CHAPTER-3: METHODOLOGY AND IMPLEMENTATION

3.1 METHODOLOGY
Methods to Collect the Data:

There are two types of Data based on collection of Data,

1) Primary Data: Primary data is a type of data that is collected by

researchers directly from main sources through interviews, surveys,
experiments, etc. Primary data are usually collected from the source—
where the data originally originates from and are regarded as the best
kind of data in research.
Ex: Population Census Data, Market Research, Student Thesis
Collection of Primary Data is can be done in various Methods
 Personal Investigation or Interview
 Surveys and Questionnaire
 Mail Questionnaire
2) Secondary Data: Secondary data refers to data that is collected by
someone other than the primary user. Secondary data is the data that has
already been collected through primary sources and made readily
available for researchers to use for their own research. It is a type of data
that has already been collected in the past.
Ex: Collection of Secondary Data is,
 Books
 Journals
 Internet
 Published Sources and etc.

The Main Difference between Primary and Secondary data is the Change of
Hand. Once Collected data by the Primary Users is used by Further so many
times is the Secondary data. Here the Data of our Case Study is the Secondary
Data.

SAMPLING INSPECTION:
The samples we Collected can be done in various types by variation in Size of
the Sample and etc.

Sampling inspection can be defined as a technique to determine the acceptance

or rejection of a lot or population on the basis of number of defective parts
found in a random sample drawn from the lot. If the number of defective items
does not exceed a predefined level, the lot is accepted, otherwise it is rejected.
Sampling inspection is not a new concept. In our daily life we use sampling
inspection in selecting certain consumable items. For example, while
purchasing our annual or monthly requirements of wheat, rice or such other
food grains we naturally take a handful of
grains to judge its quality for taking purchasing decision. If we are not satisfied,
we take another sample and after two or three samples from the same or
different sources we take purchasing decision. Let us take another example,
suppose we want to purchase mangoes we normally take one or two mangoes
from the lot and taste its quality, if the samples taken are found good, we decide
to purchase the required quantity.

METHODS OF APPLICATIONS:
CONTROL CHARTS:

The Control Chart is a graph that is used to study how a process changes over
time. Data are plotted in time order. A control chart always has a central line for
the average, an upper line for the upper control limit, and a lower line for the
lower control limit. These lines are determined from historical data.

Control charts are fundamental to quality control analysis. There are different
types of Control Charts.

1) Variable Control Charts

2) Attribute Control Charts

Variable Control Charts:

a) Control Chart for Range (R): The Range(R) control charts are typically
used together with X-Bar chart to valuate process variation. These must
show the stability before analyzing the X-Bar chart. The R control chart
can be used for a subgroup size less than 8. The centerlines for the R
chart are the average of all ranges. The figure 2 represents an R control
chart for a dataset of 100 samples with subgroup size of 5.

Figure 2: R CHART

FORMULAS FOR R CHART

The 3σ control limits for Range Chart are

UCL = D4 R̅

CL = R̅

LCL = D3 R̅

Where UCL, CL, LCL are Upper Control Limit, Central Limit and Lower
Control Limit respectively. D3 and D4 are the Lower 3σ limit of R Chart and
Upper 3σ limit of R Chart respectively.

b) Control Chart for Standard Deviation(S): Standard Deviation (S) control

charts are typically used with the X-bar chart to evaluate process
variation. When using these pairs of control charts, the S chart must show
stability before analyzing the X-bar chart. The S control chart should be
used if the size of the subgroups is larger than 8 because a larger sample
size is required to calculate standard deviation more accurately. The
centerlines for the S chart are the average of all standard deviations. The
figure 3 shows a S control chart for 200 samples with subgroup size of
10.

Figure 3: S CHART

FORMULAS FOR S CHART

The 3σ control limits for Standard Deviation Chart are

UCL = B4 S̅

CL = S̅

LCL = B3 S̅

Where UCL, CL, LCL are Upper Control Limit, Central Limit and Lower
Control Limit respectively. B3 and B4 are the Lower 3σ limit of S Chart and
Upper 3σ limit of S Chart respectively.

c) Control Chart for X-Bar (X̅ ): X-bar charts are paired with either R or S
chart, depending on the subgroup size of the samples. Rational
subgrouping is done wherein the samples in each subgroup are produced
under the same conditions, minimizing the variation between each sample
and allowing us to focus on the variation between subgroups. Subgroup
size is typically, but not necessarily, consistent across all subgroups. The
mean of each subgroup is then calculated and plotted on the X-bar chart.
Thus, the centerline is the average of all subgroup means. The figure 4 is
an example of an X-bar chart for the dataset of 100 samples with
subgroup size of 5.
 Figure 4: X̅ CHART

FORMULAS FOR X̅ CHART

The 3σ control limits for X-bar Chart are

UCL = X̅̅ + A2R̅

CL = X̅̅

LCL = X̅̅ - A2R̅

Where UCL, CL, LCL are Upper Control Limit, Central Limit and Lower
Control Limit respectively. X̅̅ and R̅ are the average of given mean values and
average of given range values of X̅ Chart respectively.

