Module 2

Scientific Foundations of Physical Education and Sports

Introduction
The human body is a highly complex living ‘machine’ and anatomy is learning about the structures of
the body and other related factors such as genes, maturation, growth and development. Athletes come
in different body structures (e.g. endomorph, ectomorph and mesomorph) but their bodies all work in
exactly the same way. AS you develop an understanding of how the body is built you are better able to
understand how it responds to exercise and training.

Learning outcome
At the end of the module, you will be able to:

 Described the body systems that makeup the human body

 Analyze the importance of good body posture
 Discuss the basic dissimilarities of individuals
 Explain the characteristics of growth
 Identify factors that affect the physical fitness of an individual.

Learning content

MAN'S BIOLOGICAL MAKE-UP AND FITNESS

Genes- the basic physical and functional unit of heredity.

Human body is subject to the influence of the environment and behavior. In sport, genetic
potential can be realized only when genes are switched on via the process of training. Without training,
genetically gifted individuals cannot achieve success in sport. But heredity is much more complicated
than genes, DNA, and RNA.
Factors that may influence the response to training could include maturation (hormones), nutrition
(energy, amino acids), adequate rest, and even chemically related emotional factors such as stress
(other hormones) or depression (neurotransmitters).

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Maturation - the process of becoming mature; the emergence of individual and behavioral
characteristics through growth processes over time.
Young athletes grow, develop, and mature at different rates; the increases in physical size and
functional capacity of body systems are unique to each individual.

Testosterone - used primarily to treat symptoms of sexual dysfunction in men and women and
hot flashes in women. Potential benefits include improved libido, increased bone mass, and increased
sense of well-being.
An anabolic or growth-stimulating hormone, when available, supports response to strength
training. As a coach, you will work with athletes at various stages of maturation, both sexual and
skeletal. In many sports an athlete‘s full potential emerges only after he or she reaches maturity.

Growth- the act or process, or a manner of growing; development; gradual increase.

Height is one aspect of physical maturity. It can be an asset in sports such as basketball and
volleyball.
“But it can be a liability in a sport like gymnastics”

Assessment - systematic basis for making inferences about the learning and development of athletes.

Sexual maturation can be determined through evaluation of the athlete’s secondary sexual
characteristics (pubic hair, breast and genital development).
Skeletal maturity may be assessed though comparison of an X ray of the athlete’s hand/wrist
with standards that indicate progressive levels of skeletal maturity.
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Development - the process in which someone or
something grows or changes and becomes more advanced
Development of competence in sport is influenced by the athlete’s growth and maturation.

MAKE-UP OF THE HUMAN BODYSYSTEM

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THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system consists of bones of the body and the connective tissues that bind them. It
gives the body its basic framework.

Functions of Skeletal System:

 Support
The main job of the skeleton is to provide support for our body. Without your skeleton your
body would collapse into a heap. Your skeleton is strong but light. Without bones you'd be just a puddle
of skin and guts on the floor.
 Protection
Your skeleton also helps protect your internal organs and fragile body tissues. The brain, eyes,
heart, lungs and spinal cord are all protected by your skeleton. Your cranium(skull) protects your brain
and eyes, the ribs protect your heart and lungs and your vertebrae (spine, backbones) protect your
spinal cord.

 Movement
Bones provide the structure for muscles to attach so that our bodies can move. Tendons are
tough inelastic bands that hold attach muscle to bone.
These are divided into two types:

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  The Axial Skeleton- the skeleton of the head and trunk. to provide support and
protection for the brain, the spinal cord, and the organs in the ventral body cavity. It
provides a surface for the attachment of muscles that move the head, neck, and trunk,
performs respiratory movements, and stabilizes parts of the appendicular skeleton.
It includes the skull, vertebral column, the ribs, and the sternum.
 The Appendicular- the outer limbs and the bones that connect the limbs to the center
or trunk of the body. These are the movable pieces - the arms and the legs - that allow
the body to move. It includes the shoulders, arms, hands, hips, legs, feet.

What is a bone?
 The bones and cartilage that forms the framework of your body.
 Babies have more than adults! At birth, you have about 300 bones. As you grow older, small
bones join to make big ones. Adults end up with about 206 bones.
 Cartilage- tissue that is tough but flexible.
 Femur- the largest and longest bone in the body.

Four main jobs of a bone:

1. To protect your body and give it shape.
2. To protect your internal organs.
3. To provide a scaffolding for your muscles, allowing you to move; and
4. To store minerals and make blood cells.

There are four types of tissue inside bones:

1. Compact bone: This hard and dense tissue makes up the outer layer of most bones and the
main shaft of long bones, such as those in the arms and legs. Nerves and blood vessels live
inside this tissue.

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 2. Spongy bone: This tissue is made up of smaller plates filled with red bone marrow. It is found at
the ends of long bones, like the head of the femur, and at the center of other cones.
3. Red bone marrow: forms most of the blood cells in the body and helps destroy old blood pay
cells.
4. Yellow bone marrow resides in the central cavities of long bones. It is mostly made up of fat.
However, if the body suffers large amounts of blood loss, it can convert yellow marrow to red to
make more blood cells.

