Beaconhouse School System

PHYSICS HANDOUT
NAME: __________________ DATE: _________________

Topic: MEASUREMENTS
Physics
Physics is the study of properties of matter, energy and their mutual relationship.

Physical quantity
Physical quantity is any quantity that can be measured with a certain numerical value along with
proper unit.
Length, mass, time and speed etc. M. Kamran
Beaconhouse School System (BMIB), H 8/4
Metre Rule
• It is length measuring instrument.
• Length of metre rule is 1 metre or
100 cm.
• Made up of plastic or wood or fiber.
• Its least count is 1 mm = 0.1 cm.
• Measurements are calibrated in inches, centimeters and millimeters.
• Measures the length of objects such as wire or distance between two points.

Measuring Tape
• Measuring tapes are basically rulers that are flexible in nature.
• Mostly they are constructed of a thin band of metal or made of cloth
or plastic or fiber or glass.
• Handy in nature so ideal for carrying or storing in small spaces.
• Measuring tape will typically use the same units of measurement
that are common with rulers (inches, centimeters, feet or metres).
• Common lengths of measuring tapes are 12 feet, 25 feet, or 100
feet in length.
• It is used by blacksmith or carpenters or tailors.

Least count / Precision

The smallest measurement which can be taken or measured by an instrument is called least count or
precision.
The least count of metre rule and measuring tape is 1 mm or 0.1 cm.
Time
Time is an instant or interval between two instants or events.
An important factor when measuring time intervals is human reaction time. This can have a significant
impact upon measurements when the measurements involved are very short (less than a second).

Stopwatch
 A stopwatch is used to measure the time interval of an event.
 It is a kind of watch that stands out for the accuracy and precision with which it can measure the
time of an event.
 It works by pressing a start button and then stopping it.
 It is used to measure fractions of time accurately.
Scalars are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value) alone.
Examples:
Distance, time, speed, mass, energy, area, volume, temperature, density etc.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
Vectors are quantities that are fully described by both: the magnitude and direction.
Examples:
Displacement, weight, force, velocity, acceleration, moment, momentum, electric field strength and
gravitational field strength etc.

Mechanical / Analog stopwatch

It is commonly used in laboratories; it can measure a time interval up to 0.01
second. It starts to indicate the time lapsed as the start/stop button is pressed.
As soon as the start/stop button is pressed again, it stops and indicates the time
interval recorded by it between the start and stop of an event. A reset button
restores its initial zero settings.

Digital stopwatch
A mechanical stopwatch can measure a time interval of up to 0.1 seconds. It
has a knob that is used to wend the spring that powers the watch. It can also be
used as a start-stop and reset button. The watch starts when the knob is
pressed once. When pressed the second time, it stops the watch while the third
press brings the needle back to zero.

Measuring Cylinder
 A graduated cylinder, is a common piece of laboratory equipment used
to measure the volume of a liquid is called measuring cylinder.
 It has a narrow cylindrical shape.
 Each marked line on the graduated cylinder represents the amount of liquid that
has been measured.
 Prefer over beaker and flask to measure volume.
 Prefer small diameter cylinder over large diameter.
 Always read from the bottom of the meniscus.

Prefixes:
Prefixes are words placed before SI units of quantities to modify their meaning; they
are usually used to describe very large or small quantities.
For example prefix for 103 is kilo. The multiplier for prefix nano is 10-9.
Prefix Symbol Multiple Prefix Symbol Multiple
Deci d 10-1 Deca da 101
-2
Centi c 10 Hector h 102
Milli m 10-3 Kilo k 103
-6
Micro µ 10 Mega M 106
Nano n 10-9 Giga G 109
-12
Pico p 10 Tera T 1012