Attribute Control Charts:

a) Control Chart for Proportion: In statistical quality control, the p-chart is a

type of control chart used to monitor the proportion of nonconforming
units in a sample, where the sample proportion nonconforming is defined
 as the ratio of the number of nonconforming units to the sample size, n.
The figure 5 gives the example of P chart:

Figure 5: PROPORTION(P) CHART

FORMULAS FOR P CHART

The 3σ control limits for P Chart are

UCL=P+ 3∗
√ P (1−P)
ni

CL = P̅

LCL=P−3∗
√ P(1−P)
ni
Where UCL, CL, LCL are Upper Control Limit, Central Limit and Lower
Control Limit respectively.

b) Control Chart for np or d chart: np chart is also known as the control

chart for defectives (d-chart). It is generally used to monitor the number
of non-conforming or defective items in the measurement process. It uses
binomial distribution to measure the number of defectives or
nonconforming units in a sample. np chart is very similar to the p chart.
np chart plots the number of items.

In np-chart, number of defectives is plots on the y-axis and the number of

samples on the x-axis. The centerline of np chart (np̅ ) is the total number of
defectives or non-conforming units divided by the number of lots. The figure 6
is a sample np chart of defectives.

Figure 6: NP CHART OR D CHART

FORMULAS FOR NP OR D CHART

The 3σ control limits for NP or D Chart are

 UCL=n P+ 3∗√ n p(1−p)

CL = np̅

LCL=n P−3∗√ n p (1− p)

Where UCL, CL, LCL are Upper Control Limit, Central Limit and Lower
Control Limit respectively.

c) Control Chart for C (For Equal Sample Size): In statistical quality

control, the c-chart is a type of control chart used to monitor "count"-type
data, typically total number of nonconformities per unit. It is also
occasionally used to monitor the total number of events occurring in a
given unit of time. The figure 6 represents a sample C chart for a sample
data taken.

Figure 7: C CHART

FORMULAS FOR C CHART

The 3σ control limits for C Chart are

 UCL=c̅ +3∗√ c

CL = c̅

LCL=c−3∗√ c

Where UCL, CL, LCL are Upper Control Limit, Central Limit and Lower
Control Limit respectively. Here c̅ is the average number of defects in the
process which follows Poisson Distribution.

d) Control Chart for U Chart: U chart is also known as the control chart for
defects per unit chart. It is generally used to monitor the count type of
data where the sample size is greater than one. There may be a single type
of defect or several different types, but u chart tracks the average number
of defects per unit and it assumes the underlying data approximate the
Poisson distribution.

In U chart, the number of defects per single unit is plotting on the y-axis and the
number of units or lots on the x-axis. The centerline (u̅ ) is the total number of
defects in a sample divided number of inspected items in a sample.

The figure 8 is a sample U chart for a sample characteristic taken:

 Figure 8: U CHART

FORMULAS FOR U CHART

The 3σ control limits for U Chart are

LCL=u̅ −3∗
√ u
ni

CL = u̅

UCL=u+3∗
√ u
ni

Where UCL, CL, LCL are Upper Control Limit, Central Limit and Lower
Control Limit respectively.

Here u̅ follows Poisson Distribution.

3.2 IMPLEMENTATION

1. The data of Table 6 is found during the inspection of the first 19 samples
(milk packets) of size 80 each from a lot of milk manufactured by VIJAY
MILK factory.

TABLE 6: Defectives Table of Sample Observations

Sample Number Number of Defectives
1 4
2 3
3 2
4 6
5 3
6 1
7 5
8 1
9 3
10 7
11 2
12 1
13 3
 14 4
15 1
16 2
17 4
18 5
19 2

Algorithm for Computation of P Chart:

 Open IBM SPSS statistics 20 software and select type in data option.

 In variable view in first row define the sample number, type as numeric,
label as sample number and measure as scale.

 In second row type name as number of defectives, type is selected as

numeric and measure as scale.

 In data view, enter the sample number and the corresponding number of
defectives in their respective columns.

 Then go to analyse, select Quality Control and then select control charts.

 Select the p, np in attribute charts and then select cases are sub groups in
data organisation. Click Define.

 Send the sample number into Identify points by column and number of
defectives into number nonconforming column. Select the sample size as
constant and enter the values as 80. Select proportion nonconforming
chart.

 Go to control rules, in that select above +3 Sigma and below -3 Sigma

and click continue. Then select OK.

 The output, P Chart for equal sample size is displayed.

 Figure 9: Proportion nonconforming chart for obtained defectives

CONCLUSION

From the graph we have central limit CL is equal to 1.1036

Upper control limit UCL equal to 0.388

Lower control limit LCL equal to 0

Since all the points are between the control limits (UCL and LCL) in the p
chart, the process is said to be under control i.e., the milk factory is maintaining
Statistical Quality Control in the production of different types of milk packets.

