INDIAN

GEOGRAPHY
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 Contents
1. INDIA - LOCATION 1-7

2. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY 8-16

3. DRAINAGE SYSTEM 17-30

4. CLIMATE 31-47

5. NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS 48-65

6. SOILS 66-73

7. NATURAL VEGETATION 74-84

 1 India - Location
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapter 7 of Class VI NCERT (The
Earth: Our Habitat), chapter 1 of Class IX NCERT (Contemporary India), and chapter 1 of Class
XI NCERT (Indian Physical Environment).

Introduction
India is a country of vast geographical expanse. It covers an area of 3.28 million square kilometres,
accounting for 2.4 per cent of the world’s total area. In the north, it is bound by the lofty Himalayas,
in the west lies the Arabian Sea, in the east lies the Bay of Bengal and in the south lies the Indian
Ocean, washing the shores of the Indian peninsula.

India and the World

' The Indian landmass has a central location between East and West Asia (Refer Figure 1.1).
' The trans-Indian Ocean routes, which connect the countries of Europe in the West and the
countries of East Asia, provide a strategic central location to India.
' The Deccan Peninsula protrudes into the Indian Ocean, thus helping India to establish close
contact with West Asia, Africa and Europe from the western coast and with Southeast and
East Asia from the eastern coast.
' India’s strategic location at the head of the ocean since ancient times and its long coastline
which is longer than any other country in the Indian Ocean rim, justifies the naming of an
Ocean after it.

POINTS TO PONDER
Historically, India’s location has helped her to maintain a central position in world trade
throughout most of her history. On the other hand, It has hindered the growth of Indian
Political Entities and restricted them within the confines of the Himalayas and the Indian
Ocean. Do you think India’s location in the world map is a double edged sword. If yes, find
out the positives and negatives emanating due to the location of India.

Additional Information
Since the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, India’s distance from Europe, has been reduced by
7,000 km.The Suez Canal is an artificial sea level waterway connecting Red Sea in Indian Ocean to
Mediterranean Sea.
 180°W 150° 120° 90° 60° 30°W 0° 30°E 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°E
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 75°N

60°
North
America Europe 45°
Asia

30°

PACIFIC ATLANTIC Africa PACIFIC 15°N

OCEAN OCEAN OCEAN
0°
South INDIAN
America OCEAN
15°S

Australia
30°

45°

60°

Antartica 75°S

Figure 1.1: India and the World

India and its Neighbours

' India is located in the south-
central part of the continent of
Asia, bordering the Indian Ocean
and its two arms extending in the
form of the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea.
' The maritime location of Peninsular
India has provided links to its
neighbouring regions through the
sea and air routes.
' There are seven countries (Refer
to Figure 1.2) that share land
boundaries with India namely
Pakistan and Afghanistan in
the Northwest, China, Nepal,
and Bhutan in the North and
Myanmar and Bangladesh in the
east.
' Among India’s neighbours
Afghanistan, Nepal and Bhutan
do not have access to any ocean or
sea.
' In the Indian Ocean, lie our
island neighbours -Sri Lanka and
Maldives. Sri Lanka is separated
Figure 1.2: India and its Neighbours
from India by the Gulf of Mannar
and Palk Strait whereas Maldives Islands are situated to the south of the Lakshadweep Islands.
' India has had strong geographical and historical links with its neighbours.

2
India’s geographical Extent

India - Location
' India is located in the northern hemisphere. From south to north, the mainland of India
extends between 8°4'N and 37°6'N latitudes from Kanyakumari to Karakoram which is
about 3,200 km and from east to west, India extends between 97°25'E to 68°7'E longitudes
from Arunachal Pradesh to Kutch which is about 2,900 km (Refer Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3: India: Longitudinal Extent and Standard Meridian

' To the southeast and southwest of the mainland Do You Know?

lie the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the
Lakshadweep Islands in the Bay of Bengal and 82°30'E has been selected as the Standard
Meridian of India as it passes through the
the Arabian Sea respectively.
centre of India.

3
 ' Also, it has a land boundary of about 15,200 km and the total length of India’s coastline
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY (Including Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands) is 7,516.6 km.
' India’s territorial limit further extends towards the sea up to 12 nautical miles (about 22.2 km)
from the coast.

Physical and Administrative Division of India

Physical Divison
' India is marked by a diversity of physical features such as mountains, plateaus, plains, coasts
and islands (Refer Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Physical Map of India

4
' Standing as sentinels in the north are the lofty snow-capped Himalayas. Himalaya mean ‘the

India - Location
abode of snow’.
Do You Know ?
' The Himalayan mountains: These are divided into three
main parallel ranges. These are: The Ganga and the Brahmaputra
form the world’s largest delta,
* The northernmost is the Great Himalayas or Himadri.
the Sundarbans delta. The delta
The world’s highest peaks are located in this range. is triangular in shape. It is an
* The Middle Himalaya or Himachal lies to the south of area of land formed at the mouth
Himadri. Many popular hill stations are situated here. of the river (Where rivers enter
the sea, that point is called the
* The Shiwalik is the southernmost range.
mouth of the sea).
' Northern Indian Plain: It lies to the south of the Himalayas.
They are generally flat and formed by the alluvial deposits Do You Know ?
laid down by the rivers – the Indus, the Ganga, the The southernmost point of the
Brahmaputra and their tributaries. Indian Union– ‘Indira Point’ got
submerged under the sea water
' Great Indian desert: It lies in the western part of India. It
in 2004 during the Tsunami.
is a dry, hot and sandy stretch of land. It has very little
vegetation.
Do You Know ?
' Peninsular plateau: It lies to the south of the northern
± The Tropic of Cancer
plains. It is triangular in shape and the relief is highly (23°30'N) divides the country
uneven. This is a region with numerous hill ranges and into two almost equal halves.
valleys. ± The Southern half i.e.
* Aravalli hills, one of the oldest ranges of the world, southern part of the country
lies within the tropics
border it on the northwest side.
± The northern part lies in
* The Vindhyas and the Satpuras are the important the subtropical zone or the
ranges. The rivers Narmada and Tapi flow through warm temperate zone.
these ranges. These are west-flowing rivers that drain
into the Arabian Sea. Do You Know ?
* The Western Ghats or Sahyadris border the plateau Corals are skeletons of tiny
in the west and the Eastern Ghats provide the eastern marine animals called Polyps.
boundary. While the Western Ghats are almost When the living polyps die,
continuous, the Eastern Ghats are broken and uneven. their skeletons are left. Other
polyps grow on top of the hard
' Coastal Plains: To the West of the Western Ghats and the skeleton which grows higher
East of the Eastern Ghats lie the Coastal plains. and higher, thus forming the
* The western coastal plains are very narrow whereas coral islands.
eastern Coastal plains are much broader.
* There are a number of east-flowing rivers. The rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and
Kaveri drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers have formed fertile deltas at their mouths.
* The Sunderban delta is formed where the Ganga and Brahmaputra flow into the Bay of
Bengal.
' Islands: Two groups of islands also form part of India.
* Lakshadweep Islands are located in the Arabian Sea. These are coral islands located off
the coast of Kerala.

5
 * The Andaman and the Nicobar Islands lie to the southeast of the Indian mainland in the
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY Bay of Bengal.

Administrative division
* India is a vast country. For administrative purposes, the country is divided into 28 States
and 8 Union Territories (Refer Figure 1.5)
* New Delhi is the national capital.

Figure 1.5: India Political Map

6
Conclusion

India - Location
The geographical location of a country has a bearing on its climate, economic activities, culture as
well as defence. In order to have a better understanding of one’s own country, it is worthwhile to
study the location and the advantages and disadvantages resulting from it. Further, major policies
of India namely Economic policies, Energy policies, Foreign trade policies, and defence policies take
into account the location of India.

Glossary:
± Latitude: Often called parallels or circles of latitude, latitudes are imaginary circles parallel to the equator.
± Longitude: Longitude specify the east-west position of a location on the globe.
± Tropic of Cancer: The Tropic of Cancer lies at 23°30' north of the Equator and marks the most northerly
latitude at which the sun can appear directly overhead at noon.
± Indian Ocean littoral countries: Countries having coastline in the Indian Ocean.
± Standard Meridian: It is a longitude that determines standard time for the country. Standard Meridian
of India is 82 degrees 30 minutes and passes through Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh)
± Island: It is a body of land that is surrounded by water.
± Coastal Plain: It is a flat, low-lying piece of land next to the ocean.
± Plateau: It is a flat, elevated landform that rises sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side.
± Alluvial deposits: These are very fine soils, brought by rivers and deposited in the river basins.
± Tributary: A river or stream which contributes its water to a main river by discharging it into the main
river from either side.
± Peninsula: It is a piece of land that is surrounded by water on three sides.



7
 Structure and
2 Physiography
Bibliography: This chapter encompass the summary of Chapter-2 - XI NCERT (India Physical
Environment), Chapter 2 - IX NCERT (Contemporary India.)

Introduction
The Earth has transformed over time
due to endogenic and exogenic forces
shaping its surface and subsurface
features. For instance, The Indian
plate, once located south of the equator
and part of a larger entity including
the Australian plate, fragmented over
millions of years. The Australian plate
moved southeastward, while the Indian
plate moved northward, a movement
that continues today. This resulted
in the creation of the region's present
geological features and divisions. In this
chapter, we will study these geological
and physiographic divisions of India.