Standard Form:
Standard form is a way of writing down very large or very small numbers easily and without using lots
of zeros.
We sometimes call it scientific notation. M. Kamran
N
M ×10 , where: Beaconhouse School System (BMI B), H 8/4
M is in the range of: 1 ≤ M < 10
N is an integer.
Method to convert Expanded form or Ordinary number to standard form or Scientific Notation
1. Bring the decimal after the first non-zero digit on left side.
2. Moving the decimal from left to right take 10 powers negative.
3. Moving the decimal from right to left take 10 powers positive.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
Convert the following to standard form.
a. 50, 000
= 5.0 x 104
b. 0.005021
= 5.021 x 10-3
c. 1234.45 x 105
= 1.23445 x 105+3 M. Kamran
= 1.23445 x 108 Beaconhouse School System (BMI B), H 8/4
-4
d. 0.004532 x 10
= 4.532 x 10-4-3
= 4.532 x 10-7
e. 8
= 8.0 x 100
Conversion of units
i. km / h to m / s
When we need to convert km / h to m / s, we will write km in metres i.e 1 km = 1000 m and then
divide by the value of hour in seconds i.e 1 h = 3600 s.
Simply we can divide the given value by 3.6, we will get the conversion of km / h to m / s.
Example
Convert 36 km / h to m / s.
= OR = m/s
= 36 m / s = 10 m / s
ii. m / s to km / h
When we need to convert m / s to km / h, we will put the value of metre in km, i.e 1 m = and
divide the value of seconds in hour, i.e 1 s = .
Simply we can multiply the given value by 3.6, we will get the conversion of m / s to km / h.
Example
Convert 30 m / s to km / h.

= OR =30 x 3.6 km / h

= = 108 km / h
= 108 km / h
iii. Convert kg / m to g /cm3.
3

When we need to convert the SI unit of density kg / m3 to g / cm3, we will write kg in grams.
i.e 1 kg = 1000 g and then divide by the value of cubic metre (m3) in cubic centimetres (cm3).
i.e 1 m3 = 1000000 cm3.
Simply we can divide the given value by 1000; we will get the conversion of kg / m3 to g / cm3
Example
Convert 500 kg / m3 to g / cm3.

=
= 0.5 g / cm3.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
Simple Pendulum:
A pendulum is a body suspended from a fixed point so that it can swing back and forth under the
influence of gravity. The time interval of a pendulum’s complete back-and-forth movement is constant.

Frequency of Pendulum
Number of oscillations made by the bob in a second. The frequency is inverse of the time period and is
defined mathematically as, f = 1/T and is measured in Hz.
Time period
The time taken by the pendulum to complete one full oscillation and is denoted by “T” measured in
seconds (s).
Time period = time taken for certain number of vibrations
Number of vibrations

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
 Beaconhouse School System
PHYSICS HANDOUT
NAME: _________________________ DATE:
_________________

Topic: Mass, Weight and Density

Mass
The measure of the amount of matter in a body is called mass. Mass is base physical quantity as well
as scalar physical quantity. It is measured with the help of physical/ electronic balance.
SI unit
Kilogram (kg)
Weight
It is the measure of the force of gravity acting on a body. Weight is derived physical quantity as well as
vector physical quantity. It is measured with the help of spring balance.
Formula
W = mg
SI unit
Since the weight is a force, its SI unit Newton.
Gravitational field
The region surrounding the Earth where gravity is experienced is called gravitational field.
Gravitational field strength
It is defined as the gravitational force acting per unit mass on an object. It is denoted by “g”.
On sea level the gravitational field strength is 10 N / kg, increase in altitude will decrease this value.
SI unit
N/ kg
Formula

