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HUMAN SECURITY (MGPE-011)
TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Assignment Code: MGPE-011/ASST/TMA/2022-23

Marks: 100

Answer five questions in all, selecting at least two questions from each section. Each
questionis to be answered in about 500 words. Each question carries 20 marks.

SECTION- I

Examine the relations between human security and peace building.

Critically examine the Gandhian vision of human security.

What do you understand by state violence? What are the types and theories of state
violence?

What are the effects of global warming? What are its effects of development?

Discuss the problem of child labour in India. Discuss the measures in operation for
their empowerment.

SECTION- Il

Write a short note on each part of the question in about 250 words:

6. a) Human security and Development

b) Empowering Bonded Labour

a) Gender Discrimination, Child and Migrant Labour

b) Organic Farming

a) Poverty as Structural Violence

b) The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights

a) Civilians in Armed Conflict

b) Food Secunity and tts significance

10. a) Gandhian vision for international cooperation

b) Differentiate between traditional secunty and Human security

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MGPE-11: HUMAN SECURITY

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SECTION-I
Q1. Examine the relations between human security and peace building.
Ans. Human Security: An arms race 1s like a spiral because once it begins 1t becomes a spiral and
gains 1ts Own momentum. Peace can’t be achieved unless the use of violence for settling human
conflicts 1s replaced with non violent means This was repeatedly expressed by Mahatma Gandhi Just
as peace does not mean an absence of war but means peace with justice and dignity, similarly, the
term non-violence should be understood not just as absence of physical injury but as an active force of
love towards all creatures including humans, animals and plants
Human Security 1s an emerging paradigm for understanding global vulnerabilities whose proponents
challenge the traditional notion of national security Human security holds that a people-centered
view of security 1s necessary for national, regional and global stability
The concept of human security emerged in the post-Cold War period when a peace dividend was
expected, But the number of intra state conflicts increased, even though inter-state conflicts declined.
With this a multi-disciplinary understanding of security involving different security threats evolved
The United Nations Development Programme 1994 Human Development Report 1s considered a
milestone publication in the field of human security, The Report laid emphasis on “freedom from
want” and “freedom from fear” for all, These freedoms are considered as the best path to tackle the
problem of global insecurity
The search for peace and security 1n a world marked by extreme economic, social and cultural
heterogeneity, bedeviled by self-aggrandising states which go to war against each other, occasionally
plunging the world into senseless destruction, has inspured many proposals for creating one “True
World’ where every individual 1s at peace The search for peace is also within states that are marked
by ethnic, religious and other kinds of conflicts Often states themselves have an entrenched eltte that
repress change leading to conflicts The human security paradigm suggests a multi-dimensional way
of resolving conflicts by guaranteemng security
Peace Building: Peace building strategies are those that seek to address the underlying causes of
disputes, conflicts, and crises, 1t 1s necessary to ensure that these problerns do not arise in the first
place or if they do arise, they would not recur In ‘An Agenda for Peace’, the SecretaryGeneral of the
UN focused his attention on non-recurrence, what he described as ‘postconflict peace building’ But
peace building has a strongly preventive character as well If the foundations are properly laid by
efforts, among other things, to create fair systems of rules, fair ways of distributing scarce resources,
and to meet basic human needs for survival and dignity, then the chances are that many potential
problems, whether international or internal, will remain manageable

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At the heart of the notion of peace building 1s the idea of human security for a reasonable standard of
living, and for recognition of identity and worth Conflict, whether crossborder or with in country
exists, when important interests or needs of one or more parties are frustrated, threatened or remain
unfulfilled There are many strategies for identifying these needs and interests and as far as possible,
to accommodate and reconcile them Here the focus 1s more general, on creating the conditions that
will ensure non-recurrence of the problems
The term peace building 1s a semantic innovation, but the 1dea behind 1t has roots 1n old religious and
moral teachings Part of the doctrine’s foundations found expression in the writings on the ‘Law of
Nature’ in the concepts of human touch 1n the time of the Renaissance, and later in the postulates of
the young bourgeoisie attacking the privileges of the Church and the absolute rule of emperors The
French Revolutions were influenced by these writings and the postulates of the Enlightenment, as
well as by the formulations of “Bills of Rights” concerned with equality and liberty as the factors of
war prevention and assertion of peace
With the decay of primitive society and the formation of states, legal systems came into being within
the state territories as instruments of the rulers for the maintenance of public order and security At
the same time, principles necessary for the conduct of mutual relations among sovereigns took shape
At first the latter were of a predominantly customary character and were concerned with the alliances
for defence, or common military undertakings such as the procedures for staging wars, their conduct,
the fate of war prisoners and booty, delimitation of borders, and simular problems However, there 1s
an impressive body of evidence that shows that even in ancient times, the written law of nations
relating to matters of commerce, negotiations, respect of treaties, diplomatic representation, neutrality
and peace building were not rare
In contradiction to the human security dealing with crucial problems of state sovereignty and
essentially with the relationship between individuals and the state, the law of war 1s concerned with
the results of armed conflict between sovereigns, with the protection of the wounded, the ill,
prisoners and the civilian victims of armed conflicts Paradoxically, 1t reached a high degree of
codification and implementation generations ago This 1s so because not only humanitarian principles
but also mutual interest contributed to 1ts formulation.
To a large extent, peace building involves doing exactly the sorts of things that a civilised
international community, and the states that make it up, should be doing anyway 1e putting in place
effective international rules-systems, dispute resolution mechanisms and cooperative arrangements,
meeting basic economic, social, cultural and humanitarian needs, and rebuilding societies that have
been shattered by war or other major crises But too often in the past these things, while seen as
worthwhile in their own right, have not been identified clearly enough as absolutely integral to the
achievement and maintenance of peace and security, and as a result have been given less than the
attention they deserve If we are to achieve just and durable peace in the post-Cold War world, 1t 1s
crucially important that the international community pay adequate attention to human security

Q2. Critically examine the Gandhian vision of human security.