Major Geological Division of

India
India encompasses all major physical
features found on Earth. The country's
land exhibits remarkable physical
variations (Refer Figure 2.1). This
northward shift of the Indian plate
profoundly impacted the Indian
subcontinent's physical environment,
leading to the development of the
following geological divisions of
India.
' The Himalayas and other
Peninsular Mountains,
' The Indo - Ganga - Brahmaputra
Plain.
' The Peninsular Block Figure 2.1: Physical Features of India
The Himalayas and other Peninsular mountains

Structure and Physiography

' The Himalayas, a geologically young and impressive
fold mountain range, which stretches across India's
northern borders.
' This mountain system extends from the Indus River
in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east,
covering approximately 2,400 kilometers (Refer
Figure 2.2).
' The Himalayas consist of three main parallel
ranges: the Great Himalayas (Himadri), Lesser Figure 2.2: The Himalayas
Himalayas (Himachal), and Shiwaliks, which we will study in subsequent sections.
' They are still subjected to the interplay of exogenic and endogenic forces, resulting in the
development of faults, folds and the thrust plains.
Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain
' It is the third geological division of India consisting of vast plains formed by the Indus, Ganga,
and Brahmaputra rivers.
' Originally, this area was a geo-synclinal depression that reached its peak development
approximately 64 million years ago during the third phase of the Himalayan mountain formation.
' Over time, these plains have been gradually filled with sediments carried by the Himalayan and
Peninsular rivers.
' The alluvial deposits in these plains have reached an average depth ranging from 1,000 to
2,000 meters.
The Peninsular Block
' It is defined by its northern boundary as an irregular line extending from Kachchh along the
western flank of the Aravali Range near Delhi, and continuing roughly parallel to the Yamuna
and the Ganga until reaching the Rajmahal Hills and the Ganga delta, also encompasses
extensions like Karbi Anglong, Meghalaya, and Rajasthan.
' It is mainly composed of ancient gneisses and granites, this region has remained stable since
the Cambrian period despite tectonic activity.
' As part of the larger Indo-Australian Plate, it has experienced various vertical movements and
block faulting. Notable geological features include rift valleys like the Narmada, Tapi, and
Mahanadi, along with the presence of Satpura block mountains and various mountain ranges
such as Aravalli, Nallamala, Javadi, Velikonda, Pallikonda, and Mahendragiri.
' Additionally, the area's east-flowing rivers create shallow valleys and form significant deltas,
such as those of the Mahanadi, Krishna, Kaveri, and Godavari. Tectonic activity has led to
coastal changes, submerging parts of the western coast while sparing the original basement.
These geological variations significantly impact the physiography and relief of different regions in
India, as geological and geomorphological processes shape the subcontinent's landscape.
Physiography of India
' Physiography, the result of geological structure, ongoing processes, and developmental
stages, showcases India's diverse physical features.
' In the north, an expansive rugged landscape unfolds with a series of mountain ranges, diverse
peaks, picturesque valleys, and deep gorges.
' Contrasting this, the south comprises stable table lands characterized by dissected plateaus,
exposed rocks, and prominent scarps.
' Between these regions lies the extensive North Indian Plain, highlighting India's rich
physiographic diversity.

9
 ' Based on these macro variations, India can be divided into the following physiographic
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY divisions:
* The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
* The Northern Plain
* The Peninsular Plateau
* The Indian Desert
* The Coastal Plains
* The Islands.

Northern and Northeastern Mountains

' The North and Northeastern
Mountains encompass the Himalayas,
a series of parallel mountain ranges.
Notable among these are the Greater
Himalayan range, including the
Great Himalayas and the Shiwalik.
' These ranges generally run from
northwest to southeast in
northwestern India, while Darjeeling
and Sikkim's Himalayas stretch east
to west. In Arunachal Pradesh, they
extend southwest to northwest, and
in Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram,
they align north-south.
Figure 2.3: Some of the Highest Peaks of the
' The Great Himalayan range, at Himalayas
approximately 2,500 km in length
from east to west and varying from 160-400 km in width POINTS TO PONDER
from north to south, acts as a formidable natural barrier The Himalayas exhibit a pattern
separating the Indian subcontinent from Central and East when we move from west to east.
Asian countries. The peaks start getting higher
' The Himalayas along with other Peninsular mountains and the horizontal distance
are young, weak and flexible in their geological structure, between the three Himalayan
unlike the rigid and stable Peninsular Block. Consequently, ranges i.e. Upper, middle and
they are still subjected to the interplay of exogenic and lower start diminishing and the
endogenic forces, resulting in the development of faults, distinction among the
folds and thrust plains. three starts fading away.
' The Great Himalayas are the loftiest, with peaks averaging Can you find out the
around 6,000 meters and composed of granite. Prominent reason for the same?
peaks are found here.
' Lesser Himalayas, rugged and composed of highly compressed rocks, include ranges like
Pir Panjal, Dhaula Dhar, and Mahabharat. They encompass well-known valleys like Kashmir
Valley in U.T of Jammu and Kashmir and Kullu Valley Himachal Pradesh.
' The outermost range, the Shiwaliks, has an altitude ranging from 900 to 1100 meters and is
composed of sediments brought by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges to the north. These
valleys are covered in thick gravel and alluvium.
' Longitudinal valleys situated between the Lesser Himalayas and Shiwaliks are known as
Duns. Examples include Dehradun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun.
' The Himalayas are divided into regions based on river valleys, including Punjab Himalaya,
Kumaon Himalayas, Nepal Himalayas, and Assam Himalayas.

10
 Structure and Physiography
' The eastern boundary of the Himalayas is marked by the Brahmaputra River, from where these
extend further as the Purvanchal or Eastern hills.
' Beyond its physical presence, the Himalayas also influence climate, drainage, and cultural
distinctions.

The Northern Plains

' The Northern Plain, a vast alluvial region, results
from the convergence of three major river systems:
the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra, along
with their tributaries.
' Stretching around 3,200 kilometres from east to west
and varying in width from 150-300 kilometres, this
fertile plain is rich in alluvial soil. (Refer Figure 2.4)
' Over millions of years, sediment deposition at the
base of the Himalayas created this highly productive
agricultural area, covering approximately 7 lakh sq.
km and supporting a dense population.
' The Northern Plain features diverse zones, including Figure 2.4: The Northern Plains
Bhabar (along the Shiwalik foothills), Tarai (marshy
and swampy), and the alluvial plains.
' Within the alluvial plains, two categories are notable: Khadar (younger floodplain deposits) and
Bhangar (older alluvium deposits).
' The region exhibits various relief features, such as sandbars, meanders, oxbow lakes, and
braided channels formed by the rivers.
' A distinctive geographical feature is the 'Doab,' representing fertile land between two rivers. The
'Punjab' region, derived from 'Punj' (five) and 'ab' (water), signifies the presence of five major rivers.
' Majuli, located in the Brahmaputra River, stands as the world's largest inhabited riverine
island.
' Dudhwa National Park is situated in the Terai region, a swampy area characterized by rich
natural vegetation and diverse wildlife.
' Dhubri, located in Assam, marks a significant point in the course of the Brahmaputra River.
Here, the river takes a nearly 90° southward turn before entering Bangladesh.
' The Brahmaputra plains exhibit riverine islands, sandbars, and periodic floods, forming braided
streams and deltas.
' Haryana and Delhi serve as a water divide between the Indus and Ganga river systems.
' The Brahmaputra River flows from northeast to southwest, impacting the geography of the
Northern Plain.
' These fertile alluvial plains support a large population due to their agricultural productivity.

11
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY Peninsular Plateau
' The Peninsular Plateau is an
ancient tableland composed
of crystalline, igneous, and
metamorphic rocks.
' Rising from the height of 150 m
above the river plains up to an
elevation of 600-900 m is the
irregular triangle known as the
Peninsular Plateau.
' It is one of the oldest and the most
stable landmass of India with a
general elevation of the plateau
from the west to the east, which
can be seen in the pattern of the
flow of rivers.
' It was formed due to the breaking
and drifting of the Gondwanaland,
making it one of the oldest land
masses.
' Delhi ridge in the northwest,
(extension of Aravalis), the Rajmahal
hills in the east, Gir range in the
west and the Cardamom hills in the
south constitute the outer extent of
the Peninsular plateau along with
an extension of this seen in the
northeast, in the form of Shillong
and Karbi-Anglong plateau.
' It is made up of a series of patland plateaus like the Hazaribagh plateau, the Palamu plateau,
the Ranchi plateau, the Malwa plateau, the Coimbatore plateau and the Karnataka plateau, etc.
' A few notable features of this region are tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky
structures, series of hummocky hills and wall-like quartzite dykes which are natural sites for
water storage.
' The western and northwestern part of the plateau is marked by the presence of black soil. It
has gone through recurrent phases of upliftment and submergence along with crustal faulting
and fractures. For example, Bhima fault which experiences recurrent seismic activity.
' These features have diversified the relief of the plateau. Some of them, like the northwest
complex reliefs, gorges and ravines of Chambal, Bhind and Morena are some of the well-known
examples.
' On the basis of the prominent relief features, the Peninsular Plateau can be divided into three
broad groups: Deccan Plateau, Central Highland, and N-E Plateau.
The Deccan Plateau
The Deccan Plateau is surrounded by geographical features:
* Western Ghats in the west
* Eastern Ghats in the east
* Satpura, Maikal range, and Mahadeo hills in the north.