Volume
It is defined as the amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional object. It is derived physical
quantity as well as scalar physical quantity.
SI unit
Cubic metre (m3)
Formulae to find volume of regular shaped objects
Volume of cube = L3
Volume of cuboid = L x W x H
Volume of sphere =
Volume of cylinder =
How to find volume of irregular shaped object?
Displacement method
1. Take some water in measuring cylinder, which can
immerse the irregular shaped object.
2. Note the reading on measuring cylinder and take it as V1.
3. Immerse the irregular shaped in the measuring cylinder.
4. Flick the measuring cylinder with finger to remove air
bubble if any.
5. Note down the second reading on the measuring cylinder and take it as V2.
6. To get the volume of irregular shaped object, subtract the reading V1 from V2 i.e V2 – V1.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
How mass and weight are related (w=mg)
From the formula F = ma the formula of weight is derived (w = mg). The more mass an object has, the
greater the gravitational force (weight) acting on it.
Difference between mass and weight
Mass Weight
 The amount of matter in a body.  Due to pull of gravity.
 Scalar quantity.  Vector quantity.
 SI unit is kilogram  SI unit is Newton.
 It is denoted by “m”.  It is denoted by “w”.
 Remains constant everywhere.  Varies according to gravitational field
strength.
 Usually measured by a beam balance or  Usually measured by a spring or compression
calibrated electronic balance or pan balance. balance.
 Mass can never be zero.  Weight can be zero. As in space if no gravity
acts upon an object, its weight becomes zero.
What do common weighing instruments measure?
Common weighing instruments line the electronic balance, spring balance and bathroom scale measure
weight of an object. They are calibrated to give reading in grams (g) or kilograms (kg).
The weighing machine used on Earth to measure weight can’t be used on Moon.
Weight of different objects on Moon and Earth
The weight of object on Earth is 6 times greater than the Moon; it is because the gravitational field
strength of Earth (10 N/kg) is 6 times the gravitational field strength of the Moon (1.6 N/kg).
Inertia
It refers to reluctance of the object to change its state or rest or motion.
Or
Measure of mass is called inertia.
The larger the mass of an object, the harder it is to start moving, slow down, move faster or change
direction.
Example of Inertia
1. Seat belt and driver
When car is in motion, suddenly driver applies, he will continue to move forward due to his inertia
and crash into the windscreen.
2. Elephant
It’s hard for and elephant to run on zigzag path, changing direction and state quickly for elephant is
not easy because of more mass.
Density
Mass per unit volume or amount of mass packed in given space.
Is it a base physical quantity or derived physical quantity? ……………………..
Formula The increase in mass will increase the density while
keeping the volume constant and vice versa.
The increase in volume will decrease the density
SI unit
while keeping the mass constant and vice versa.
kg / m3 or kg m-3
We have other unit of density which is not the SI
unit g / cm3 or g cm-3. The density of pure substance (elements and
compounds) stays always constant.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
Density of solids
i. Regular shaped objects
The density of regular shaped objects can be calculated by calculating the mass with the help of
physical balance and volume by using the formula. The density of composite object will be
Formulae: different than each individual component’s
Volume of cube = side x side x side = s3 density.
Volume of cuboid = length x width x height = l x w x h
Volume of sphere =
Volume of cylinder = 𝝅 r2h
ii. Irregular shaped objects
The density of irregular shaped objects can be calculated by
calculating the mass with the help of physical balance and
volume by using displacement method (measuring cylinder)
or Eureka can.

Density of liquids
The density of liquids can be calculated by calculating the mass by
placing the beaker/ measuring cylinder on physical balance and
neglect the mass of beaker or cylinder then pours liquid in the
cylinder or beaker the reading on physical balance will be the mass
of liquid and volume will be calculated from the reading of
beaker/cylinder.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
 Beaconhouse School System
PHYSICS HANDOUT
NAME: _______________________ DATE: _________________

Topic: Kinematics
Kinematics:
It is branch of physics, which deals with the study of motion.
Distance:
How far an object travelled, regardless of direction (length of the path travelled).
 It is denoted by “d”.
 It is a scalar quantity.
Displacement:
The shortest path or direct path travelled between two points
(length and direction from start to finish).
 It is denoted by “s”.
 It is a vector quantity.
 Sometimes distance travelled by the object is not zero but
displacement is zero (when starting and ending point of
object is same).
Difference between distance and displacement
Distance Displacement

Total length travelled by moving object, The distance travelled by an object in a straight line is
regardless of direction of motion. a specific direction.
Scalar quantity. Vector quantity.

