ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

1. ACIDS
(a) Definition An acid compound which when dissolved in water produces H+ (hydrogen
ions or protons) and are described as proton donors.

(b) Common acids

1. Hydrochloric acid, HCl – present in the stomach
2. Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 – world’s most important industrial chemical
3. Nitric acid, HNO3 – used to make explosives and fertilizers
4. Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH – present in vinegar
5. Methanoic acid, HCOOH – present in ant stings
6. Carbonic acid, H2CO3 – present in fizzy or carbonated drinks
7. Citric acids – present in citrus fruits, lime and lemon
8. Ascorbic acid, Vitamin C – present in oranges
9. Amino acids – the digestion products of proteins
10. Fatty acids – digestion product of lipids, fats and oils
NOTE: Pure or raw acids are covalent compounds and consist of molecules. In their pure state
they do not ionise – they do not contain ions and are poor electrical conductors. When
dissolved in water, however, they break up into free ions and are thus good electrical
conductors called electrolytes.

HCl(g) + (aq) ---------> H+(aq)+ Cl-(aq)

covalent ionic

(c) Characteristic properties of acids

1. Acids are sour to taste – acids are responsible for the sour taste of lime and lemon and
unripe fruits. Lactic acid is present in sour milk
2. Concentrated acids are corrosive – they attack metals and destroy skin, clothes, etc.
Contacts should be avoided.
3. Acids turn blue litmus indicator paper (or solution) red
4. Acids have pH 1 to 6, i.e., less than 7.
5. Acid + metal salt + hydrogen
6. Acid + base salt + water
7. Acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide

(d) Strengths of acids

Strong acids are completely (or fully) ionised in water producing lots of hydrogen ions, .H+.
HCl ---------> H+ + Cl-
HNO3 ---------> H+ + NO3 -
H2SO4, ---------> 2H+ + SO42-
For instance, if the amount of hydrogen chloride gas added to a given volume of water to make
a solution of hydrochloric acid solution is 2.0 mol, then the amount of H+ present in the solution
is also 2 mol.
If the concentration of hydrochloric acid is 2.0 moldm-3, then the concentration of hydrogen
ions, H+, in the solution is also 2.0 mol/dm-3
But note that if the concentration of sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is 1.0 mol/dm-3, then the
concentration of H+ in the solution will, be 2.0 mol/dm3 ( since one mole of produces 2 moles
of H+).
HCl and HNO3 are monoprotic (or monobasic), while H2SO4 is diprotic (or dibasic)

Weak acids undergo incomplete or partial ionisation (or dissociation) when dissolved in water
to produce few of hydrogen ions, H+.

CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
HCOOH HCOO- + H+
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
+
HCN H + CN-
In other words the ionisation of weak acids in water is a reversible, producing an equilibrium
mixture.
If the concentration of any given weak acid, say ethanoic acid, is 1.0 mol/dm3, then the
concentration of hydrogen ions, H+, in the same solution is far less than one – for some it may
be as low as low as 0.001 mol/dm3.

2. BASES
(a) Definition A base is a compound which can accept hydrogen ions, H+, from an acid
when present in aqueous solution.
Bases are regarded to be the chemical opposite of acids.
A base neutralises an acid to form salt (and water, and sometimes with carbon dioxide,
if the base is a metal carbonate or hydrogen carbonate)

(b) General classes of bases

 (i) Metal oxide – MgO, CaO, BaO, Li2O, Na2O, K2O, CuO,
(ii) Metal hydroxides – XOH where X is a Group I metal - NaOH, LiOH, KOH; and
M(OH)2 , where M is a group 2 metal (except Be) - Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2,
Ba(OH)2
(iii) Metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates - Na2CO3, KHCO3, MgCO3 ,
CaCO3 CuCO3
(iv) Aqueous ammonia solution, which contains NH4OH
Most bases do not dissolve in water. Some metal hydroxides are, however, soluble in water.
Soluble basic hydroxides are called alkalis.

C. Characteristic Properties of alkalis and bases

1. Bases are soapy to touch.
2. Bases are bitter to taste. Many common pharmaceutical drugs are biter because many
of them contain organic bases
3. Bases turn red litmus paper (or solution) blue
4. Bases have pH of 8 to 14, that is, greater than 7
5. Base + acid -----→ Salt + water
6. Base + ammonium salt + heat -----→ salt + water + ammonia gas

d. Strengths of alkalis
Strong alkalis are completely ionised in water producing lots of hydroxide ions, OH-.
MOH(aq) -----→ M+(aq) + OH- , where M is Group I metal – Li, Na, K, Rb,
Ba(OH)2 (aq) ----→ Ba2+(aq) + 2OH- (aq)
Weak alkalis ionise incompletely in water producing low concentrations of hydroxide ions, OH-

Ca(OH) 2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2OH- (aq)

NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH- (aq)
Strong alkalis are very soluble in water, while weak alkalis have low solubilities in water (except
ammonia)

3. INDICATORS
An indicator is an organic dye .which is used to test whether a solution is acidic, alkaline or
neutral.
An indicator shows different colours with different solutions depending whether the solution is
acidic, alkaline or neutral.