12
' The Western Ghats are known by various local names, including Sahyadri in Maharashtra,

Structure and Physiography

Nilgiri Hills in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, and Anaimalai Hills and Cardamom Hills in
Kerala.
' The Western Ghats are higher in elevation and more POINTS TO PONDER
continuous compared to the Eastern Ghats, with an The Deccan Traps are a distinct
average elevation of about 1,500 meters, increasing from landscape found in and around
north to south. Maharashtra region. Find out
the unique characteristics of
' Notable peaks in the Western Ghats include Anamudi
the Traps and the reason for
(2,695 meters) on the Anaimalai Hills and Dodabetta (2,637
its formation. Can you link
meters) on the Nilgiri Hills. Anamudi is the highest peak on
the reason with the
the Peninsular plateau.
resources available in
' Many of the major Peninsular rivers originate in the Western this area, particularly,
Ghats including Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Mahanadi etc. the Black soil.
' The Eastern Ghats consist of discontinuous and low hills,
which have been significantly eroded by above mentioned rivers.
' Some important hill ranges within the Eastern Ghats include the Javadi Hills, Palconda Range,
Nallamala Hills, and Mahendragiri Hills (the highest peak in the Eastern Ghats). Shevroy Hills
and the Javadi Hills are located to the southeast of the Eastern Ghats.
' The Eastern and Western Ghats converge at the Nilgiri Hills.

The Central Highlands

' They are bounded by the Aravalli range to the west.
' Satpura range, with plateaus at 600-900 m elevation, forms the northern boundary of the
Deccan plateau.
' These highlands are relict mountains, highly denuded, and exist as disjointed ranges.
' The Peninsular plateau extends to Jaisalmer in the west, covered by sand ridges and crescent-
shaped sand dunes (barchans).
' Metamorphic processes have shaped the region, evidenced by rocks like marble, slate, and
gneiss.
' Elevation generally ranges from 700-1,000 m above sea level, sloping north and northeast.
' Many tributaries of the Yamuna River originate in the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
' The Aravalli range in the west gives rise to the Banas, a significant tributary of the Chambal
River.
' An eastern extension, the Rajmahal Hills, is followed by the mineral-rich Chotanagpur plateau
to the south.

The Northeastern Plateau

' It is an extension of the main Peninsular plateau.
' It was formed due to the north-eastward movement of the Indian plate during the Himalayan
formation, resulting in a significant fault between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau.
' This depression(fault) was later filled by river deposition, leading to the detachment of the
Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau from the main Peninsular Block.
' The Meghalaya plateau is subdivided into three regions: The Garo Hills, the Khasi Hills, and
the Jaintia Hills are all named after local tribal groups.
' An extension of this plateau is observed in the Karbi Anglong hills of Assam.

13
 ' Similar to the Chotanagpur plateau, the Meghalaya plateau is rich in mineral resources,
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY including coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone, and uranium.
' This region receives maximum rainfall from the southwest monsoon, resulting in a highly
eroded surface.
' Cherrapunji, in the Meghalaya plateau, is known for its bare rocky surface without a permanent
vegetation cover due to heavy rainfall.

The Indian Desert

' Located northwest of the Aravalli hills, it is
characterized by undulating topography with
longitudinal dunes, barchans and sandy
plains. Barchans, which are crescent-shaped
dunes, cover extensive areas.
' The desert area receives minimal rainfall,
averaging below 150 mm per year, resulting in
an arid climate and sparse vegetation. (Refer
Figure 2.5)
' Also known as Marusthali due to its distinctive
features. Figure 2.5: The Indian Desert
' It is believed to have been underwater during the Mesozoic era, evidence of which has been
found in wood fossils in Akal and marine deposits near Brahmsar (estimated to be 180 million
years old).
' While the underlying rock structure is an extension of the Peninsular plateau, surface features
have been shaped by physical weathering and wind actions.
' Some of the prominent desert features include mushroom rocks, shifting dunes, and oases
(primarily in the southern part).
' The desert can be divided into northern and southern parts based on their orientation, sloping
towards Sindh and the Rann of Kachchh, respectively.
' Streams briefly appear during the rainy season but often disappear into the desert sands as
they lack sufficient water to reach the sea. Rivers in the region are mostly ephemeral, with the
Luni River being the largest in the region.
' Low precipitation and high evaporation create a water deficit region.
' Some streams vanish into the sand and exhibit inland drainage by joining lakes or playas.
' Lakes and playas have brackish water, a major source of salt production.

Coastal Plains
India's extensive coastline can be broadly divided into two main regions: the western coastal plains
and the eastern coastal plains.

Western Coastal Plains

' These plains are submerged coastal areas and have natural conditions favorable for port
development. The western coastal plains consist of the Konkan, Kannad Plain, and Malabar
coast.
' Notably, the ancient city of Dwarka on the west coast is submerged.

14
' Key natural ports along this coast include Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN Port, Nhava Sheva,

Structure and Physiography

Marmagao, Mangalore, and Cochin.
' Geographically, it extends from the Gujarat coast in the north to the Kerala coast in the south.
' Divisions include the Kachchh and Kathiawar
coasts in Gujarat, the Konkan coast in
Maharashtra, the Goan coast, and the Malabar
coast in Karnataka and Kerala.
' The western coastal plains are narrow in the
middle and broaden up towards the north and
south.
' Rivers in this region do not form deltas, but
the Malabar coast is known for its "Kayals"
(backwaters) used for fishing and tourism.
' The Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is a
famous event held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.
Eastern Coastal Plains
' These plains are an example of an emergent coast
and are broader than their western counterparts. The Do You Know?
eastern coastal plains include the Northern Circar Chilika Lake is the largest salt
and Coromandel Coast regions. water lake in India. It lies in the
' Well-developed deltas are formed by rivers flowing state of Odisha, to the south of the
eastward into the Bay of Bengal, including the Mahanadi delta.
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri deltas.
' Lake Chilika is a significant feature along the eastern coast.
' Due to its emergent nature, there are fewer ports and harbours along this coast. The continental
shelf here extends up to 500 km into the sea, making it challenging for the development of
major ports and harbours.

The Islands
India has two major island groups, one in the Bay of Bengal and the other in the Arabian Sea.
Bay of Bengal Islands
' Comprising approximately 572 islands/islets, located between 6°N-14°N and 92°E -94°E.
' Divided into the Andaman Islands in the north and
the Nicobar Islands in the south, separated by the
Ten Degree Channel.
' These islands are believed to be an elevated portion
of submarine mountains, with some smaller islands
being volcanic. (Refer Figure 2.6)
' Notable features include Barren Island, the only
active volcano in India, and various mountain peaks
like Saddle Peak (738 m, North Andaman), Mount
Figure 2.6: The Islands
Diavolo (515 m, Middle Andaman), Mount Koyob
(460 m, South Andaman), and Mount Thuiller (642 m, Great Nicobar).
' The coastal areas have coral deposits and beautiful beaches.
' These islands experience convectional rainfall and have equatorial vegetation.

15
 ' The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was a devastating natural calamity that affected these
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY islands, among other areas, causing significant damage.
Arabian Sea Islands
' Includes Lakshadweep and Minicoy islands, located
Coral polyps are short-lived
between 8°N-12°N and 71°E -74°E, situated 280 km-
microscopic organisms, which live
480 km off the Kerala coast.
in colonies. They flourish in shallow,
' Formerly known as Laccadive, Minicoy, and mud-free and warm waters. They
Amindive, these islands were renamed Lakshadweep secrete calcium carbonate and their
in 1973. skeletons form coral deposits in the
' These islands are built entirely from coral deposits, form of reefs. They are mainly of
with about 36 islands, of which 11 are inhabited. three kinds: barrier reefs, fringing
Among these, Minicoy is the largest island. reefs and atolls. The Great Barrier
' These are divided into northern islands like Amini Reef of Australia is a good example
Island and southern islands like Canannore Island. of the first kind of coral reef. Atolls
are circular or horseshoe-shaped
' The eastern seaboard has storm beaches with pebbles, coral reefs.
shingles, cobbles, and boulders.
' These islands play a significant role in India's geography, with unique flora and fauna and
strategic importance. They have diverse ecosystems and equatorial climates.

Significance of India's Physical Features

' India's diverse physiographic units, each with its unique characteristics, contribute to the
nation's natural wealth.
' The mountains serve as primary sources of water and forest resources, vital for the country's
well-being.
' The northern plains, with their fertile soil, have long been the granaries of India and the
foundation of early civilizations.
' The plateau, rich in minerals, has played a pivotal role in the nation's industrialization.
' Coastal regions and island groups offer opportunities for fishing and port activities, enhancing
India's maritime potential.

Conclusion
A detailed account of the different physiographic units we studied above highlights the unique
features of each region. These regions complement one another, enriching India's abundant resources.
India's multifaceted physical features hold immense potential for future development, encompassing
agriculture, industry, and maritime endeavours.
Glossary:
± Mushroom rocks: They are the erosional landforms of the arid or desert region. The erosive power of
wind becomes very high at a certain height from the ground level. The resistant rocks take the shape of
mushrooms having a large top and a small neck.
± Ephemeral: An ephemeral stream is that which only exists following precipitation. They mostly receive
water in the rainy season.



16
 3 Drainage System
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapter 3 of Class XI (India Physical
Environment) Chapter 3 of Class IX (Contemporary India) of NCERT.

Introduction
The term "drainage" refers to the movement of water through well-defined channels, and the
collective system of these channels is referred to as a “drainage system”. The specific pattern of
drainage in a given area is a result of various factors, including the geological history of the region,
the type and composition of rocks, the topographical features, the slope of the land, the volume of
water flowing through, and the regularity of the flow over time.