It is denoted by “d”. It is denoted by “s”.

Speed:
“The rate of change of distance is called speed.” Or “Distance travelled per unit time”.
Formula
,s =
SI unit
Metre per second (m / s or m s-1). M. Kamran
Beaconhouse School System (BMIB), H 8/4
Average speed
“Total distance travelled in total time taken”.
Formula

Velocity:
“The speed of something in a given direction is called velocity” or “The rate of change of displacement”
or “change in displacement per unit time”.
Formula

SI unit
Metre per second (m / s or m s-1)

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
Other units of speed and velocity
The other units of speed and velocity are
 Kilometre per hour (km/h)
 Mile per hour (mile/h)
 Kilometre per minute (km/min)
 Metre per minute (km/min)
Difference between speed and velocity

Aspect Speed Velocity

Definition Rate of change of distance Rate of change of displacement
Type of quantity Scalar Vector

Formula

Acceleration
Time rate of change of velocity is called acceleration.
Or
Change in velocity (Δv) per unit time.
This allows you to measure how fast velocity changes in meters per second square (m/s2).
Acceleration is a vector quantity, so it includes both magnitude and direction.
Formula
,
, or a=
Where
a = acceleration (in m / s2 or m s-2)
v = final velocity (in m / s or m s-1) M. Kamran
u= initial velocity (in m / s or m s-1) Beaconhouse School System (BMI B), H 8/4
t = time taken (in s).
SI unit
Meters per second square (m/s2 or ms-2).

Uniform / constant acceleration

Uniform or constant acceleration is a type of motion in which the velocity of an object changes by an
equal amount in every equal time period.
When the velocity of the object is increasing by 10 ms-1 every second, the acceleration is 10 ms-2.
When the velocity of the object is decreasing by 10 ms-1 every second, the deceleration is 10 ms-2.
Velocity / ms-1
Time / s
Increasing velocity Decreasing velocity
1 10 50
2 20 40
3 30 30
4 40 20
5 50 10

Non-uniform/ Variable acceleration

Non-uniform or variable acceleration is a type of motion in which the velocity of an object changes by an
unequal amount in every equal time period.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
Deceleration
It is the rate at which an object slows down.
 Deceleration is the opposite of acceleration.
 Deceleration is also called retardation or negative acceleration.

Acceleration of free fall or acceleration due to gravity

Whenever an object falls under gravity, it is said to have acceleration of free fall or acceleration due to
gravity. It is represented by “g” and its value is taken 10 m / s2.
Distance-Time graphs
Plotting distance against time can tell you a lot about motion. Let's look at the axes:

 Time is always plotted on the X-axis (bottom of the

graph). Further to the right on the axis, the greater
the time from the start.
 Distance is plotted on the Y-axis (side of the
graph). Higher up the graph, the greater the
distance from the start.

1. If an object is not moving, a horizontal line is shown on a distance-time graph.

Time is increasing to the right, but its distance does not

change. It is not moving. We say the object is At Rest or
stationary.

The red line represent object is at rest after travelling

some distance while orange or line on x-axis represent
object is at rest without travelling distance.

2. If an object is moving at a constant speed, it means it has the same increase in distance in a given
time.

Time is increasing to the right, and distance is

increasing constantly with time. The object moves at
a constant speed. Constant speed is shown by
straight lines on a graph.

Let’s look at two moving objects:

Both of the lines in the graph show that each object moved the same distance, but the steeper
dashed line got there before the other one:

A steeper line indicates a larger distance moved in a

given time. In other words, higher speed.

Both lines are straight, so both speeds are constant.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
3. Graphs that show acceleration look different from those that show constant speed.

The line on this graph is curving upwards. This shows

an increase in speed, since the line is getting steeper:
In other words, in a given time, the distance the object
moves is change (getting larger). It is accelerating.