Ans. The earlier concept of security of individual and nation was rooted in the concept of sovereignty
The security of citizens was secured by promoting state or national security It has been traditionally
assumed that if a state 1s secure then its citizens will be secure since security will trickle down to the
citizens Such a security 1s achieved by securing the elements of the state This security covers people
living 1n the geographical boundary of the state and protecting the frontiers of the state securing both
territorial integrity and security of the state People are also protected as a group or collectively by
protecting them from external threats and by investing for their development which 1n turn promotes
national security The government undertakes the responsibility of protection of state power or
sovereignty When sovereignty 1s ensured and enforced, the state security 1s automatically ensured
The state activities to develop the territory, including the infrastructure and people, ensure the
development of the whole society

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The concept of human security dealt in the UNDP HDR 1994 reflects the modern concept of human
security The International Commission on Intervention and Sovereignty viewed human security as a
central concept for national and international institutions, particularly in view of United Nations’
endorsement of this concept stating that “ensuring human security 1s, 1n the broadest sense, the
cardinal mission of the United Nations”
There are other expressions also, which bring out the content and significance of the human security
Such views can help in the formulation of policies and programmes for the implementation of the
schemes of human security Lyal S Soonga advocates a concept of human security that is fully
informed by international human rights law, international humarutarian law, international criminal
law, and international refugee law, and takes into account the international legal norms
King and Murray take a focused view to emphasise human security measures in terms of ‘years lived
outside a state of generalized poverty’ Some consider human security as a pre-condition of human
development. Some view it 1n broad terms covering not only right to basic material needs but also
human dignity and democratic practice
Mahatma Gandhi did not use the word ‘human security’ perhaps because that word and that concept
of security was not prevalent, and the problems of poverty, inequalities was dealt with as economic
problems only but not as security issues Issues of terrorism and violence of many types were dealt
with as issues of internal security But the Mahatma’s views on society, politics, and economics clearly
indicate that he would have welcomed the concept with open hands and deep sincerity
There are many of his views which show that he would have been very happy with the concept of
human security He was against monopoly He said “I hate privilege and monopoly Whatever
cannot be shared with the masses 1s taboo to me” He also identified himself with the humanity He
said, “I believe in absolute oneness of God, and therefore, of humanity” He also claimed his message
to be universal He advocated that all- rich and poor—should be equal “If all worked for their bread,
distinction of rank would be obliterated” He also advocated equality of wages According to him,
production should be determined by social necessity and not by personal greed He believed in the
dignity of labour and pleaded for universal education. He strongly advocated the trusteeship
principle in business which would bring benefit to all, especially labour He strongly believed in the
principle of ‘from each according on his abilities to each according to his needs’ He advocated
‘Sarvodaya’ and ‘Antyodaya’ meaning ‘development of all and development of the poorest (of the
last man) To him ‘plain living and high thinking’ was the ideal
Human Security (Gandhian Vision)
e Human security 1s people-centered Its focus shifts to protecting individuals The important
dimensions are to entail the well-being of individuals and respond to ordinary people's needs
in dealing with sources of threats Man should be the Supreme consideration
e In addition to protecting the state from external aggression, human security would expand
the scope of protection to include a broader range of threats, including environmental
pollution, infectious diseases, and economic deprivation
e The realisation of human security involves not only governments, but a broader participation
of different actors, viz regional and international organisations, non-governmental
orgamsations and local communities
e Human security not only protects but also empowers people and societies as a means of
security People contribute by identifying and implementing solutions to insecurity

Q3. What do you understand by state violence? What are the types and theories of state violence?
Ans. All the forms of violence, state violence has been of much interest to researchers As in other
forms of violence, 1t too has multiple forms, perpetrators, victims and purposes This category of
political violence includes state and non-state actors, 1t may originate from internal or external
sponsors, take forms that range from terrorism and guerilla warfare to sectarian violence, police
actions, riots and assassinations Violence 1s often used to generate publicity for a cause, besides
attempting to inform, educate and rally masses In South Asia, the examples of state violence are cited