Difference Between River Basin and Watershed

' A river serves as the drainage outlet for water collected from a Do you know?
specific region known as its “catchment area”.
The world's largest drainage
' An area encompassing a river and its tributaries, which
basin is the Amazon river.
collectively contribute to the river's water flow, is termed a
“drainage basin”.
' The demarcation line that separates one drainage basin from another is referred to as the
"watershed".
' In practice, catchments of larger rivers are commonly referred to as “river basins”, whereas
those of smaller rivulets and rills are often termed “watersheds”.
' Any elevated area, such as a mountain or an upland, B
eam
separates two drainage basins. Such an upland is known A
W
at
Str
eam
as a water divide (Refer Figure 3.1).
er
Str Di
vid
e
' River basins generally cover larger geographic areas
compared to watersheds, which are relatively smaller.
' Both river basins and watersheds share a fundamental
characteristic: they exhibit unity within themselves. What
Figure 3.1: Water Divide
occurs in one part of a river basin or watershed has a
direct impact on other parts and on the entire unit.
' This interconnectedness makes them ideal units for micro, meso, or macro-level planning
and management, as actions in one area can have far-reaching consequences throughout the
entire basin or watershed.
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY Important Drainage Patterns
± Dendritic: The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known as “dendritic”, the examples
of which are the rivers of the northern plain.
± Radial: When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the drainage pattern is known as
‘radial’. The rivers originating from the Amarkantak range present a good example of it.
± Trellis: When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each other and secondary tributaries join
them at right angles, the pattern is known as ‘trellis’.
± Centripetal: When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or depression, the
pattern is known as ‘centripetal’.

The Indian Drainage System

The Indian drainage system can be distinguished on the basis of discharge of water, size of watershed
and on the basis of origin i.e. Himalayan or Peninsular (Refer Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2: Major River of India

18
On the Basis of Discharge of Water (Orientations to the Sea)

Drainage System
The Indian drainage system can be grouped into two, the Do you know?
Arabian Sea drainage and the Bay of Bengal drainage.
± Many rivers have their sources in the
Both the drainage systems are separated through the
Himalayas and discharge their waters
Delhi ridge, the Aravallis and the Sahyadris. either in the Bay of Bengal or in the
' The Arabian Sea drainage: Nearly 23 percent, Arabian Sea.
comprising the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the ± Large rivers flowing on the Penisular
Mahi and the Periyar systems, and discharging plateau have their origin in the Western
their waters in the Arabian Sea. Ghats and discharge their waters in the
Bay of Bengal.
' The Bay of Bengal drainage: 77 percent of
± The Narmada and Tapi are two large
the drainage area, consisting of the Ganga, the
rivers which are exceptions. They along
Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. with many small rivers discharge their
and is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal. waters in the Arabian Sea.
On the Basis of the Size of the Watershed
On the basis of the size of the watershed, the drainage basins of India are grouped into three categories:
' Major river basins: These are river basins with more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment area. It
includes 14 drainage basins such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi, the
Narmada, the Mahi, the Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc
' Medium river basins: These are river basins with catchment areas between 2,000-20,000 sq.
km incorporating 44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc.
' Minor river basins: These are river basins with catchment areas of less than 2,000 sq. km
including a fairly good number of rivers flowing in the area of low rainfall.
On the Basis of the Mode of Origin
On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and characteristics, the Indian drainage may also be
classified into the Himalayan drainage and the Peninsular drainage.
Let us first understand the Himalayan drainage system.

The Himalayan Drainage

Characteristics of the Himalayan drainage system
' The Himalayan drainage system primarily comprises
the basins of three major rivers: the Ganga, the
Indus, and the Brahmaputra.
' These rivers exhibit a perennial flow as they
are nourished by both melting of snow and
precipitation.
' Their journey through the Himalayas is marked
by the creation of gorges, carved out through
the simultaneous processes of erosion and the
Himalayan uplift (Refer Figure 3.3). Figure 3.3: A Gorge
' Alongside the deep gorges, these rivers also form V-shaped valleys, turbulent rapids, and
waterfalls during their course through the mountainous terrain.
' As they transition into the plains, they undergo further transformations, resulting in
depositional features like flat valleys, ox-bow lakes, flood plains, braided channels, and
deltas formed near their respective river mouths. (Refer Figure 3.4)

19
 ' In the Himalayan reaches, the course of these rivers is highly winding and tortuous, but as
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY they flow over the plains, they exhibit a pronounced tendency to meander and frequently
shift their courses. This dynamic interaction with the landscape characterises the ever-
changing nature of the Himalayan drainage system.
' River Kosi, also known as the ‘sorrow of Bihar’,
has been notorious for frequently changing its Source of River
course. The Kosi brings a huge quantity of
sediments from its upper reaches and deposits Upper Course
it in the plains. The course gets blocked, and
consequently, the river changes its course. Middle Course
Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage

' The evolution of the Himalayan rivers has been a OX-Bow Lake
subject of debate, but geologists have put forward Meander

a theory that suggests a significant ancient river Lower

known as the Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma once Course
flowed along the entire longitudinal extent of the Delta
Himalayas, stretching from Assam to Punjab and
then onward to Sindh.
Figure 3.4: Some features made by
' This massive river is believed to have discharged rivers
into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab during
the Miocene period, which occurred approximately 5-24 million years ago.
' Evidence supporting this theory includes the remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its
deposits, which consist of sands, silt, clay, boulders, its lacustrine origin and alluvial nature.
' Over time, it is postulated that the Indo-Brahma river underwent a process of dismemberment,
resulting in the formation of three distinct drainage systems:
* The Indus and its five tributaries in the western part;
* The Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries in the central part; and
* The stretch of the Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan tributaries in the eastern
part.
' This dismemberment is thought to have occurred due to geological events during the Pleistocene
epoch. The uplift of the Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge) in the western Himalayas is believed to
have acted as a water divide, dividing the Indus and Ganga drainage systems.
' Likewise, the mid-Pleistocene downthrusting of the Malda gap area, situated between the
Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau, diverted the Ganga and Brahmaputra systems
toward the Bay of Bengal.

The Indus River System

' The Indus River basin is one of the largest river
basins of the world, encompassing an area of
11,65,000 square km, with 321,289 square km
falling within the boundaries of India.
' This river stretches over a total length of 2,880
km, of which 1,114 km are located in India.
' It is also known as the Sindhu, represents the
westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India.

20
' The Indus River originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu, located at approximately 31°15'

Drainage System
N latitude and 81°40' E longitude, in the Tibetan region.

Course of the Indus river

' Its source lies at an altitude of 4,164 metres within
the Kailash Mountain range. In the Tibetan region, it is
Do you know?
referred to as 'Singi Khamban' or Lion's mouth. According to the regulations of the
' After commencing its journey in the northwest Indus Water Treaty (1960), India can
direction, situated between the Ladakh and Zanskar use only 20 percent of the total water
ranges, it passes through regions like Ladakh and carried by the Indus river system.
This water is used for irrigation in
Baltistan.
Punjab, Haryana and the southern
' The river courses through the Ladakh range, forming and the western parts of Rajasthan
a dramatic gorge near Gilgit in the union territory of
Jammu and Kashmir, India.
' Eventually, it crosses into Pakistan near Chilas, within the Dardistan region.
' This river's remarkable journey through diverse landscapes is a significant aspect of the
geography and hydrology of the region.
' The river flows southward and receives ‘Panjnad’ a little above Mithankot. The Panjnad is
the name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab
and the Jhelum.
' It finally discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi. The Indus flows in India only through
Jammu and Kashmir.

Tributaries of the Indus river

' The Indus River system is characterised by several significant tributaries, each with its unique
origin and course.
' It receives a number of Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the Gilgit, the Zaskar, the
Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the Gasting and the Dras.
' It finally emerges from the hills near Attock where it receives the Kabul river on its right bank.
' The other important tributaries joining the right bank of the Indus are the Khurram, the
Tochi, the Gomal, and the Sangar. They all originate in the Sulaiman ranges.
Jhelum Khurram
Chenab Tochi

Left-Bank INDUS Right-Bank

Tributaries RIVER Tributaries
Ravi Gomal
Sutluj Beas Sangar

Some of the major left bank tributaries are:

Jhelum
' The Jhelum, a crucial tributary of the Indus, begins at a spring in Verinag, located at the
southeastern part of the Kashmir Valley, near the foot of the Pir Panjal mountain range.
' It traverses through Srinagar and the Wular Lake before crossing into Pakistan through a
deep, narrow gorge.
' Ultimately, it meets the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.

21
 Chenab
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus.
' It is formed by the confluence of two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, near Tandi, situated
close to Keylong in Himachal Pradesh. It is also referred to as Chandrabhaga.
' This river flows for approximately 1,180 kilometres before entering Pakistan.

Ravi
' The Ravi originates in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh, west of the Rohtang Pass.
' It flows through the Chamba valley before crossing into Pakistan, where it joins the Chenab
near Sarai Sidhu.
' During its course, the Ravi drains the region between the southeastern part of the Pir Panjal
and the Dhauladhar ranges.

Beas
' The Beas river is yet another important tributary originating from the Beas Kund near the
Rohtang Pass, at an elevation of 4,000 metres above sea level.
' It flows through the Kullu valley, forming gorges at Kati and Largi within the Dhauladhar
range.
' Upon entering the Punjab plains, it merges with the Satluj River near Harike.
Satluj

' The Satluj River has its source in the 'Raksas Tal' near Mansarovar, Tibet, at an altitude of
4,555 metres. It is known as Langchen Khambab in Tibet.
' The river flows nearly parallel to the Indus for around 400 kilometres before entering India.
' Then it emerges from a gorge at Rupar, passes through the Shipki La in the Himalayan
ranges, and subsequently enters the Punjab plains.

