Experimental Methods in

Thermo-Fluids
Chapter 2: Wind Tunnels
Ⅲ: Transonic Wind Tunnels
Outline
A. Definition of the Transonic Regime
B. Wall Effects in Transonic Wind Tunnels
C. Blockage Reduction and Flow Un-Chocking
D. Typical Transonic Wind Tunnels
Definition of the Transonic Regime
• As the air flow around an aircraft is not uniform, locally supersonic
zones may exist even under subsonic upstream flow condition, this
defines the transonic regime, a condition where both subsonic and
supersonic regions coexist. This situation significantly modifies the
local behavior of the airflow. Transonic phenomena were responsible
for the numerous failures and crashes during the first attempts to cross
the sound barrier, that is, to fly at a speed greater than that of the sound
(Mach number greater than 1). Similarly, in a supersonic upstream
flow, there could be subsonic regions that influence the overall flow if
they are significant in volume. The aerodynamic phenomena induced
by the coexistence of subsonic and supersonic regions are complex
and justify the definition of a so-called transonic flight regime. It is
considered that transonic phenomena can be significant in flight
conditions between Mach 0.7 and Mach 1.2.
Wall Effects in Transonic Wind Tunnels
• Testing at transonic speeds presents additional problems due to the reflection of
the shock waves from the wall of the test section. An example of shock wave
reflections is illustrated in Figure for different Mach numbers. At low supersonic
Mach numbers, the shock wave is almost normal to the freestream direction. As a
result, the test-section walls may reflect the shock on the model itself or on its near
wake: both cases are not representative of the free flight conditions.
Blockage Reduction and Flow Un-Chocking
• Perforated or Slotted Walls
A first and quick solution is to equip the test section with perforated walls, with the
holes in communication with each other through a plenum chamber, a portion of the
flow being ducted through this chamber as shown schematically in Fig. This results
in a virtual widening effect of the section, avoiding the creation of a sonic throat.

Un-chocking of the flow in a transonic section An afterbody configuration in the S3Ch wind tunnel
equipped with perforated walls
Blockage Reduction and Flow Un-Chocking
• In a variant of this method, the perforations are replaced by longitudinal slots
intended to disturb the flow slightly less than holes. However, either holes or slots
do not guarantee a reproduction of the flow as expected around a vehicle in a free
atmosphere. Also, slotted or perforated walls can pose serious difficulties for
numerical simulations that tend to take into account all the space around the model,
including the walls of the wind tunnel.

ETW wind tunnel equipped with slotted walls.

Downstream view showing the plenum
Blockage Reduction and Flow Un-Chocking
• A more recent technique consists of using adaptive walls for the test section which
deform into the shape of a stream surface over the model when place in the
confined straight test section. The deformation of the wall first ensures that the
flow is not choked by a local increase of the cross section and secondly
compensates for the disturbances created by the model so as the model is tested in
conditions similar to that in the absence of solid walls. The correction method
consists of shaping the walls such that their curvatures are streamlines of the flow
tending towards a uniform state at infinity. The principle of adaptive walls is most
often applied to two-dimensional flows where only the upper and lower walls of
the test section being adapted.
Blockage Reduction and Flow Un-Chocking
Typical Transonic Wind Tunnels
 Typical Transonic Wind Tunnels
The S2MA at ONERA, Modane-
Avrieux is a wind tunnel with
the capability of operating up to
Mach 3 with a range covering
0.3–3.1.
Typical Transonic Wind Tunnels

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