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from Sri Lanka and Pakistan and in India This violence takes varied forms from violation of rights to
deprivation in terms of social and economic causes
Theory on Greed and Grievances: Though Aristotle once said, ‘poverty 1s the parent of revolution
and crime,’ globalisation theorists of the present decade have underpinned personal greed and
grievances as the major cause of armed conflict According to them, globalisation represents two
processes in greed theories It brings changes 1n the state— particularly the erosion of state authority
and public goods—which can make societies vulnerable to conflict, the other fostered by increased
opportunities from transborder trade, both legal and illegal As a result, “many civil wars are caused
and fuelled not by poverty but by ‘resource curse’ Data from Southeast Asia, distinctly show that,
even those conflicts that has been categorised as “separatist,” “communal”, “ethnic” or “ideological,”
do have a clear element of ‘greed’ in them The exploitation of mining opportunities in the Philippines
has come into conflict with indigenous land rights and competition over resources, while ongoing
violence in Papua, Sulawesi and Malaku 1n Indonesia, 1s not just religious or ethnic 1n character, but a
tiff for land and resources exacerbated by environmental degradation. At the same time the greed
theories do not talk about the greed of multinational corporations and the greed of the global elite
that basis its profits on the extraction of resources from already poor countries Instead they focus on
the ‘resource curse’ as 1f yust having a resource in a poor country 1s a curse itself rather than systemic
poverty, colonialism and its forms being the curse
A related set of theories applies the greed motive not to rebel groups but to corrupt governments,
arguing that such governments engage in rent seeking and predation 1n order to enrich themselves,
repay the support of allies and pay off potential adversaries In the process they weaken the state’s
capacity to fulfill public service requirements and alienate groups that fail to receive the fruits of the
government’s benevolence Ergo, groups in the periphery, mobilize in violent opposition to the
government In Indonesia, for instance, the top-down development approach that enabled three
decades of rapid economic growth during Suharto’s era was one-sidedly driven by the center Profits
from the exploitation of the natural resources of the Outer Islands were controlled by Jakarta, while a
relatively small share of the revenue was directly returned to the provinces The military was used to
ensure compliance As a result, separatist movement in some provinces —East Timor, Timor Lorasai,
Aceh, Irian Jaya—carried social conflict to 1ts ultimate extent, calling for the dissolution of natural ties
and the founding of new nation-states
Still other scholars have associated certain types of conflict with instabilities that arise from social
change in an increasingly globalized world. Barber, for instance, blarnes violent resistance to
modernity, cultural umperialism, socio-economic exploitation and loss of sovereignty as reasons
behind armed conflict Others focus on economic instability with increasing marketisation as reason
behind public dissension Amy Chua and Michael Mousseau, see the market not as neutral but as one
bringing fundamental change and violent opposition
Grievance theory: Besides, economic and greed factors, a competing set of theorists, see political
grievances as one of the most important source of violent conflicts According to them armed conflicts
in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, the Philippines, India and Pakistan, among others, cannot be
understood without reference to political grievances Edward Azar, for instance, has argued that civil
wats generally arise out of communal groups’ collective struggle “for such basic needs as security,
recognition and acceptance, fair access to political institutions and economic participation Other
analysts have found political factors arising from weak state capacity to the dermal of human needs, as
central to many contemporary conflicts, in conjunction with economic motives Such theorists suggest
that sustainable peace requires addressing underlying grievances through direct engagement with the
state However rather than just grievances, the root cause of the grievance which is often the denial of
human rights should be analysed as the reason for conflicts
A second subset of grievances theorists focus on identity-based conflict as the salient catalyst of
armed conflicts since the 1980s Terming it as an acute “ethnic security dilemma,” scholars like Ted
Gurr, Woodward and Marshall, see ethnic and religious competition as the focal point of civil war in
the post Cold War era Drawing upon the Political Instability Task Force Data, these scholars suggest

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that ethnic wars are likely to occur when the state actively and systematically discriminates against
one or more in the following
e = larger countries with medium to high ethnic diversity,
e when the country 1s a partial democracy with factionalism,
e when the country’s neighbors are already embroiled in a civil war or ethnic conflict,
e when a country has experienced an ethnic conflict or genocide 1n the previous 15 years,
e when a country has a large youth population
Samuel P Huntington, for instance, stressed the threat from countries and culture that base their
tradition on religious faith and dogma, identifying geopolitical fault-lines between “civilizations” as
reasons behind social dissension The West’s ‘next confrontation’, 1s going to come from the Muslim
world, traced Huntington “It 1s the sweep of the Islamic nations from the Maghreb to Pakistan that
the struggle for a new world order will begin “We are facing,” said Bernard Lewis, “a movement far
transcending the level of issues and policies and the governments that pursue them This 1s no less
than a clash of civilizations—the perhaps irrational but surely historic reaction of an ancient rival
against our Judeo-Christian heritage, our secular present and the world-wide expansion of both”
These theories however are based on a racists ideology Because civilizations do not go to war with
each other, but countries do Also countries go to war because of specific reasons that may be
territorial, ideological, imperial etc Thus both Huntington and Lewis have flawed ideas based on an
ideology of Western supremacy and phobia against Islam.
However, most scholars find this ‘ethnic security dilernma’ issue problematic According to them,
ethnic dissention leading to armed conflict occurs only when
e it 1s juxtaposed with high levels of poverty, failed political institutions and economic
dependence on natural resources,
e When itis the result of elite manipulation whereby radical leaders exploit the insecurities felt
by people in divided societies 1n situations of political volatility
Yet another school of thought thinks that relative deprivation sparks political grievances and violent
mobilisation, as economic inequality within a society, especially across distinct identity groups or
communities foment armed conflict These “horizontal inequalities” appear to be linked with conflict
at moments of economic change, sometimes extending to armed confrontation Conflicts could be
initiated not only by the most deprived groups may initiate conflict, but also the relatively more
privileged, who fear the loss of their position Researchers at the Center on Inequality, Human
Security and Ethnicity at the University of Oxford found that horizontal inequalities are more likely
to provoke conflict when inequalities are sustained and prolonged over time, boundaries between
different identity groups are relatively impermeable, there are fairly large numbers 1n the different
groups, horizontal inequalities are consistent across dimensions, where aggregate incomes slacken
down and new leaders are not co-opted into the ruling system and the government 1s not responsive
to social grievances