The Ganga River System

' The Ganga is a very significant river in India, both
in terms of its vast river basin and its cultural
importance as well.
' The river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by
Uttarakhand (110 km) and Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km),
Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal (520 km).
' The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq. km area
in India alone.
Do you know?
The Sundarban Delta derived its
name from the Sundari tree, which
grows well in marshland. It is the
world's largest and fastest growing
delta. It is also the home of Royal
Bengal tiger.

Course of the Ganga River

' It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh, situated at an elevation of 3,900 metres in the
Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. At this point, it is referred to as the Bhagirathi.
' As the river progresses, it navigates through the Central and Lesser Himalayas, carving its way
through narrow gorges.

22
' A pivotal moment in its course occurs at Devprayag, where the Bhagirathi meets the

Drainage System
Alaknanda, and from this juncture onwards, it takes on the name Ganga (Refer Figure 3.5).
' The Alaknanda itself originates from the
Satopanth glacier, located above Badrinath.
' Alaknanda river is formed by the convergence
of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga, which
come together at Joshimath, also known
as Vishnu Prayag. This meeting marks a
significant merging of waters in the upper
reaches of the Ganga's journey.
' The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as
the Pindar joins it at Karna Prayag while
Figure 3.5: Confluence of Bhagirathi and
Mandakini or Kali Ganga meet it at Rudra
Alaknanda at Devprayag
Prayag.
Important Tributaries of the River Ganga
' The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.
From here, it flows first to the south, Ghaghra
then to the south-east and east before Ganga
splitting into two distributaries, namely Gomati Gandak Kosi
the Bhagirathi and the Padma. Ramganga Lucknow
' The Ganga river system is the largest in Yamuna Kannauj Mahananda
India having a number of perennial and Allahabad
non-perennial tributaries originating Chambal Ken Son Hooghly Padma
Sindh Betwa Damodar
in the Himalayas in the north and the
Peninsula in the south, respectively.
Ganga River System
' The Son is its major right bank tributary.
' The important left bank tributaries are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the
Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda.
' The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal near the Sagar Island.
The Ganga river system is characterised by several other tributaries, each with its unique origin and
course as follows:

Left Bank Tributaries of Ganga

Namami Gange Programme
Gandak
The ‘Namami Gange Programme’, is an Integrated
' The Gandak comprises two streams, Conservation Mission, approved as "Flagship
namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. Programme" by the Union Government in June
2014 with the twin objectives of effective
' It rises in the Nepal Himalayas between
abatement of pollution, conservation and
the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and rejuvenation of the National River Ganga. Main
drains the central part of Nepal. pillars of the Namami Gange Programme are:
' It enters the Ganga plain in Champaran Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure, River-Front
Development, River-Surface Cleaning, Biodiversity,
district of Bihar and joins the Ganga at Afforestation, Public Awareness, Industrial Effluent
Sonpur near Patna. Monitoring, and Ganga Gram.

23
 Ghaghara
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' The Ghaghara River originates from the glaciers of Mapchachungo.
' As it flows, it collects water from its tributaries, including the Tila, Seti, and Beri rivers.
' Emerging from the mountains, it creates a deep gorge at Shishapani.
' Before meeting the Ganga at Chhapra, the Ghaghara is joined by the Sarda River, also
known as Kali or Kali Ganga, in the plains.
Kosi
' The Kosi River is an antecedent river, with its source located north of Mount Everest in Tibet.
' Its primary stream, the Arun, originates in this region.
' After traversing the Central Himalayas within Nepal, it is joined by the West-flowing Son Kosi
and the East-flowing Tamur Kosi, forming the Sapta Kosi.
Ramganga
' The Ramganga River is relatively smaller in size, starting its journey in the Garhwal hills near
Gairsain.
' After crossing the Shivalik region, it changes its course to the southwest and enters the plains
of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad.
' Eventually, it merges with the Ganga River near Kannauj.
Sarda
' The Sarda or Saryu River originates from the Milam glacier in the Nepal Himalayas, initially
known as the Goriganga.
' Along the India-Nepal border, it takes on the names Kali or Chauk and eventually joins the
Ghaghara River.
Mahananda
' The Mahananda River, a significant tributary of the Ganga, originates in the Darjeeling hills.
' It is the final left bank tributary of the Ganga and joins the river in West Bengal.
Gomati Son
Ghaghara Yamuna

Left-Bank GANGA Right-Bank

Tributaries RIVER Tributaries
Kosi
Ramganga Mahananda Damodar

Right Bank Tributaries of Ganga

Yamuna
' The Yamuna is the westernmost and longest tributary of the Ganga.
' It originates from the Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of the Banderpunch range,
with an elevation of 6,316 meters.
' It merges with the Ganga at Prayag (Prayagraj).
' The Yamuna is joined by several rivers on its right bank, including the Chambal, the Sind, the
Betwa, and the Ken, all of which originate from the Peninsular plateau.

24
' On its left bank, the Yamuna receives contributions from rivers such as the Hindon, the Rind,

Drainage System
the Sengar, and the Varuna.
Chambal
' The Chambal River, one of the major contributors to the Yamuna, originates near Mhow in
the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh.
' It close northwards through a gorge up wards of Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhi Sagar
dam has been constructed.
' Continuing its course, it moves through areas like Bundi, Sawai Madhopur, and Dholpur
before eventually joining the Yamuna.
' The Chambal is renowned for its unique badland topography, known as the Chambal ravines.
Son
' The Son River, on the other hand, is a major tributary situated on the south bank of the Ganga.
' Its source lies in the Amarkantak plateau, and it forms a series of waterfalls at the plateau's
edge.
' The Son River proceeds westward, passing Arrah, located to the west of Patna, before finally
merging with the Ganga.
Damodar
' The Damodar River flows along the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau, meandering
through a rift valley before eventually merging with the Hugli River.
' Its primary tributary is the Barakar River.
' Once notorious as the "sorrow of Bengal" due to its frequent flooding, the Damodar River has
been effectively managed and controlled by the Damodar Valley Corporation, which oversees a
multipurpose project in the region.

The Brahmaputra System

' The Brahmaputra River, one of the
largest rivers globally, originates from
the Chemayungdung glacier in the
Kailash range near Mansarovar Lake.
' The Brahmaputra River is notorious for
its frequent floods, channel shifts, and
bank erosion.
' This phenomenon is primarily a result
of its large tributaries, which carry
substantial sediment loads due to heavy
rainfall in the river's catchment area.
Course of the Brahmaputra River
' Initially, it flows eastward longitudinally for approximately 1,200 km in a dry and flat region of
southern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo, meaning "the purifier."
' In Tibet, the Rango Tsangpo serves as the major right-bank tributary of this river.
' The Brahmaputra transforms into a turbulent and dynamic river after carving a deep gorge in
the Central Himalayas, particularly near Namcha Barwa, which stands at an elevation of 7,755
metres.
' As it exits the foothills of the Himalayas, the river adopts the name Siang or Dihang.

25

NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' It enters India to the west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh.
' As it flows south-westward, the Brahmaputra receives its main left bank tributaries, including
the Dibang or Sikang and Lohit rivers. Following these confluences, it is recognized as the
Brahmaputra River.
' As the Brahmaputra River enters Bangladesh near Dhubri, it flows southward. In Bangladesh,
it is joined on its right bank by the Tista River, after which it is referred to as the Jamuna
River.
' Eventually, it merges with the Padma River, which ultimately falls into the Bay of Bengal.
Other Tributaries of the Brahmaputra River
' The Brahmaputra River, during its journey through the Assam valley, receives numerous
tributaries. Among its major left-bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing and Dhansari (South),
while important right-bank tributaries include the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas, and Sankosh
rivers.
' The Subansiri River, originating in Tibet, is characterised as an antecedent river.
The Peninsular Drainage System
Characteristics of the Peninsular Drainage System
POINTS TO PONDER
' The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan
one, which is evident from the characteristics of the rivers Prominent rivers of Peninsular
and the landscape. India like Godavari, Krishna
and Kaveri flow towards the
' The Peninsular drainage system features broad, mostly East into the Bay of Bengal.
graded shallow valleys, and the rivers exhibit maturity What do you think are the
in their courses. reasons behind this? However,
' The Western Ghats, which run parallel to the western coast, there is also a paradox of some
serve as the watershed between the major Peninsular west flowing rivers, prominent
rivers, which ultimately discharge their waters into the amongst which are
Bay of Bengal, and the smaller rivulets that flow into the Narmada, Tapi etc. Can
Arabian Sea. you figure out the reason
for this?
' Most of the significant Peninsular rivers except Narmada
and Tapi, flow from west to east.
' The Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken, and Son, originating in the northern part of the Peninsula,
are part of the Ganga river system. Other major river systems in the Peninsular drainage
include the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri (Cauvery).
' Peninsular rivers are characterised by their fixed courses, the absence of meanders, and
the non-perennial flow of water, although the Narmada and Tapi, which flow through rift
valleys, are exceptions to this pattern.
Cauvery Chambal
Narmada
Peninsular
Mahanadi
Rivers
Krishna Tapi
Godavari
The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System
Three major geological events in the distant past have played a crucial role in shaping the present
drainage systems of Peninsular India:
26
' Subsidence of the Western Flank: During the early Tertiary period, the western flank of the

Drainage System
Peninsula subsided below sea level. This event disrupted the symmetrical plan of the rivers on
either side of the original watershed.
' Upheaval of the Himalayas: The uplift of the Himalayas caused subsidence on the northern
flank of the Peninsular block, leading to trough faulting. The Narmada and Tapi rivers flow in
these trough faults and have filled the original cracks with their detritus materials. Consequently,
there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.
' Tilting of the Peninsular Block: The Peninsular block experienced a slight tilting from
northwest to southeast during the same period. This tilting gave the entire drainage system an
orientation towards the Bay of Bengal.
These geological events have had a profound impact on the flow patterns and characteristics of the
rivers in Peninsular India.
River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage:

Mahanadi:
' Origin: The Mahanadi River originates near Sihawa in the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh.
' Course: It flows through the state of Odisha, Chhattisgarh and River does not flow in MP,
but the river drainage basin included areas of MP traversing a total length of 851 kilometres.
' Catchment Area: The Mahanadi River has a vast catchment area that covers approximately
1.42 lakh square kilometres.
' Navigation: Some navigation activities are carried out in the lower course of the river.
' Drainage Basin: The drainage basin of the Mahanadi is distributed as follows: 53 percent of
it lies in the states of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while the remaining 47 percent is
located in Odisha. The Mahanadi River ultimately discharges its waters into the Bay of Bengal.