Indicator Colour in acidic Colour in alkaline

solution solution
1 Red litmus Red Blue
2 Blue litmus Red Blue
3 Methyl orange Pink
Red Yellow
4 Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
5 Methyl red Red Yellow

b. The Universal indicator and the pH scale

The universal indicator is a mixture of many other indicators and, therefore, shows more
colours than a single indicator.
It is used to obtain how acidic or how alkaline a solution is, that is, it can be used to obtain the
extent of acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Each colour shown by the universal indicator is linked to a number ranging from 0 (the most
strongly acidic) to 14 (the most strongly alkaline or most strongly basic). A neutral solution has a
pH of 7. This range of numbers showing how acidic or how alkaline a solution is, is called pH
scale.

pH Colour Chart pH Colour Chart pH Colour Chart

Universal indicator only gives a rough estimate of the pH of a solution because
some of the colours associated with each pH number are not very distinct from
each other. There seems to be an overlapping of colours between successive pH
numbers. To obtain the precise or exact value of pH of a solution, a pH meter is
used.
c. ACIDITY IN SOIL
The pH of a soil is an important factor in the growth of many plants. Most plants grow well at
pH near 7.If the soil is too acidic or too alkaline, plants will not grow well and the yields of crops
are reduced. This might lead to financial loss on the part of the farmer and eventual scarcity of
food crops and agricultural raw materials for the industries.
Natural rain is slightly acidic, has pH of about 5.5, because of atmospheric carbon dioxide which
dissolves in rain water to form carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2O --------> H2CO3
Most industrial effluent gases from power plants and exhaust gases from automobiles (majorly
sulfur and nitrogen oxides) are also acidic and they contribute majorly to acid rain. Typical acid
rain may have a pH as low as 4.5. Over time, soils may become acidic
SO2 + H2O --------> H2SO3
SO3 + H2O --------> H2SO4
2NO2 + H2O --------> HNO3 + HNO2
Acidic soils are treated with quick lime, CaO, which is obtain from limestone by heating or
thermal decomposition.
Limestone --------> Quick lime + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 --------> CaO + CO2
When quick lime is added to water, it makes slaked lime, which is an alkali and so, can
neutralise acidity of the acidic soil, forming salt and water.
Quick lime + water -------> Slaked lime
CaO + H2O --------> Ca(OH)2

Slaked lime + acidic soil --------> salt + water

Ca(OH)2 + 2H+ -------> Ca2+ + H2O

d. How to measure the pH of a soil sample

Distilled water is added to a small sample of the soil in a test tube (or boiling tube). Some soil
samples may require initial crushing prior to addition of water.
The mixture is shaken well or if necessary, carefully stirred with a glass rod to extract the acid
out of soil into water.
Indicator paper or solution is added to produce a colour.
The colour produced is compared with a pH colour chart to obtain the corresponding pH.

4. TYPES OF OXIDES
a. Basic Oxides Most metal oxides are basic and can act as bases to accept hydrogen ion,
H+, from an acid forming salt and water.
 CaO, MgO, BaO, Li2O, Na2O, K2O, CuO.
Basix oxides are ionic oxides
Basic oxides are bases – they can neutralise an acid t form salt and water only

Basic oxide + Acid ---------> Salt + Water

CuO + H2SO4 ---------> CuSO4 + H2O
MgO + 2HCl ---------> MgCl2 + H2O
Na2O + 2HNO3 ---------> 2NaNO3 + H2O
CaO + 2HNO3 ---------> Ca(NO3)2 + H2O

Most basic oxides are not soluble. Only a few ones dissolve in water, Basic oxides which are
soluble in water dissolve to form alkalis.
basic oxide + Water ---------> Alkali
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) ---------> 2NaOH (aq)
K2O(s) + H2O(l) ---------> 2KOH (aq)
BaO(s) + H2O(l) ---------> Ba)OH)2 (aq)
CaO(s) + H2O(l) ---------> Ca)OH)2 (aq)

b. Acidic Oxides
Most non-metal oxides are acidic. They can neutralise a basic oxide to form salt only or react
with an alkali to form salt and water. Examples include SO3, SO2, CO2, NO2, P4O10, SiO2
Acidic Oxide + Basic oxide ---------> Salt
SO3 (g) + MgO(s) ---------> MgSO4(s)
SiO2 (g) + CaO(s) ---------> CaSiO3(s)

Acidic Oxide + Alkali - --------> Salt + Water

SO3 (g) + 2NaOH(aq) ---------> Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
SiO2 (s) + 2KOH(aq) ---------> K2SiO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) ---------> CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)
Acidic oxides are also called acid anhydrides because most of them dissolve in water to produce
acids
Acidic Oxide + Water ---------> Acid
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) ---------> H2SO4 (aq)
CO3 (g) + H2O (l) ---------> H2CO3 (aq)
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) ---------> H2NO3 (aq) + HNO2 (aq)

c. Amphoteric oxides
Some few metal oxides are amphoteric. Amphoteric oxides show both the properties of an
acid (can neutralise an alkali) as also that of a base (can neutralise an acid), producing salt
and water in each case.
Amphoteric oxide + Acid ---------> Salt + Water
Amphoteric oxide + Alkali ---------> Salt + Water
Amphoteric oxides are insoluble in water. When added to water, it has no effect on the pH.