Q4. What are the effects of global warming? What are its effects of development?
Ans. At the turn of the last century, the Earth’s atmosphere contained about 280 parts per mullion of
carbon dioxide This means that the global average temperature 1s of about 57 degrees Fahrenheit
This was not considered to be adverse But as fast industrialization and growth started taking place,
beginning with the industrial revolution in the Western Countries and followed by the rest of the
World, industrial pollution, chemical changes were the outcome Many experts and researchers
showed the negative impact of the process of such development based on high growth rates As Bill
Mckibben puts it, with growing developmental needs, we started using more coal, gas and oil to
power our lives that increased this 280 number As industrialisation gained pace, there was a
simultaneous growth in the economy as also an increase in the carbon emissions and the green house
gases (GHGs) 1n the Earth’s atmosphere owing to the use of fossil fuels, gas and oil The automobiles
that we are driving today are producing and emitting so much of GHGs Likewise, incessant use of
pesticides and fertilisers to boost agriculture productivity are generating and emitting green house

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gases like methane and nitrous oxide And it 1s these emissions that are causing the atmosphere of the
Earth to get heated up and become unduly warm One of the features of the molecular structure of
CO2 1s that it traps heat near the planet’s surface that would otherwise radiate back out to space So
obviously, with the increase in the CO2 parts and other GHGs, the Earth’s temperature started rising
Now, it 1s at 380 and increasing by roughly two parts per million annually The extra heat that CO2
traps, a couple of watts per square metre of the Earth’s surface, 1s enough to warm the planet
considerably And this 1s already showing results in terms of receding glaciers, unpredictable
seasonal patterns, and sea level rise throughout the world This 1s causing an adverse affect on the
economy, especially agriculture and industry, more so of the developing world, not to mention the
undesirable costs on health
Based on a number of reports 1n recent years, scientists argue that the CO2 parts should not increase
beyond 450, as this will lead to the melting of Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets Therefore, it 1s
necessary and also an obligation on the part of the countries of the world to contain CO2 emissions
Scientists warn that the current CO2 emissions should be cut by at least half over the next 50 years to
avert a future global warming disaster The projected emission 1s of 16 billion metric tons of carbons a
year by 2057, 1f we do not reduce (McKibben 2007)
The industrialised countries have the highest of carbon emissions, and US carbon emissions are a
quarter of the world’s total, and this 1s continually and steadily rising China and India (India’s
carbon emissions, which currently account for almost 6 per cent of the world total, will more than
triple within the next 20 years According to a report compiled by a number of Indian institutions, the
country’s emissions will soar from 12 billion tonnes today to between 4 and 7 billion tonnes in 2030)
have started producing huge quantities of CO2 and today, China has overtaken US 1n terms of the
carbon emissions that was 62 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide in 2006 in comparison to the
United States, which produced 5 8 billion metric tons of CO2 , underscoring the pace and speed of
industrialisation taking place in the country With huge populations and rapid economic growth of
these countries, the prospect of worldwide decline in emissions seerns much more daunting
It appears very difficult to bring about the differentiated responsibilities with rapid and sustained
cuts in emissions by the technologically advanced countries and large scale technology transfer to the
developing world The question 1s whether the former can think and act ina manner that 1s conducive
to reduction in emissions on a major scale and transfer of technology that can enable the developing
countries to contain emissions without compromising on development and growth agenda The
stabilisation of the current carbon emissions at the present level along with reducing them in future 1s
the need of the hour

Q5. Discuss the problem of child labour in India. Discuss the measures in operation for their
empowerment.
Ans. “In recent years there has been a dramatic change in attitudes about child labour Demial and
indifference have given way to acknowledgement, outrage, and a readiness to tackle the problem
effectively Ridding the world of child labour will require a significant commutment of resources by
the international community Yet, globally, over two decades of the economic benefits of eliminating
child labour would exceed the costs by nearly seven times Eliminating child labour 1s unquestionably
a sound financial investment” Juan Somavia, Director General, ILO, 2005
Problems of Marginalisation of Child Labour: Child Labour 1s a highly complex and
multidimensional issue in developing countries like India It 1s marginalised through the
marginalisation of Children’s parents Withdrawal of child labour many times 1mpoverishes its family
to such an extent that the ‘liberated child’ returns to child labour The problem 1s the marginalisation
of its parents in perpetual poverty How to help the parents so that they may not be compelled to
send their children to work 1s the biggest problem
Childhood 1s considered to be the most ernyoyable period of a person’s life It 1s also the most crucial
stage in life deterrmming the child’s personality and 1ts human capital quality, for acquiring good