4. Graph that shows deceleration is having bending trend towards time axis.

The line on this graph is curving downwards. This show a

decrease in speed, since the line is getting less steep:
In other words, in a given time, the distance the object
moves is change (getting less). It is decelerating.

 A distance-time graph tells us how far an object has moved with time:
 A horizontal line means the object is not changing its position - it is not moving, it is at rest.
 The steeper the graph, the faster the motion.
 A downward sloping line means the object is returning to the start. M. Kamran
Beaconhouse School System
(BMI B), H 8/4

Speed-Time graphs
Speed-Time graphs are also called Velocity Time graphs.
Speed-Time graphs look much like Distance-Time graphs. Be sure to read the labels!!

 Time is plotted on the X-axis.

 Speed or velocity is plotted on the Y-axis.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
1. A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph on X-axis means that speed is zero. It is not
changing over time.

Time is increasing to the right, but its speed does not

change. It is not showing any value of speed on
graph. We say the object is At Rest.

2. A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph means that speed is constant. It is not changing
over time. A straight line does not mean that the object is not moving!

Time is increasing to the right, and speed is not

increasing with time. The object moves at a
constant speed. Constant speed is shown by
straight horizontal line on a graph.

3. If an object is moving at a constant acceleration, it means it has the same increase in speed in a
given time.

Time is increasing to the right, and speed is

increasing constantly with time. The object moves at
a constant acceleration. Constant acceleration is
shown by straight line on a graph.

4. A curved line on a speed-time graph means that speed is not constant. It is changing over time.

Time and speed both are increasing, but the increase

in speed over time is not constant. It means object is
moving with variable/non uniform acceleration.

Time and speed both are increasing, but the increase

in speed over time is not constant. It means object is
moving with variable/non uniform acceleration.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
5. If an object is moving at a constant deceleration, it means it has the same decrease in speed in a
given time.

Time is increasing to the right, and speed is

decreasing constantly with time. The object moves
at a constant deceleration. Constant deceleration
is shown by straight line on a graph.

M. Kamran
Beaconhouse School System
(BMI B), H 8/4

Summary:
 A speed - time graph shows us how the speed of a moving object changes with time.
 The steeper the graph, the greater the acceleration.
 A horizontal line means the object is moving at a constant speed.
 A downward sloping line means the object is slowing down (Decelerating).

Calculate speed from the gradient of a distance–time graph

In a distance-time graph, the gradient of the line is equal to the speed of the object. The greater the
gradient (and the steeper the line) the faster the object is moving.
Gradient =

Distance travelled under speed-time graph for motion with constant speed or acceleration
In a speed-time graph, the gradient of the line is equal to the acceleration of the object. The greater the
gradient (and the steeper the line) the faster the object is changing the speed. The area under the
graph will measure the distance travelled by the object.
Formulae to calculate distance under the graph are:
Area of triangle =
Area of rectangle = length x height
Area of trapezium =
Calculate acceleration from the gradient of a speed–time graph
Acceleration can be calculated from the gradient of speed-time graph,
Gradient =

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
Terminal Velocity
When the force of friction or air resistance against an object equals the weight of an object, the object
starts to travel at a constant speed known as terminal velocity. At this moment the acceleration of the
object is zero.

 The image above shows a skydiver slowing down, due to the large upwards resultant force
acting on her
o At this moment in time, the air resistance is larger than the skydiver's weight (due to
the parachute's huge surface area)
o This results in a large unbalanced force upwards, decelerating the skydiver's descent
 The graph below summarises how a skydiver's velocity changes up to and following the
point of opening a parachute:

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
 Beaconhouse School System
PHYSICS HANDOUT
NAME: _______________________ DATE: _________________
Topic:Forces
Force
A "push" or "pull" exerted on a body.
A force can move or tends to move stationary objects.
It can stop or tends to stop moving objects.
It can change the shape of objects (by compression, stretch, twist).
It may change the velocity of an object by changing its direction of motion or its speed.
But force cannot change mass of object.
SI unit
SI unit is Newton, represented by “N”.
Examples: Weight (gravitational force), friction, drag, air resistance, tension (elastic force),
electrostatic force, magnetic force, thrust (driving force).
A person pushing on a wall, Gravity pulling down on a mass, a rope pulling on an object.
Types of forces
1. Contact Forces
Force which can be applied only when it is in contact with object.
Examples: Frictional Force, Tension Force, Normal Force, Air Resistance Force, Applied
Force, Spring Force.
2. Action at-a-distance Forces
Force which can be applied only without contact with object.
Examples: Gravitational Force, Electrical Force and Magnetic Force.
Representation of forces:
To represent/describe a force we need three things;
1. Location (The dot shows where the force begins)
2. Magnitude (Newton) N (The length of the arrow shows the amount of force)
3. Direction (degrees) (The arrows shows the direction of the force)
Example:
1. This force has Magnitude = 326 N,
Direction = 37o, Location = Point A

2. Each square represents force of

ONE NEWTON.
This vector shows a 5N force to
the right (0 degrees with x-axis).
Balanced Forces
If two forces of equal strength act on an object in opposite
directions, the forces will cancel, resulting in a net force of
zero and no movement.
Un-balanced Forces
If the effects of the forces don't cancel each other, if one force
is stronger than others, the forces are unbalanced forces.
Unbalanced forces cause a change in motion; speed and/or
direction.
When two forces act in the same direction on an object, the
net force is equal to the sum of the two forces.
When two unequal forces act in opposite directions on an
object, the net force is the difference of the two forces.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
Addition of forces: When we add two forces, we are trying to find a single force that will
produce the same effect as the two or more than two forces added together.
When adding forces, we must add them like lines, taking LENGTH and ANGLE into account.
Resultant Force: When several forces are combined (added) into a single force, this force is
called the RESULTANT of those forces.

Addition of Forces:
We use two methods of addition of forces.
1. Tip-to-tail/ Head-to-tail Method of Addition of Forces
The tip-to-tail method of adding forces (vectors) involves drawing the first force on a graph in
specific direction with proper scale and then similarly placing the tail of each subsequent
force at the tip of the previous force. The resultant force is then drawn from the tail of the first
force to the head of the final force. The magnitude and direction of R are then determined
with a ruler and protractor, respectively.

Addition of opposite (anti-parallel) forces: The figure

below shows two opposite forces. There is a 5 N force to
the right and a 7 N force to the left. Subtract 5 N from 7 N.
The resultant is a 2 N force to the left. The resultant vector
is shown.

Addition of same direction (parallel) forces:

This figure shows two forces in the same direction.
They are both 5 N forces. Add 5 N and 5 N. The
resultant is a 10 N force to the right.

Addition of forces acting at right angle (900):

We follow few steps for addition of two forces acting at 900.
 Take an appropriate scale.
 Using a ruler draw an arrow to represent the first force
(vector) according to scale.
 Using protector make 900 on the head of first force
(vector), then draw another arrow in the direction of 90 0
according to scale taken (Place the tail of the second
force at the head of the first force).
 Draw an arrow from the tail of the first Force (vector)
to the head of the last force (vector), as shown
in Figure. This is the resultant, or the sum, of the
force (vectors).

 To find the magnitude of the resultant, measure

its length with a ruler and multiply with the scale
taken.
 To find the direction of the resultant, use a
protractor to measure the angle it makes with the
reference direction (in this case, the x-axis).