d. Neutral oxides
Some few non-metal oxides are neutral. Neutral oxides are neither acidic nor alkaline.
When added to water the resulting solution is neutral and has a pH of 7. Neutral oxides do
not react with acids and they do not react with bases,
CO, NO, N2O, H2O

5. SALTS
A salt is a compound formed when the replaceable hydrogen ion(s) in an acid is/are
replaced by metallic (or ammonium) ion.

a. TYPES OF SALTS
(i) Based on solubility
Soluble Insoluble
All Na+, K+ and NH4+ None
All nitrates, NO3- None
All halides, X- (Cl=, Br-, I-) PbCl2, AgCl (also the bromides and
iodides)
All sulfates, SO42- BaSO4, PbSO4, CaSO4
 Na+, K+ and NH4+ carbonates, CO32- All other carbonates

(ii) Based on the type of anion present in the salt

Type of salt required Acid used

Sulfate, SO42- Sulfuric acid, H2SO4
Nitrate, NO3- Nitric acid, HNO3
Chloride, Cl= Hydrochloric acid, HCl
Ethanoate, CH3COO-- Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH

b. METHODS OF PREPARATION OF SALTS

Method chosen for the preparation of any given salt depends on its solubility.

(a). Preparation of soluble salts

(i). Metal + Acid
This method is suitable for making salts of moderately reactive metals only.
Examples are Mg, Al, Zn, Iron and Tin (MAZIT). Reactions of highly reactive
metals like K, Na, Li, Ca, Sr, Ba with dilute acids is too vigorous, sometimes
violent and dangerous - may cause an explosion.
Example: Mg(g) + 2HCl (aq) --------> MgCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
•A known volume of the dilute acid is placed in a beaker
•An excess of magnesium metal, powder, is added into the beaker. The
reaction is done when bubbling of gas is no longer observed.
•Excess metal is filtered off.
•To obtain MgCl2 powder, the salt solution is subjected to evaporation to
dryness.
•If MgCl2 crystals are required, solution is heated until it becomes
saturated, that is, until crystals begin to form on a glass rod placed in the
heated solution.
•The source of heat is turned off and solution is allowed to cool slowly
under laboratory conditions.
•The crystals are filtered off from the solution and allowed to dry between
two filter papers
 Observation Bubbles of colourless gas which pops with a burning splint.
Temperature of the solution rises, i.e., reaction is exothermic Some of the
metal dissolves.
When is the reaction over? When no more gas evolves. Temperature no
longer rises. No more magnesium metal dissolves,
(ii). Insoluble base + Acid
The method is suitable for making salts of unreactive metals – metals below hydrogen in
the reactivity series. These are metals which cannot displace hydrogen from dilute acids.
The base could be metal oxide or hydroxide or metal carbonate.

Example CuO + H2SO4 ---------> CuSO4 + H2O

CuCO3 + H2SO4 ---------> CuSO4 + H2O + CO2

The procedure is similar to (i) above except that the mixture may require gentle heating
iso the solid, the insoluble base could dissolve well in the acid.

(iii) Alkali and Acid (Titration method):

Suitable to make salts of metals whose hydroxides or carbonates are soluble.

Na+, K+ and NH4+

Example: 2 KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) ------> K2SO4 (aq) + H2O(l)

2 Na2CO3(aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) ------> 2 NaNO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

NH4OH (aq) + HCl (aq) ------> NH4Cl (aq) + H2O (l)

•A known volume of alkali is placed in a conical flask and few drops of an indicator, say
methyl orange, is added
•Then acid initially at a known burette reading is added little at a time, swirling carefully,
until the initial yellow goes ink.
•The volume of acid used is deduced and the whole procedure is repeated to obtain
at least two consistent values. The average titre value is calculated
•Titration is repeated by adding the calculated average titre to the same volume of
alkali used initially, this time, without any indicator
•Evaporation is carried out and the salt is recovered as a powder.
•if crystals are required, the procedure in method (i) above is followed

(b). Preparation of insoluble salt

 Precipitation

Example: BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) ------> 2NaCl(aq) + BaSO4 (s)

The two soluble salts are mixed, so they react together

The mixture is filtered to separate the products produced (insoluble salt is the residue
on the filter paper).
The insoluble salt is washed with distilled water on the filter paper.
The insoluble salt is dried in a warm oven or under the sun

DESCRIPTION OF SOME SALTS USED IN QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

Salt Formula Solid Solution

hydrated copper CuSO4 .5H2O Blue crystals Blue
sulfate
Anhydrous copper CuSO4 White powder Blue
sulfate
Copper nitrate Cu(NO3)2 Blue crystals Blue
Copper chloride CuCl2 Green Green
Copper carbonate CuCO3 Green Insoluble
Copper oxide CuO Black Insoluble
Iron (II) salts FeCl2, FeSO4, Pale green Pale green
Fe(NO3)2
Iron (III) salts FeCl3, Fe2(SO4)3, Reddish brown Reddish brown
Fe(NO3)3