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education and training that can help them throughout their life To help these working children 1s a
challenging problem.
Children are compelled to work for long hours for low wages, to work 1n hazardous industries in
appalling conditions where they have little or no control over their working conditions, are made to
carry heavy loads or sit 1n fixed postures for long hours In hazardous industries they come into direct
contact with poisonous gases, chemicals, fire, cotton fluff and dust which makes them highly
susceptible to diseases like tuberculosis, asthma, bronchitis, silicosis and byssinosis
Though they add to the income streams of the family, 1t 1s at a heavy social and economic cost The
gain 1s short-term and the level of wages or income that children get are a pittance compared to the
need based wage or income Further there are long-term losses to the child, its family and society The
child 1s deprived of good education and training and this prevents it from developing itself into a
high quality human capital resource The family 1n the long-term loses the high income that the child
would have earned if it had recerved better education and skills The social loss 1s maximum as, on
the one hand society loses potential human capital and on the other, 1t has to provide more resources
for providing social security for such population whose income 1s bound to remain low The loss of
human capital has grave implications for productivity and economic growth and development. Thus
failure of marginalised poor parents and marginalised children who have no say for their own
interests and development has grave implications to the children, parents and the society
Measures for the Empowerment of the Marginalised Children:
The most important efforts to elirmnate childlabour abuses throughout the world come from the
International Labour Organization (ILO), a special agency of the United Nations Right from the year
of its inception, the ILO adopted several Conventions and Recommendations concerning child labour,
including a minimum age of 16 years for admussion to all work, a higher mummmum age for specific
types of employment, compulsory medical examinations, and regulation of mght work In the late
20th century the ILO added to this list the worst forms of child labour, including slavery, prostitution,
debt bondage (the practice of requiring children to work off loans made to their parents), and forced
mulitary service The ILO, however, does not have the power to enforce these conventions, it depends
on voluntary compliance (ratification) by member nations
There were special Commussions to study and asses the incidence of child labour in the country
Projects like International Project on Elimination of Child Labour of the ILO and the India-US project
particularly on rehabilitation of the child labour, and Government of India’s National Child Labour
Project have made and continue to make significant progress in dealing with the elimination of child
labour Government, employers and employees/unions - are being sensitised on the issues, and
parents are convinced and helped NGOs also have a significant presence in the area of education and
development of child labour Special attention 1s also paid to the rescue and rehabilitation of girl
children
The Government of India and state governments have taken a number of measures to tackle the
problem of child labour The Indian Constitution’s Directive Principles prohibit the abuse of the
tender age of children until 14 years of age Several ILO conventions on child labour have been
ratified by India. The Government of India has passed the comprehensive Child Labour Act of 1986
There are measures to rescue child labourers and prosecute those who abuse child labour There 1s
ample scope to implement the laws and programmes effectively and proceed to achieve child labour
eradication Free and compulsory education for all children till the age of 16 1s essential to eliminate
child labour The GOI has passed the Right to Education Act, but it needs to be rigorously
implemented

SECTION- II
Write a short note on each part of the question in about 250 words:
Q6. (a) Human security and Development
Ans. According to Sabina Alkire, ‘human security shares conceptual space’ of human development,
this 1s likewise people-centered and multidimensional and 1s defined 1n the space of human choices

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and freedoms For example, food security promotes both human security and human development
Both human security and human development deal with education and training to ensure entitlement
based on capabilities for enlightenment and better living Both assume several rights and freedoms
like empowerment
But human development 1s considered to be a broader concept dealing with various developmental
aspects of a person’s individual development whereas human security 1s confined to basic essentials
for life Human development 1s also much more long term as development itself 1s a long term
phenomenon unlike human security which 1s concerned with immediate aspects of earning, working
and living Again, human development 1s driven by a more holistic objective like sound development
of a person’s personality in terms of all round development. Human development thus captures the
‘aspirations of any society whether rich or chronically poor’
In scope too there 1s difference The aim of human development 1s the flourishing of people’s lives in
their homes and society and expansion of valuable choices In contrast, human security 1s more
limited 1n scope, more concerned with the immediate requirements of life But both deal with the
development of the poor and weak Human security 1s also concerned with preventive aspects of
development like prevention of AIDS, small pox etc Further as indicted by the terms themselves,
human development 1s more concerned with ‘equitable growth’, human security focuses more on
human safety and protection from threats and calamities like recession, natural calamities, national
emergencies etc This 1s different than mere focus on growth and high Gross Domestic product (GDP)
as that does not bring development for all in an equitable way and 1n fact can lead to widening
inequality and disparity and thus social conflict
Human security and human development are essential for good life, though human development 1s a
broader concept dealing with development of a person’s faculties and long term positive
development while human security deals with protecting a person from hunger, poverty and
unemployment, disasters etc Thus both concepts serve the needs of people and both contribute to
good life for people
(b) Empowering Bonded Labour
Ans. Bonded labour refers to the age old system wherein a labourer 1s tied down to render his
services to his creditor in lieu of consideration from him or his ancestors to the labourer or to his
ancestors Thus it indicates a cruel bondage on indebted labourers This system prevails
predominantly in rural areas and makes the life of such indebted labourers miserable There 1s no
precise estimate of bonded labour Different estimates around mid 1990s show wide variance While a
survey done by the Gandhi Peace Foundation put their total figure at 267 lakhs, the survey carried
out by the NSSO showed a figure of 3 45 lakhs and the survey carried out by the state governments
put the number a 2 06 lakhs While exact number 1s a matter of doubt, their significant presence 1s not
disputed
‘The system of bonded labour 1s an outcome of customary obligations, forced labour or indebtedness
under which a debtor agrees to render service Though the system is deeply embedded 1n feudal and
serm feudal social structure, 1t 1s also prevalent in advanced agriculture with capitalist feature and in
the non-agricultural sectors’ It 1s obviously a system of exploitation of poor labourers The problems
of bonded labourers 1s a part of the wider socio-economic problems of excess supply of labour,
unemployment, low wages and poor standard of living of labourers with little surplus, rural illiteracy
and helplessness Such labourers are in permanent debts The system perpetuates itself and powerful
intervention 1s needed to prevent their miserable conditions
The Government of India decided to abolish this evil practice stating that “bonded labour, wherever it
exists will be declared illegal” In 1975 the government promulgated the Bonded Labour System
(Abolition) Ordinance This was replaced by the Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act 1976 It freed
unilaterally all the bonded labourers from bondage with simultaneous liquidation of their debts Even
after two decades, there 1s still a significant presence of this labour and 1n spite of clear provisions of
identifying bonded labour, declaring them free and having plans for their rehabilitation, the evil
practice still prevails A strong concerted effort on the part of all concerned 1s necessary to put an end
to this practice and empower the freed labourers for a new productive life

