• what determines when reinforcement is delivered

o Ratio schedule

o Interval schedule

• the pattern of reinforcement

o Fixed schedule

o Variable schedule
 provides reinforcement after a _______________ of responses

Fixed-ratio (FR)
schedule

provides reinforcement based on a ________________ of responses

Variable-ratio (VR)
schedule

requires that a set amount of ________________ elapse before a

response results in a reward

Fixed-interval (FI)
schedule

__________________________ required to elapse before a response will

result in reinforcement

Variable-interval (VI)
schedule
• Biology

o Instinctive drift

▪ the tendency for animals to _________________ to pursue their

___________ patterns of behavior

o Animals won’t perform certain behaviors that go against their

____________________________

• Cognitive Learning

o The Contigency Model of Classical Conditioning

▪ The contiguity model

• the ___________________ model of classical conditioning

• the more times two things are paired, the

__________________ the learning that will occur

• ___________________ (togetherness)

o determines the _______________ of the response

▪ Contigency model

• Robert Rescorla

• a ______________ version of the Pavlovian model

o takes into account more complex

circumstances

• rests upon a _______________________ of classical

conditioning
Observational Learning
(Modeling)
• Albert Bandura

o studying modeling helped him formulate ____________________

▪ Species-specific

• it only occurs between members of the _______________

▪ Basic components:

• ______________________
• _______________________

• a ______________________________ of the observed

behavior must exist to enable imitation

• Bobo doll experiment (Bandura and Ross 1963)

o children exposed to adults who modeled _____________ behavior

against Bobo doll
o children _________________ with a bobo doll
o they exhibited almost _________________ aggressive behavior

o showed that children _____________ violent behavior through

observation
Latent Learning
• Edward Tolman’s

o Latent = _____________
▪ Becomes obvious only once a ________________ is given for

demonstrating it
o Experiment

▪ three groups of rats:

• 1) __________ got a reward for completing the maze

• 2) __________ got a reward

• 3) _____________ during the first half of trials, _______ in

second half
▪ group 3

• during the first half their performance was very

______________ to the group that never got a reward

• performance _______________ dramatically and suddenly

once they began to be ____________ for finishing the

maze
▪ conclusion

• the rats must have learned their way around the maze
in the ____________________

• performance did not improve because it had

_____reason to

• dramatic improvement in second half resulted from

______________________________
Abstract Learning
• Understanding ________________ in order to secure a reward

• Studies show that _________ can

Insight Learning
• When one ______________ realizes how to solve a problem

• Wolfgang Kohler’s Experiment

o suspended a banana from the ceiling ________________ of a group of

chimpanzees

o room had many ___________

o chimps spent most time ______________ around in frustration

o ___________________, they piled

up the boxes, climbed up, and

grabbed the banana