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
2. Parallelogram method
The parallelogram law of forces (vector) addition is the process of adding forces (vectors)
geometrically. This law says, "Two forces can be arranged as adjacent sides of
a parallelogram such that their tails attach with each other and the sum of the two forces is
equal to the diagonal of the parallelogram whose tail is the same as the two forces".
Consider the vectors P and Q in the figure below. To find their sum:
 Step 1: Take an appropriate scale.
 Step 2: Draw the vectors P and Q according to taking scale such that their tails touch
each other and the angle between vectors will be 90o.
 Step 3: Complete the parallelogram by drawing the other two sides with the help of
compass. By drawing arcs from the heads of vectors.
 Step 4: The diagonal of the parallelogram that has the same tail as the vectors P and Q
represents the sum of the two vectors. i.e., P + Q = R.

Here, the Force (vector) R is called the resultant Force (vector of P and Q).
 Step 5: To find the magnitude of the resultant, measure its length with a ruler and multiply
with the scale taken.
 Step 6: To find the direction of the resultant, use a protractor to measure the angle it
makes with the reference direction (in this case, the x-axis).

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
Newton’s first law of motion
“An object either remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line at constant speed unless
acted on by a resultant force”.
This law is also called law of inertia.
Inertia
Inertia is the tendency of objects in motion to stay in motion, and objects at rest to stay at rest,
unless a force causes its speed or direction to change.
Examples of Inertia:
1. You tend to move forward when a sudden break is applied
2. You feel a backward force when the bus moves quickly from rest.
3. Dusting bed with a broom removes dust due to inertia of rest
4. when you shake a branch the leaves get detached.
5. Experiencing jerk when lift suddenly starts
6. Athlete taking a short run before a jump
7. Cricketer moving backwards before catching a ball
8. Milk keeps swirling even after storring is stopped
9. Tightening of seat belts in a car when it stops quickly.
10. Objects that establish orbit around the earth, like satellites, continue on their trajectory due to
inertia.
Newton’s 2nd law of motion
When a resultant force acts on an object of constant mass, the object will accelerate and move
in the direction of the resultant force. The product of the mass and acceleration of the object is
equal the resultant force.
Mathematically
Resultant force = mass × acceleration
F=ma
Where
“F” is the net force,
“m” is the mass of the object,
“a” is the acceleration produced in the direction of applied force.

Explanation of Newton’s 2nd law of motion

 A resultant force (F) on an object of mass (m) will produce acceleration (a).
 Doubling the resultant force (F) will double the acceleration (a), while the mass (m) of object
constant.
 With the same resultant force (F), doubling the mass (m) will halve the acceleration (a).
1 Newton force:
One Newton is the force needed to accelerate one kilogram of mass at the rate of one metre per
second squared in the direction of the applied force.
Friction
Friction is a force that may impede motion and produce heating.
Or
Friction is the resistance to motion of one object moving relative to another.
It is not a fundamental force, like gravity or electromagnetism.
It has two types of frictions.
1. Static friction
In static friction, the frictional force resists force that is applied to an object, and the object
remains at rest until the force of static friction is overcome.
2. Dynamic friction
The frictional force which is directed oppositely to the motion of the objects. Because this
friction arises between surfaces in relative motion, it is called kinetic friction.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
 Methods of Reducing Friction
 Make surfaces smooth.
 Lubrication.
 Streamlined body.
 Reduce pressure or weight on the object.
 Reduce contact between surfaces.
 Use rolling friction instead of sliding friction.
Drag Force or Air/Liquid resistance or friction
Air/ liquid resistance is a frictional force. It has the following characteristics.
 It always opposes the motion of moving objects.
 It increases with the speed of the objects.
 It increases with the surface area (or size) of the object.
 It increases with the density of the air/ liquid.
Circular motion
Circular motion is a movement of an object along
the circumference of a circle or rotation along a circular
path.
OR
If the force continues to act at 90 degrees to the motion,
the object will keep changing its direction (whilst
remaining at a constant speed) and travel in a vehicle.
The direction of force (centripetal force) and
acceleration (centripetal acceleration) is always directed
towards the centre of the circle while the velocity is
tangent to the circle or perpendicular to the radius
(direction of centripetal force and centripetal acceleration).
Circular motion has following characteristics:

a. Increase in force causes increase in Speed, with mass and radius constant.
b. Increase in force causes decrease in Radius, with mass and speed constant.
c. An increased mass requires an increased force to keep speed and radius of moving object
constant.