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Q7. (a) Gender Discrimination, Child and Migrant Labour

Ans. Gender discrimination affects adversely women workers who are paid much less than their male
counterparts even though this 1s unconstitutional This practice 1s prominent in unorgarmised sector
Along with this is the prevalence of child labour A large numbers of rural workers in backward areas
with no irrigation facilities are migrant workers who are always exploited by their employers who
pay them less for their work
The above facts portray the complex problems faced by rural labour in India These problems are also
multidimensional and chronic and require sustained and multifaceted efforts to deal effectively
Economically rural labour has not been able to improve its position due to lower wages despite the
Minimum Wages Act of 1948 because of its poor implementation There 1s also large amount of
reserve and surplus labour which keeps wages low This one single measure, if implemented
effectively, could be of great help to the unorganised labour There 1s also employers’ resistance in
raising wages which 1s also facilitated by large supply of labour compared to 1ts demand According
to the government surveys, the rural labour suffer from indebtedness often leading to bonded labour
A recent survey showed that 50% of Indian peasantry 1s indebted. Their earnings are further affected
by the seasonal nature of agriculture While during busy harvesting season they get better wages and
more employment opporturities, during slack seasons their earning capacity and opportunity fall so
low that many of them, especially males, are forced to migrate to nearby urban areas or better-off
states like Punjab and Haryana Hard working conditions, inadequate pucca houses, lack of
infrastructural facilities and difficult financial access make their conditions worse Conditions of rural
artisans and craftsmen have deteriorated on account of decline of their traditional crafts due to
competition from machine-made goods and substitutes like advanced technological services and
plastic goods Labour replacing devises also displace labour There 1s an urgent need to address this
from alternative ways of development.
(b) Organic Farming
Ans. Organic farming, agricultural system that uses ecologically based pest controls and
biological fertilizers derived largely from animal and plant wastes and nitrogen-fixing cover crops
Modern organic farming was developed as a response to the environmental harm caused by the use
of chemical pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in conventional agriculture, and it has numerous
ecological benefits
Compared with conventional agriculture, organic farming uses fewer pesticides, reduces soil erosion,
decreases nitrate leaching into groundwater and surface water, and recycles arumal wastes back into
the farm These benefits are counterbalanced by higher food costs for consumers and generally lower
yields Indeed, yields of organic crops have been found to be about 25 percent lower overall than
conventionally grown crops, although this can vary considerably depending upon the type of crop
The challenge for future organic agriculture will be to maintain 1ts environmental benefits, increase
ylelds, and reduce prices while meeting the challenges of climate change and an increasing world
population
Orgamic farming can replace the use of chemical pesticides with a combination of physical and
biological measures, including eco-friendly bio-pesticides Bio-pesticides are locally available
Organic materials that do not harm the health of the farmers, do not affect the yreld and do not
pollute the environment. They include extracts of chillies and garlic, neem seeds, cow dung and cow
urine, milk, ghee, fish, jaggery, yoghurt, lime, eggs, custard apples and so on Initially, the farmers are
taught to cultivate without pesticides, and once this 1s done, they do without fertilisers too and
become completely orgaruc Some of the crops grown under the organic farming are paddy, red gram,
groundnut, cotton, jowar, bajra, sunflower, castor, turmeric, chillies and vegetables Organic farming
is now being practised in many states across the country such as Maharashtra, Punjab and Andhra
Pradesh There is an added advantage that once farmers learn these practices, they disseminate the
knowledge to others The farmers in Andhra Pradesh have also been doing their own research and
coming up with orginal solutions This 1s crucial in making the farmers self-reliant in terms of
knowledge and inputs

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Q8. (a) Poverty as Structural Violence

Ans. Poverty 1s one of the worst or deadliest forms of structural violence As a social condition,
poverty 1s prevalent all over the world but with varying expressions Poverty 1s extreme, structural,
systermc and sustained economic deprivation, which in the first instance typically produces
powerlessness As Amartya Sen has shown, such structural denials of basic freedom result in agency
constrained to the extent that individuals become unable or lack the ‘capability’ to meet their basic
needs It not only demes ‘one freedom’ to human beings but also amplifies or multiplies the other
forms of freedom, which render the poor people disproportionately vulnerable to a whole array of
violations Poverty means a concomitant impairment of access to resources, access to adequate
healthcare, water, shelter, etc
The present day growth of disparity between rich and poor has resulted in an unequal world system.
The exploitative and unjust social, political and economic systems have given birth to extensive
poverty and hunger, which have become a pressing issue for much of the world According to one
analyst, ‘nearly a fifth of all human beings live below one dollar per day “ UNU-WIDER, 1n tts report
of 2006, mentioned that ‘the richest one per cent of adults alone owned forty percent of global assets
in the year 2000 and that the richest ten per cent of adults accounted for eighty five per cent of the
world total ’
Radical disparities in poverty are rampantly apparent among children and women. Even the booming
economy has failed to reach them Women and children suffer from the unjust, harmful,
institutionalised inequalities of wealth, social status, and power Due to poverty, these disadvantaged
and socially marginalised groups suffer from disproportionate death, disability, despair, humiliation,
and heartache
(b) The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Ans. Human rights have been evolving historically over 300 years Some important mulestones 1n this
development include the Habeas Corpus Act of 1679, which guaranteed individual freedom and
safety against arbitrary arrest and purushment The 1689 Bill of Rights codified rule of law, right to
vote, individual liberty and judicial guarantees The 1776 US Declaration of Independence offered
right to life, and the 1789 French Declaration of the Right of Man and the Citizen covered extended
sovereignty, government, general will of the people, equality before law, accountability, right to resist
oppression and right to property, security, freedom of conscience, and of opinion In the 1920s, the
League of Nations enforced its mission as one to create cooperation between nations and guarantee
peace and security But the concept of human rights as a universal declaration came after the horrific
experiences of the fascist killings during the Second World War Human nghts principles were
written in the United Nations Charter Later in 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was
adopted by the United Nations General Assembly which asserted ‘a combination of civil, political,
economuc, social, cultural rights’ There were also declarations on rights of women and children, war-
affected people etc In 1976 with the adoption and entry into force of the International Covenant on
Economic, Social, Civil Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICPR)
the Universal Declaration of 1948 was strengthened After this there were several notifications
covering security, cooperation, against torture, against racial discrimination, right to intervention by
the UN, rights to the minorities, elirmnation of discrimination against women and rnghts of child
The UN General Assembly adopted the important Declaration on the Right to Development in 1986,
which includes the Rights of Food, Education and Health Most significant declaration after the 1948
Declaration was the ‘Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action’ adopted in 1993 by the World
Conference of Human Rights, upholding human rights stating that ‘human nghts and fundamental
freedoms are the birthnghts of all human beings, their protection and promotion 1s the first
responsibility of governments’ (Part I, Paral) It can be concluded that globally human relations stand
tall upholding freedom and democracy, notwithstanding violations 1n some parts and states
The third stage 1s from the 1948 when Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the
United Nations making human rights global nghts The rights that were first demanded were cavil
and political rights, therefore called the first generation nghts The second generation rights covered