Godavari:
' Origin: The Godavari River originates in the Nasik
POINTS TO PONDER
district of Maharashtra. It is the largest river system
The Indian landscape is rich and
in the Peninsular drainage.
blessed with adequate water resources.
' Course: It flows through several states, including Despite this India has continued to be
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, a water stressed Nation for about a
Odisha, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, before decade now. What can be the causes
finally discharging its water into the Bay of Bengal. of this? Is the regional variation in
water distribution the cause or is low
' Length: The Godavari is a lengthy river, stretching
water use efficiency the determinant
for about 1,465 kilometres.
factor? To what extent do
' Catchment Area: Its catchment area is extensive, you think that inter-linking
covering approximately 3.13 lakh square kilometres. of Rivers can prove to be a
' Distribution: The distribution of the Godavari's solution?
catchment area is as follows: 49 percent lies in
Maharashtra, 20 percent in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, and the rest in Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha and Yanam (Puducherry).
' Tributaries: The river has several significant tributaries, including the Penganga, the Indravati,
the Pranhita, and the Manjra.
' Delta: After Rajamundri, the river splits into several branches, forming a large delta before it
enters the Bay of Bengal.

27
 Krishna:
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' Origin: The Krishna river originates near Mahabaleshwar in the Sahyadri (Western Ghats).
' Length: The total length of the Krishna river is approximately 1,401 kilometres.
' Tributaries: It receives water from several major tributaries, including the Koyna, the
Tungabhadra, and the Bhima.
' Catchment Area: The Krishna river's catchment area is quite extensive, with 27 percent of it
in Maharashtra, 44 percent in Karnataka, and 29 percent in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
Kaveri:
' Origin: The Kaveri river originates in the Brahmagiri hills, specifically in the Kodagu district
of Karnataka.
' Length: It has a total length of approximately 800 Do You Know?
kilometres.
' Catchment Area: The Kaveri river basin covers an area The river Kaveri makes the second
of 81,155 square kilometres. It spans across multiple biggest waterfall in India, knows
states, with around 3 percent in Kerala, 41 percent as Shivasamudram Falls. The
in Karnataka, and 56 percent in Tamil Nadu. hydroelectric power generated from
the falls is supplied to Mysuru,
' Tributaries: The Kaveri has several important Bengaluru and the Kolar Gold Field.
tributaries, including the Kabini, the Bhavani, and
the Amravati.
Narmada:
' Origin: The Narmada river originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at an
altitude of approximately 1,057 metres.
' Course: It flows in a rift valley between the Satpura Range in the south and the Vindhyan
Range in the north.
' Length: The Narmada river has a total length of about 1,312 kilometres.
' Catchment Area: The catchment area of the Narmada river covers approximately 98,796
square kilometres.
' Estuary: The Narmada river empties into the Arabian Sea south of Bharuch, forming a broad
27-kilometre-long estuary.
' Sardar Sarovar Project: It is a major multipurpose river valley project constructed on the
Narmada River. This project serves various purposes, including irrigation, hydroelectric
power generation, and water supply.
Tapi:
' Origin: The Tapi river originates from Multai in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
' Length: The Tapi river has a total length of approximately 724 km.
' Catchment Area: It drains an area of about 65,145 square km.
' Distribution: Approximately 79 percent of its basin lies in the state of Maharashtra, 15 percent
in Madhya Pradesh, and the remaining 6 percent in Gujarat.
Luni:
' Origin: The Luni River originates near Pushkar in Rajasthan. It has two main branches, the
Saraswati and the Sabarmati, which join together at Govindgarh.
' Course: Initially, the river flows westward, and after reaching Telwara, it takes a southwest
direction.
' Endpoint: The Luni River eventually drains into the Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat.

28
' Nature: The entire river system of the Luni is ephemeral, meaning it experiences seasonal

Drainage System
flow and is not a perennial river.

Lakes
' India boasts a diverse array of lakes, each distinct in terms of size and characteristics. Many of
these lakes are permanent, while others only contain water during the rainy season, particularly
in semi-arid regions with inland drainage basins.
' Some lakes have formed due to the actions of glaciers and ice sheets, while others owe their
existence to processes like wind and river action, as well as human activities.
' Oxbow lakes, for instance, develop when meandering rivers create cut-offs in floodplains
over time.
' Coastal areas give rise to lagoons through the formation of spits and bars, exemplified by
lakes like Chilika, Pulicat, and Kolleru.
' Inland drainage lakes, such as Sambhar Lake in Do You Know?
Rajasthan, are often seasonal and may contain 71 percent of the world’s surface is
saltwater, with their primary use being salt production. covered with water, but 97 per cent
' Freshwater Lakes: The Himalayan region hosts a of that is salt water. Of the 3 percent
majority of freshwater lakes, predominantly of glacial that is available as freshwater, three
origin. These lakes were carved out by glaciers and quarters of it is trapped as ice.
subsequently filled with snowmelt.
* Notable examples include Wular Lake in Jammu and Kashmir, which owes its existence
to tectonic activity and stands as the largest
freshwater lake in India.
* Additional significant freshwater lakes
encompass Dal Lake, Bhimtal, Nainital,
Loktak (Refer Figure 3.6), and Barapani.
' Apart from natural lakes, the damming of the rivers
for the generation of hydel power has also led to
the formation of lakes, such as Guru Gobind Sagar
(Bhakra Nangal Project).
Figure 3.6: Loktak Lake
' During heavy rains, a lake prevents flooding and
during the dry season, it helps to maintain an even flow of water.
' Lakes can also be used for developing hydel power. They moderate the climate of the
surroundings; maintain the aquatic ecosystem, enhance natural beauty, help develop tourism
and provide recreation.
POINTS TO PONDER
Role of Rivers in the Economy River and Water bodies are the lifelines of a Nation.
' Throughout human history, rivers have In this context, there have been issues over water
held profound significance. They provide sharing between countries for the trans-national
a foundational natural resource, crucial rivers. Find out some of these trans-national water
for a wide range of human endeavours. bodies across the world. Do you think the country
As a result, the banks of rivers have possessing the origin of rivers has a natural
historically drawn settlers, leading to the advantage or extra rights over it? Find out
growth of thriving cities. the principles established for the division of
' Leveraging rivers for purposes such water resources amongst countries for such
as irrigation, navigation, and rivers.
hydroelectric power generation holds
particular importance, especially in countries like India where agriculture is the primary
livelihood for the majority of the population.

29
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY River Pollution
' The growing domestic, municipal, industrial and agricultural demand for water from rivers
naturally affects the quality of water. As a result, more and more water is being drained out of
the rivers reducing their volume.
' On the other hand, a heavy load of untreated sewage and industrial effluents are emptied into
the rivers.
' This affects not only the quality of water but also the self-cleansing capacity of the river.
' The increasing urbanisation and industrialisation do not allow the rivers to assimilate and
dilute pollution and the pollution level of many rivers has been rising.
' Concern over rising pollution in our rivers led to the launching of various action plans to clean
the rivers. The National River Conservation Plan (NCRP) is one such initiative.

Conclusion
India's rivers carry substantial water volumes annually, but this distribution is marked by disparities
both temporally and spatially. Some rivers flow perennially, maintain consistent water levels
throughout the year, whereas others, classified as non-perennial, experience significantly reduced
water flow during dry seasons. The monsoon season sees excessive water, leading to wasteful floods
that ultimately drain into the sea. Conversely, regions affected by floods may see drought conditions
elsewhere in the country.
± Catchment area: A catchment area is an area of land that collects water after rainfall, typically bounded
by hills. Water flows down into these areas and collects into rivers and streams.
± Drainage basin: A drainage basin is an area of land where water from rain or snow melt drains downhill
into a body of water such as a river, lake, wetland or ocean. The drainage basin includes both the streams
and rivers that convey the water as well as the land surface from which water drains into those channels.
± Tributary: A tributary, or affluent, is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream or main stem river
or a lake. A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean.
± Watershed: A watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams and rainfall to a common outlet
such as the outflow of a reservoir, mouth of a bay, or any point along a stream channel.
± Water divide: A mountain or an upland separates two drainage basins in an elevated area. Such an
upland is known as a water divide.
± Perennial: A stream or a river that flows continuously through its river bed for a year is known as a
perennial river. They have water in their river bed for the whole year.
± Gorge: A canyon, or chasm, is a deep cleft between escarpments or cliffs resulting from weathering and
the erosive activity of a river over geologic time scales. Rivers have a natural tendency to cut through
underlying surfaces, eventually wearing away rock layers as sediments are removed downstream.
± Antecedent river: An antecedent river is a river that existed before the landscape around it was formed.



30
 4 Climate
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapter 4 of Class IX (Contemporary
India-1), and Chapter 4 of Class XI (India Physical Environment).