Deformation
Deformation is a change in shape due to an applied force. This can be a result of tensile (pulling)
forces, compressive (pushing) forces.

Load
A mass or weight supported by something.

Elastic Deformation
If you bend a ruler slightly and released it, it
springs back to its original shape. Materials
like this are elastic.
This type of deformation is reversible. Once
the forces are removed, the object returns to
its original position.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
Plastic Deformation
If you stretch or bend plasticine, it keeps its new shape. Materials that behave like this are called plastic.
This type of deformation is not reversible. However an object in the plastic deformation range will first
have undergone elastic deformation, which is reversible.

ELASTIC LIMIT
Maximum extent to which a solid may be stretched without permanent alteration of size or shape.
When elastic limit (limit of proportionality) of any object is exceeded then shape of the object
permanently changes (object is said to be deformed).
Elastic limit of a spring is the maximum stretching or compressing that can be applied to it before losing
its elasticity / shape.

HOOKE’S LAW
Hooke’s law states that the extension of a spring is
proportional to the load applied to it provided the limit
of proportionality (elasticity limit) is not exceeded.
Mathematically
F=kx
Where
F is the force applied
k is the stiffness of the spring (spring constant)
x is the extension of the spring
Spring Constant:
Force per unit extension is called spring constant,
mathematically
k = F/x
Graph
Extension against Load

Conclusion
• The line AB is straight, and passes through the origin.
• Every 1 N increase in load produces the same extra extension.
• If the load is doubled, the extension is doubled.
• Extension/Load (F/x) always has the same value, i.e K.
• Line AB is in the limit of proportionality which proves the application of Hooke’s law.
• In the region BC the object will remain elastic but Hooke’s will not be applicable.

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.
Braking Force
A force applied to the body by the ground, a person, or an object that causes it to slow down or
slacken.
Thinking / Reaction distance
Thinking distance is the distance a vehicle travels in the time it takes for the driver to apply the
brakes after realizing they need to stop.

Braking Distance
Braking distance is the distance a vehicle travels in the time after the driver has applied the
brake and the vehicle comes to stop.
Stopping distance
When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the distance it travels before stopping is called
stopping distance.
Stopping Distance = Thinking Distance + Braking Distance
Factors affecting thinking and breaking distance
1. Speed- The speed you are travelling at greatly affects your stopping distance. For example,
the faster you are travelling, the more your thinking and braking distance will increase,
meaning that your stopping distance will also increase.
2. Road condition- When road conditions are wet, icy or covered in snow/sleet, they are
naturally slippery and then thinking and braking distance will increase.
3. Tyres surface- Tyre treads are designed to disperse water on the road surface and if your
treads are low, they are unable to do this and the friction will decrease so your vehicle
breaking distance will increase.
4. Load- If your car is full of people or a lorry is fully loaded, then the kinetic energy at a given
speed is greater than if the vehicle only contained the driver (can you recall why?).
Therefore, with extra mass in the vehicle, extra distance should be allowed for your braking
distance because of the extra kinetic energy.
5. The driver- The thinking distance increases if the reaction time increases. This can happen if
the driver is:
 On drugs or medication
 Is tired or stressed
 Is distracted
 Is under the influence of alcohol

Free Body Diagram

A free body diagram is a sketch of the body of interest and the forces acting on the body along
with direction.
With the help of free body diagram you can precisely define the body (or object under
consideration) to which you are applying mechanical equations and the forces that are needed to
be considered.
Free body diagram of block on the ramp

(b) A block on the ramp (b) Free body diagram for an object slowing
down with friction on a horizontal floor

Prepared by: M. Kamran, Beaconhouse School System Boys (BMI B); H-8/4.