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the nights to work, income, food, health etc, Human rights instruments came in the form of treaties
and resolutions These became the standards to judge the practice of human rights The Universal
Declaration of Human Rights 1s one such important standard But with the emergence of the Cold
War and the rivalry between the USA and the USSR, the development of human rights movernent got
derailed During the 1970s there was a progressive shift to rights practice In 1980s, several human
rights against practices like discrimination against women, against torture, etc , were institutionalised
From 1990s onwards, with the Cold War having ended, human rights have come to centre stage once
again This trend 1s likely to continue with more and more democratic countries emerging, taking the
human relations practices more seriously and sincerely

Q9. (a) Civilians in Armed Conflict

Ans. Conflicts from Kosovo to Sierra Leone to Sudan show that “civilianization” of armed conflict has
become one of the most common and disturbing features of modern war More than ever, non-
combatants, especially the most vulnerable, are not merely caught in the crossfire, but are themselves
principal targets In the past decade, casualties from armed conflict have doubled to about one million
a year In the First World War, 1n contrast, civilian casualties accounted for only five per cent of all
casualties Today, 1n modern conflicts, closer to 80 per cent of the casualties are civilians
The forced exodus, the appalling brutality, the state-sponsored murders and disappearances
perpetrated against thousands of innocent people — all of this underscores the fact that in our world,
civilians suffer the most from violent conflict They bear the brunt of the new practices of war — for
example, the deplorable use of child soldiers or savage paramulitaries And they suffer most from the
inexpensive — yet all-too-readily-available — tools of modern combat, such as landmines, small arms
and other weapons
The nature of war has changed in other ways Most conflicts today occur inside rather than between
states Wars from within can be just as brutal and ugly as conflicts between states While the number
of armed conflicts between states has declined over the last 25 years, the number of intra-state
conflicts has increased dramatically Among the 103 wars fought since the end of the Cold War,
around 97 were fought within rather than between states The crises 1n the Great Lakes region of
Africa, in Bosnia and Kosovo, and East Timor are only some of the best-known examples 1n a series of
conflicts with tragic implications for affected populations
Brutalisation and exploitation of civilians, involving gross violations of humanutarian law, have led to
massive refugee flows Such situations cannot simply be seen as internal matters but as matters that
affect us all
(b) Food Security and its significance
Ans. “God who 1s unnamable and unfathomable by human understanding, and 1t means God of the
poor, God appearing in the hearts of the poor For the poor the economic 1s the spiritual You cannot
make any other appeal to those starving millions It will fall flat on them But you take food to them
and they will regard you as their God They are incapable of any other thought According to me the
economic constitution of India and, for the matter of that, the world should be such that no one under
it should suffer from want of food and clothing In other words, everybody should be able to get
sufficient work to enable him to make two ends meet.” Mahatma Gandhi
Food security refers to access for people, especially poor who are below poverty line, to adequate
food necessary for a normal life Food security 1s a social concept dealing with community needs
Adequate food means sufficient quantity of nourishment that a person 1n normal circumstances 1s
required to consume according to food science experts According to the Planning Commission, a
person needs a mumimum of a daily calorie intake of 2400 1n rural areas and 2100 in urban areas
According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), a person needs a miurumum of 2000
calories per day
In terms of quality the food must be reasonably nutritious that enables a person sustain and develop
his physical and mental faculties and personality Therefore the food must include pulses, edible oils,
milk products, egg, meat, and some fruits and vegetables These together will give the required