Parts of the skeletal system

The Spine or vertebral column.
 It is the central support for the body.
 It is made up of separate bones called vertebrae.
 A series of irregularly shaped bones in the back that connects to the skull.
Ribs
 Your rib cage is made up of 12 vertebrae, 24 ribs and a breastbone in three parts. It protects
your heart and lungs from knocks and bumps.
Skull
 Consists of 22 separate bones that make up the cranium, the housing for the brain.
 Twenty-one of those bones are fused together by sutures, nearly rigid fibrous joints.
 The lower-most bone of the skull is the mandible, or jawbone.
Hands and Feet
 The bones in your hands and feet are VERY flexible.
 The foot has 26 bones. (tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges)
 The hand has 27 bones. (metacarpals, carpals, and phalanges)

Hips and Legs

 The hip bone helps us to stand upright and move.
 The main bones of the legs are the tibia, fibula, and femur.
 The patella (kneecap) is also important!
Arms
 The bones in the arm are very flexible.
 The three bones that make up the arm are the ulna, radius, and humerus.

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  The two bones that form the shoulder are the clavicle and the scapula.

Kinds of Joints
 Ball and socket joints - is a type of synovial joint in which the ball-shaped surface of one
rounded bone fits into the cup-like depression of another bone.
Shoulder and hip
Rotation, circling, and twisting
 Hinge joints - type of joint that functions much like the hinge on a door, allowing bones to
move in one direction back and forth with limited motion along other planes.
Elbow, knee, or finger
Stretching and bending

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 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
The muscular system specialized tissue that enable the body and its parts to move.

Functions of the Muscles

 Movement. Skeletal muscles pull on the bones causing movements at the joints. ...
 Support. Muscles of the body wall support the internal organs. ...
 Protection. ...
 Heat generation. ...
 Blood circulation.
Classification of Muscle
 Functionally
 Voluntarily-can be moved at will
 Involuntarily- can't be moved intentionally
 Structurally
 Striated-have stripes across the fiber
 Smooth-no striations


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The 3 Types of Muscles
1. Smooth Muscle
- Visceral muscle is found inside of organs like the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels. The
weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscle makes organs contract to move substances
through the organ. Because visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of the brain, it
is known as involuntary muscle—it cannot be directly controlled by the conscious mind. The
term “smooth muscle” is often used to describe visceral muscle because it has a very smooth,
uniform appearance when viewed under a microscope.
 Found in the circulatory system
 Lining of the blood vessels
 Helps in the circulation of the blood
 Found in the digestive system
 Esophagus, stomach, intestine
 Controls digestion
 Found in the respiratory system
 Controls breathing
 Found in the urinary system
 Urinary bladder
 Controls urination
2. Cardiac Muscle
- Found only in the heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. Cardiac
muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously, so it is an involuntary muscle.
 Cells are branched and appear fused with one another
 Has striations
 Each cell has a central nucleus
 Involuntary
 Found ONLY in the heart
 Contractions of the heart muscles pump blood throughout the body and account for the
heartbeat.
 Healthy cardiac muscle NEVER fatigues

3. Skeletal Muscle
- Skeletal muscle is the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body—it is controlled
consciously. Every physical action that a person consciously performs (e.g. speaking, walking, or
writing) requires skeletal muscle. The function of skeletal muscle is to contract to move parts of
the body closer to the bone that the muscle is attached to. Most skeletal muscles are attached to
two bones across a joint, so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to each other.
 Fibers are long and cylindrical
 Has many nuclei

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  Has striations
 Have alternating dark and light bands
 Voluntary
 Attached to skeleton by tendons
 Causes movement of bones at the joints.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROWTH
A person goes through stages of development infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
Within each stage changes occur. The most evident are the physical changes. There is a growth spurt in
height and weight during the stage of infancy and in the early adolescent years. If no change occurs, it
means there is no growth because growth is change However, the rate and extent of change differ
among individuals because each one has his own or personalized "time and quality table."

Growth does not happen overnight. It is very clear that evidence of growth cannot be expected
in a day or two. Physical growth, or any kind of growth, whatsoever, is a developmental process, and it is
orderly because it follows a pattern as infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. However, it can
be observed that during infancy there is a rapid physical growth, during pre-school and elementary
school years growth is continuous but slower, it is rapid again but uneven during the adolescent years,
and, finally, all the growing parts catch p and more stable state is reached.

Growth toward social and emotional maturity is not also easy and smooth. There are
Periods of slow growth and retrogressions especially when the environment is not favorable.

The characteristics of growth have implications for the physical education teacher.
Let must keep facilitate growth and help the children to know themselves. He should be
Sensitive to some of the symptoms that individuals manifest when their adjustment is not

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