Introduction
India is a vast subcontinent and experiences a diverse range of climatic variations influenced by
the distinctive monsoon patterns with changing seasons, habits and attire change, reflecting the
profound impact of weather on our daily lives. In India, summer requires light attire, and winter
requires woollens. These variations arise from the ever-fluctuating elements of weather, such as
temperature, pressure, and wind direction. Central to this part is the monsoon, characterised
by its unique seasonal reversal of wind, which bestows India with its hot and humid monsoonal
climate, a characteristic shared with other regions of south and southeast Asia.

Climate
Do You Know?
' Definition: Climate refers to the sum total of weather
± Weather is the momentary state
conditions and variations over a large area for a long of the atmosphere while climate
period of time (more than thirty years). refers to the average of the weather
' Factors Influencing Climate: The six major factors conditions over a longer period of
influencing climate are latitude, altitude, pressure and time.
wind systems, distance from the sea (continentality), ± Weather changes quickly, may be
within a day or week but climate
ocean currents, and relief features.
changes imperceptively and may be
noted after 50 years or even more.
Indian Climate
' The Climate of India is “monsoon” type, which is found POINTS TO PONDER
mainly in South Asia and South-East Asia. The Monsoon Winds, in their
genesis, have a South Eastern
' The word “monsoon” is derived from the Arabic word pattern. However, after crossing
“mausim” which means seasons. the Equator, a sudden change
Factors Related to Location and Relief: in the direction i.e. South-
West winds are witnessed
' Latitude: The Tropic of Cancer divides India, placing the which brings a significant
northern part in the sub-tropical and temperate zones, and amount of rainfall in the Indian
the southern part in the tropical zone. Consequently, the Subcontinent. Can you
south experiences constant high temperatures, while the find out the reason for
this change in direction
north sees more extreme seasonal variations.
of the winds?
' The Himalayas: They act as a protective barrier that
shields India from cold northern winds originating near
the Arctic. They also help trap the monsoon winds, which release their moisture within the
subcontinent.
 ' Land-Water Distribution: India's land and sea experience differential heating, leading to
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY varying air pressure zones. This causes the reversal of monsoon winds based on seasons.
' Proximity to the Sea: The coastal areas, due to their closeness to the sea, have a balanced
climate. However, interiors like Delhi and Kanpur, which are distant from the sea, experience
more pronounced seasonal contrasts.
' Altitude: Elevated regions are cooler due to the decline in temperature with height. Thus,
places like Darjeeling are cooler than plains regions on the same latitude, like Agra.
' Relief: India's topography influences temperature, rainfall, and wind patterns. For instance,
the windward side of the Western Ghats receives high rainfall, while the leeward side remains
relatively dry.

Factors Related to Air Pressure and Wind: POINTS TO PONDER

Surface winds and upper tropospheric
' Surface Air Pressure and Winds: This involves winds have their own distinctions.
understanding how air pressure and winds are They do affect each other but are not
distributed across the earth's surface. necessarily mirror images. Can you
' Upper-Air Circulation: This factor encompasses the find out the reason and factors which
global weather controllers, including the movement of affect upper tropospheric
circulations and distinguish
different air masses and the role of jet streams.
it with surface winds in the
' Weather Disturbances: Inflow of western cyclones Indian context?
generally known as disturbances during the winter
season and tropical depressions during the south- Western Cyclonic Disturbance and
west monsoon period into India, creating weather Tropical Cyclones
conditions favourable to rainfall. The winter months see the entry of
' These mechanisms and their effects vary and can be western cyclonic disturbances from
best understood by studying them in the context of the Mediterranean Sea, ushered in
India's winter and summer seasons. by the westerly jet stream. Their
approach typically leads to a rise in
Mechanisms of Weather in the Winter Season night temperatures.
Tropical cyclones originating from
Surface Pressure and Winds: the Bay of Bengal and the Indian
Ocean strike the coasts of Tamil
' In winter, weather patterns in India are influenced by
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa.
pressure distributions in Central and Western Asia. Characterized by high wind speeds
' A high-pressure zone forms north of the Himalayas, and heavy rainfall, these cyclones
causing dry continental winds to flow towards the often cause significant destruction.
Indian subcontinent, south of the mountain range.
' The surface winds blowing out of the high pressure centre over Central Asia reach India in the
form of a dry continental air mass.
' These continental winds come in contact with trade winds over north-western India, extending
to the middle Ganga valley, making the region dry.

Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation:

' At higher altitudes, roughly 3 km above the surface (Refer to Figure 4.1), a distinct air
circulation pattern emerges, unaffected by surface atmospheric pressure variations.
' Westerly winds over Western and central Asia flow across the Asian continent at latitudes north
of the Himalayas, near the Tibetan highlands, known as jet streams.

32
' These streams bifurcate due to the Tibetan highlands, with the southern branch influencing

Climate
India's winter weather.

Figure 4.1: Direction of Winds in India in Winter at the Height of 9-13 km

Mechanisms of Weather in the Summer Season

Surface Pressure and Winds:
' With the onset of summer and the sun's northward movement, India's wind circulation sees a
reversal at both lower and upper levels. (Refer to Figure 4.2.)
' By mid-July, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifts northward, aligning approximately
with the Himalayas between 20° N and 25° N.
' By this time, the westerly jet stream has receded from India, and its withdrawal is interlinked
with the northward shift of the ITCZ.
' As the ITCZ shifts northward, it attracts low pressure winds from various directions. The
maritime tropical air mass from the southern hemisphere approaches this zone, leading to the
southwest monsoon.

Figure 4.2: Summer Monsoon Winds: Surface Circulation

33
 Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation:
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' The described pressure and wind patterns are
specific to the troposphere.
' In June, an easterly jet stream flows over
the southern part of the Peninsula, reaching
speeds up to 90 km per hour. By September,
its influence extends up to 22° N latitude but
usually doesn't surpass 30° N latitude.
Easterly Jet Stream and Tropical Cyclones:
' The easterly jet stream guides tropical
depressions into India, significantly influencing
monsoon rainfall distribution.
' The paths of these depressions are high rainfall
zones. Their frequency, direction, and intensity
play crucial roles in shaping India's monsoon Figure 4.3: The Direction of Winds at 13 km
rainfall pattern. (Refer to Figure 4.3.) Altitude in Summer Season
Monsoon
It refers to a climate characterised by seasonal reversals of the POINTS TO PONDER
wind system. The sailors who came to India in historic times were Monsoon Winds play a
among the first to notice the phenomenon of the monsoon. deterministic role in the Indian
climate system. However, the
Factors Affecting Monsoon Climate: Monsoon weather system is
not confined only to the Indian
' The differential heating and cooling of land and water
Subcontinent. Find out the
creates low pressure on the landmass of India, while the other parts of the world where
seas around experience comparatively high pressure. they have a role to play.
Also, assess the impact
' The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
they have in such
(ITCZ) in summer, over the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial regions.
trough normally positioned about 5°N of the equator.
' The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at 20°S over the
Indian Ocean.
' The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during the summer, which results in strong vertical
air currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level.
' The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of
the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.

Differential heating & cooling

of land and water
Inter Tropical Convergence
Factors Affecting Intense heating of Tibetan Plateau
Monsoon
Movement of westerly jet stream
High pressure near Madagascar

34
The Onset of the Monsoon

Climate
' The onset of the monsoon was attributed to the differential heating of land and sea during
the summer.
' By April and May, the northern landmass heats up, creating a significant low-pressure area.
Meanwhile, the slower-heating Indian Ocean retains high pressure.
' This contrast draws the southeast trade winds towards the subcontinent, leading to the
northward movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). After crossing the
Equator between 40°E and 60°E longitudes, these winds become the southwest monsoon.
' The withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from northern India and the subsequent setting of the
easterly jet stream are crucial for the monsoon's onset.
' Entry of the Monsoon into India: The southwest monsoon sets in over the Kerala coast by 1st
June and moves swiftly to reach Mumbai and Kolkata between 10th and 13th June. By mid-
July, the southwest monsoon covers the entire subcontinent. (Refer Figure 4.4)

Figure 4.4: India: Normal Dates of onset of the Southwest Monsoon

35
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
This current increases the temperature of water on the Peruvian coast by 10° C. This results in:
EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon
± EI-Nino is a complex weather system that appears once every three to seven years, bringing drought,
floods and other weather extremes to different parts of the world.
± The system involves oceanic and atmospheric phenomena with the appearance of warm currents off
the coast of Peru in the Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many places India. El-Nino is merely an
extension of the warm equatorial current which gets replaced temporarily by cold Peruvian current or
Humbolt current (locate these currents in your atlas).
● The distortion of equatorial atmospheric circulation;
● Irregularities in the evaporation of sea water;
● Reduction in the amount of planktons which further reduces the number of fish in the sea.
± The word EI-Nino means 'Child Christ' because this current appears around Christmas in December.
December is a summer month in Peru (Southern Hemisphere).
± EI-Nino is used in India for forecasting long range monsoon rainfall. In 1990-91, there was a wild EI-Nino
event and the onset of southwest monsoon was delayed over most parts of the country ranging from five
to twelve days.

Unity and Diversity in the Monsoon Climate:

' India's monsoon climate emphasises its unity with the larger southeast Asian region,
characterised by rich regional variations.
' For instance, states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south differ climatically from northern
states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, even though all experience the monsoon pattern. These
variations manifest in winds, temperature, rainfall, and seasonal rhythms.
' Extreme temperature contrasts are evident: While Rajasthan's western parts might sizzle at
55°C in summer, Leh can plummet to minus 45°C in winter.
' Similarly, places like Cherrapunji in Meghalaya might receive a staggering 1,080 cm of annual
rainfall, whereas Jaisalmer in Rajasthan might get a meagre 9 cm.
' Precipitation forms also vary, from Himalayan snowfalls to widespread rains in the north-east.
Yet, despite these stark differences, India's climate is undeniably monsoonal in its essence and
rhythm.