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nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, mineral and vitamins necessary for healthy growth If
people do not get the required diet they are deprived of nourishment which may adversely affect
their capabilities affecting their growth and development
Food security also means that people, especially poor, have the ability to pay in terms of purchasing
power needed for purchasing the required quantity and quality of food in terms of nutrients This
ensures that the human resource in the society get what 1s needed for a normal life and can be
expected to contribute towards promoting economic growth and development of the society Food
security ensures that in the society every one gets the mummmum required food and nutrients for a
productive life and therefore can contribute to the progress of the society
The absence of food security can have disastrous consequences for the deprived people and the
society It becomes a stigma if a significant section of the population 1s unable to participate in the
development process of the society When adequate nutrients are not available in one’s food, 1t
impairs one’s ability to work Stunted growth, weak eyes etc deprive them of the ability to pursue a
good employment career Such malnutrition also reduces the immunity or resistance to diseases,
often affecting adversely the whole lifetime Inadequate food and nutrition add to hunger and keep
people weak, underdeveloped and inefficient Infants and women are especially vulnerable in terms
of food insecurity
At a collective level, people deprived of food remain unemployed or face a very poor quality of
employment with low wages which leads to waste of human resources Further, such dependent
population constitutes a burden on the economy and society as they have to be provided with food
and again they may have to be offered public assistance when they become sick or invalid On the
whole a society with a significant section deprived of food security, make development meaningless
as it results in an unbalanced development where the rich get richer and poor degenerate into more
acute poverty The absence of food security retards a society’s development while adequate security
releases productive human resources for nation-building

Q10. (a) Gandhian vision for international cooperation

Ans. Gandhi's approach to non-violence places him as a farsighted, sensitive and perceptive man of
peace He believed in the indivisibility of peace and the possibilities that conflicts could be
transformed when the bitterness of the disputes are resolved through spiritual means For Mahatma
Gandhi, Peace building and international cooperation emanate from a nationalist perspective In
many ways, he 1s an original contributor to the thinking of peace research The concept of structural
violence 1s a product of social relationships of exploitation Viewed from this angle, the control
exercised by an imperial power 1s a classic case of structural violence, the British domination over
India being one of them. The fight that Gandhi carried on against it was a non-violent fight against
violence Interdependence 1s and ought to be as much the 1deal of man as self-sufficiency To Gandhi
the eliumination of exploitation in the social, economic and the political could result in fertile grounds
for nations to cooperate Adopting the paradigm of Christ, that ‘the Kingdom of God 1s within you’,
Mahatma Gandhi was convinced that cooperation could be possible when the spiritual
transformation of Divine image imparts on humans and communities
Gandhi viewed that conflicts are temporary in nature and are subject to transformation by
cooperation. He affirmed his faith in the precept and experience of Ahimsa as the basis by which
peace 1s created Influenced by Christ’s Sermon on the Mount of blessed are the peacemakers for they
shall be called children of God, Gandhi believed in the innate nature of the Divine in human mind
and conscience by which values of peace and harmony could overcome the situation of conflicts, or in
other words transform conflicts into cooperation He wrote “As everything 1n the world 1s subyect of
constant change, and conflicts also are not the exception, the nature of conflict too changes from time-
to-time, no matter if conflicts are inevitable and the basis or root cause of them seems to be the same
in one way or the other” Gandhian non-violence accords solution to all problems, it 1s capable to
transform conflicts into cooperation to make the way of life peaceful and developing, 1f it 1s applied
according to demand of time and prevailing circumstances 1n space

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Gandhi 1s a well-known proponent of nonviolence and peace in the world He has widely written on
war, peace and security vis-a-vis individuals, states and vaster global perspectives He was not a
system builder in thought and action, but combined the ideals and reality He 1s a percerver of reality
as a “practical idealist” He 1nterweaved the two cords of human knowledge and human dynamics of
action. By this interweaving, a holism of Gandhian vision and action emerged that was scientific
Deriving his understanding of Christ’s Millennium reign, Gandhi perceived that international
cooperation was premised on the inherent linkage between knowledge, virtue or wisdom on the one
hand, and security of a civil society comprising understandably connected individual(s), groups,
administrative units, polis of different magnitudes, provinces, sovereign states, international and
global organisations, on the other hand There 1s very clear line of thinking and continued
relationship amongst these aspects of security from the level of an individual to an international
establishment and global order Security, defence, and strategic environs and peace have to begin
with the individual first Other levels of security will have to follow suit
(b) Differentiate between traditional security and Human security.
Ans.

Traditional Security Human Security

(Gandhian Vision)

Referent Traditional securnly policies are Human security is people-centered Its

designed to promote demands focus shits to protecting individuals.
ascribed to the state. Other interests The important dimensions are to entail
are subordmated ta those of the the well-being of individuals and
state Traditional security protects a respond to ordinary people's needs in
state's boundaries, people, dealmg with sources of threats. Man
institutions and values. should be the Supreme consideration.

Scape Traditional security seeks to defend In addition to protecting the state from
states. from external aggression- extemal aggression, human secunty
State secunty is about a state's would expand the scope of protection
ability to deter or defeat an attack It to include a broader range of threats,
makes uses of deterrence strategies including environmental pollution,
to maintain the integrity of the state infectious diseases, and economic
and protect the termitery from deprivation.
external threats.

Actors) The state is the sole actor, to ensure The realisation of human security
its own survival, Decision making invelves not only governments, but a
power is centralised in the broader participation of different
government, and the execution of actors, viz. regional and international
strategies rarely involves the public. organisations, non-goevermental
Traditional security assumes that a organisations and local communities
sovereign state is operating in an
anarchical intemational
environment, in which there is no
world goveming bady to enforce
intemational rules of conduct.

Means Traditional secunty relies upon Human security not only protects but
building up national power and also empowers people and societies as
military defence. The common a means of security. People contribute
fonns it takes are armament races, by identifying and = implementing
alliances, strategic boundaries etc. solutions to insecurity.

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