X̅ AND R CHART IMPLEMENTATION

 2. Considering 8 working hours a day, 400 samples of milk of 500ml
are taken on total for few days. The 400 samples taken are different
quantities from each other.

Analysis of the quantities of the packets and whether the quantities of the
packets are under the tolerance limits is given below with the outputs of
figure 9 and Figure 10.

ALGORITHM FOR COMPUTATION OF X-BAR CHART

 Open IBM SPSS statistics 20 software and select type in data option.

 In variable view in first row define the sample number, type as numeric,
label as sample number and measure as scale.

 Define weights in different hours 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 in various rows.

 In data view, enter the sample numbers and given values in their
respective columns.

 Then go to analyse, select Quality Control and then select control charts.

 Select the X̅ and R, S chart in variable charts and then select cases are sub
groups in data organisation. Click Define.

 Send the sample number into Identify points by column and the weights
of hours into samples.

 Select X̅ using Range and Display R Chart.

 Go to control rules, in that select above +3 Sigma and below -3 Sigma

and click continue. Then select OK.

 The Output X̅ and R are Displayed.

 Figure 10: X-bar chart for VIJAYA ECONOMY type of milk packets.

From the graph we have central limit CL is equal to 517.5461

Upper control limit UCL equal to 518.9995

Lower control limit LCL equal to 516.0927

Since all the points are between the control limits (UCL and LCL) in the X̅
Chart, the process is said to be under control for the production of VIJAYA
ECONOMY milk packets.
 Figure11: Range chart for VIJAYA ECONOMY type of milk packets.

From the graph we have central limit CL is equal to 3.9015

Upper control limit UCL equal to 7.2717

Lower control limit LCL equal to 0.5313

Since all the points are between the control limits (UCL and LCL) in the Range
Chart, the process is said to be under control for the production of VIJAYA
ECONOMY milk packets.
 Figure 12: X-bar chart for VIJAYA GOLD type of milk packets.

From the graph we have central limit CL is equal to 517.4730

Upper control limit UCL equal to 518.9120

Lower control limit LCL equal to 516.0339

Since all the points are between the control limits (UCL and LCL) in the X̅
Chart, the process is said to be under control for the production of VIJAYA
GOLD milk packets.
 Figure 13: Range chart for VIJAYA GOLD type of milk packets.

From the graph we have central limit CL is equal to 3.8630

Upper control limit UCL equal to 7.1999

Lower control limit LCL equal to 0.5260

Since all the points are between the control limits (UCL and LCL) in the Range
Chart, the process is said to be under control for the production of VIJAYA
GOLD milk packets.
 Figure 14: X-bar chart for LOW FAT type of milk packets.

From the graph we have central limit CL is equal to 517.4894

Upper control limit UCL equal to 518.9476

Lower control limit LCL equal to 516.0312

Since all the points are between the control limits (UCL and LCL) in the X̅
Chart, the process is said to be under control for the production of VIJAYA
LOW FAT milk packets.
 Figure 15: Range chart for LOW FAT type of milk packets.

From the graph we have central limit CL is equal to 3.9144

Upper control limit UCL equal to 7.2957

Lower control limit LCL equal to 0.5330

Since all the points are between the control limits (UCL and LCL) in the Range
Chart, the process is said to be under control for the production of VIJAYA
LOW FAT milk packets.
 Figure 16: X-bar chart for VIJAYA PREMIUM type of milk packets.

From the graph we have central limit CL is equal to 517.5469

Upper control limit UCL equal to 519.0131

Lower control limit LCL equal to 516.0808

Since all the points are between the control limits (UCL and LCL) in the X̅
Chart, the process is said to be under control for the production of VIJAYA
PREMIUM milk packets.
 Figure 17: Range chart for VIJAYA PREMIUM type of milk packets.

From the graph we have central limit CL is equal to 3.9357

Upper control limit UCL equal to 7.3354

Lower control limit LCL equal to 0.5339

Since all the points are between the control limits (UCL and LCL) in the Range
Chart, the process is said to be under control for the production of VIJAYA
PREMIUM milk packets.
 Figure 18: X-bar chart for VIJAYA SPECIAL type of milk packets.

From the graph we have central limit CL is equal to 517.5158

Upper control limit UCL equal to 518.9637

Lower control limit LCL equal to 516.0679

Since all the points are between the control limits (UCL and LCL) in the X-bar
chart, the process is said to be under control.
 Figure 19: Range chart for VIJAYA SPECIAL type of milk packets.

From the graph we have central limit CL is equal to 3.8867

Upper control limit UCL equal to 7.2442

Lower control limit LCL equal to 0.5293

Since all the points are between the control limits (UCL and LCL) in the Range
chart, the process is said to be under control.

Limitations:

• The control charts do not express absolute values but in terms of range.
• Only few samples were considered, which may or may not represent the lot.