The Indian Weather Season

India experiences a rhythmic annual climate cycle with four distinct seasons: cold weather, hot
weather, southwest monsoon, and retreating monsoon.
The Cold Weather Season:
Temperature Dynamics:
' Usually, the cold weather season sets in by mid-November in northern India. The mean daily
temperature remains below 21°C over most parts of northern India (Refer Figure 4.5).
' Winter in northern India, especially in regions like Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan, can be
very cold, with temperatures sometimes dropping below freezing.
' This cold is attributed to three reasons:
* States like Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan are far away from the moderating influence of
sea and experience continental climate.
* The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan ranges creates a cold wave situation; and

36
 * Around February, the cold winds coming from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan

Climate
bring cold waves along with frost and fog over the north-western parts of India.
' In contrast, the Peninsular region does not experience a sharp cold season due to the sea's
moderating influence and its equatorial proximity.
' Thus, coastal regions, like Thiruvananthapuram, maintain a mild temperature range throughout
the year.

Figure 4.5: India: Mean Monthly Temperatures of the Day in January

37

NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
Pressure and Wind Patterns:
' By the end of December (22nd December), the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn
in the southern hemisphere.
' During winter, high-pressure conditions dominate northern India, while the south has slightly
lower pressure.
' The isobars of 1019 mb and 1013 mb pass through northwest India and the far south,
respectively. Winds, driven by these pressure differences, move from the northwestern high-
pressure zone to the southern low-pressure areas. (Refer Figure 4.6)
Figure 4.6: India: Pressure and Surface Winds (January)
38
Rainfall Variations:

Climate
' Generally, winter monsoons do not bring rain to India, primarily because of their low humidity
and the land's anti-cyclonic circulation. However, there are exceptions:
' Weak temperate cyclones from the Mediterranean can cause rainfall in northwestern India,
' North-eastern regions like Arunachal Pradesh and Assam experience 25-50 mm of rain during
the winter.
' The northeast monsoon, after collecting moisture over the Bay of Bengal, results in heavy
rainfall along the Tamil Nadu coast and nearby south-eastern regions in October and
November.
The Hot Weather Season:
Temperature:
' As the sun moves northward from March, northern India witnesses rising temperatures,
marking the onset of summer, which spans April, May, and June. (Refer Figure 4.7.)

Figure 4.7: India: Mean Monthly Temperature of the Day in July

39
 ' Temperatures typically range between 30°C to 32°C. By May, northwestern regions like Gujarat
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY and Madhya Pradesh often experience scorching temperatures up to 48°C.
' In contrast, southern India enjoys a milder summer, with temperatures maintained between
26°C and 32°C, due to its peninsular location and the oceans' moderating effects.
' Coastal regions see minimal temperature variation from north to south, and the mean daily
minimum during these summer months rarely falls below 26°C.
Pressure and Wind Patterns:
' Summer brings intense heat and falling air pressure to northern India. The ITCZ, influenced by
the subcontinent's heat, shifts northward by July, centering around 25°N. This change creates
a low-pressure monsoon trough stretching from the Thar desert to the Chotanagpur plateau.
' Also during summer afternoons, hot winds called 'Loo' blow, especially in the ITCZ's heart.
Dust storms are frequent in May across regions like Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh,
offering brief relief from the intense heat with their accompanying light rains.
' Occasionally, the clash between dry and moist air masses results in intense local storms,
characterised by strong winds, heavy rains, and even hailstorms.

Local Storms Region Feature

Mango Shower Kerala and coastal Karnataka Pre-monsoon showers at the end of summer
Aids in the early ripening of mangoes

Blossom Shower Kerala Results in the blossoming of coffee flowers

Nor Westers Bengal and Assam Dreaded evening thunderstorms

(Kalbaisakhi) Beneficial for tea, jute, and rice cultivation
In Assam, known as "Bardoli Chheerha"

The southwest monsoon season

Initiation of Monsoons:
' By May, the intensifying low-pressure conditions over the northwestern plains of India
had become pronounced enough to attract the southeast trade winds from the Southern
Hemisphere.
' Originating from the Indian Ocean, these winds are laden with moisture from the warm
equatorial currents. Upon crossing the equator, they take a southwesterly turn, earning them
the name "southwest monsoon".
Burst of Monsoons:
' The commencement of the rainy season in the southwest monsoon period is marked by a
sharp and abrupt onset. This sudden introduction of moisture-rich winds, accompanied by
intense thunder and lightning, is termed the "burst" of the monsoons.
' Coastal areas like Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra typically experience this
burst in the first week of June, while interior regions might witness it by the first week of
July. A significant drop in daytime temperature, ranging from 5°C to 8°C, is observed between
mid-June and mid-July (Refer Figure 4.8).

40
 Climate

Figure 4.8: India: Pressure and Surface Winds (July)

41
 Monsoon Branches
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' The incoming monsoon winds are bifurcated by India's topography and the thermal low-
pressure system over northwestern India into two primary branches: the Arabian Sea branch
and the Bay of Bengal branch.
The Arabian Sea branch (Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea):
The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea are further split into three branches:
1. Western Ghats and Rain-shadow Effect:
' The monsoon winds from the Arabian Sea, upon encountering the Western Ghats, ascend its
slopes, cooling down in the process.
' This leads to heavy rainfall (between 250 cm and 400 cm) on the windward side of the
Sahyadris (Coastal Maharashtra) and the Western Coastal Plain.
' After crossing the Ghats, the winds descend, warm up, and lose their moisture. This results
in minimal rainfall to the east of the Western Ghats, creating a rain-shadow region. Notable
differences in rainfall can be observed across places like Kozhikode, Mangalore, Pune, and
Bengaluru.
2. Central India Impact:
' Another branch of the Arabian Sea monsoon Monsoon Branches
impacts the region north of Mumbai.
Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal
' It moves through the Narmada and Tapi Branch Branch
river valleys, bringing rainfall to vast areas Brahmaputra
of central India. Valley
Western Central North West
' The Chotanagpur plateau receives Ghat India India Garo & Khasi
about 15 cm of rainfall from this branch. Branch Branch Branch Hills
Eventually, these winds reach the Ganga Saurashtra
plains and merge with the monsoon winds Peninsular &
of the Bay of Bengal. Kachchh

3. Northwest India and Himalayan Influence:

' The third branch hits the Saurashtra Peninsula and Kachchh, then moves over west
Rajasthan and along the Aravallis, producing limited rainfall.
' It continues to Punjab and Haryana, where it converges with the Bay of Bengal monsoon
branch. Together, they deliver rain to the western Himalayas.
The Bay of Bengal Branch (Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal):
' The monsoon winds of the Bay of Bengal initially hit the Myanmar coast and parts of
southeast Bangladesh.
' However, due to the Arakan Hills along Myanmar's
coast, a significant portion of this branch is redirected Do You Know?
towards the Indian subcontinent. The Tamil Nadu coast remains dry
' As a result, the monsoon enters West Bengal and during the southwest monsoon
Bangladesh from the south and southeast, rather than season due to two main factors:
the typical southwesterly direction. ± It is situated parallel to the Bay of
' Influenced by the Himalayas and the thermal low in Bengal branch of the southwest
northwest India, this monsoon branch divides into monsoon, which brings less rainfall
two major streams. to this area.
' One stream moves westward along the Ganga plains, ± The Tamil Nadu coast lies in the
extending to the Punjab plains. rain shadow area of the Arabian Sea
branch of the southwest monsoon,
' The other heads north, travelling up the Brahmaputra further reducing its rainfall..
valley, leading to extensive rainfall in the north and
northeast.

42
' A sub-branch of the Bay of Bengal monsoon targets the Garo and Khasi hills in Meghalaya.

Climate
' Mawsynram, situated on the Khasi Hills' crest, holds the distinction of receiving the highest
average annual rainfall globally.

The retreating monsoon season (The Transition Season):

' The months of October and November mark the phase of retreating monsoons.
' By September's end, the southwest monsoon weakens due to the southward shift of the low-
pressure trough from the Ganga plain.
' The monsoon begins its retreat from western Rajasthan in early September.
' By September month-end it leaves areas like Rajasthan, Gujarat, and the Western Ganga
plain.
' By early November, this low-pressure influence reaches Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, and by
mid-December, it completely exits the Peninsula.
' During this retreat, clear skies dominate, and temperatures rise, leading to the 'October
heat'.
' However, by late October, north India remains dry, eastern parts of the Peninsula experience
rain.
' Cyclonic Influences:
* Rainfall in this season is primarily due to cyclonic depressions originating over the
Andaman Sea.
* These cyclones, especially potent when crossing the eastern coast of the southern Peninsula,
frequently affect the deltas of rivers like the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, causing
significant damage.
* While these cyclonic storms also impact West Bengal, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, they are
less prevalent in the Arabian Sea. The Coromondal coast mainly gets its rain from
these cyclonic events.

Traditional Indian Seasons

' In Indian tradition, the year is distinctively divided into six seasons, each lasting two months.
' This classification, deeply rooted in historical observations, is mainly followed in northern and
central India.
' The traditional system of seasons doesn't align with the climatic patterns of south India, where
seasonal variations are minimal.

Seasons Months (According to the Months (According to the

Indian Calendar) Gregorian Calendar)

Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April

Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June

Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August

Sharada Asvina-kartika September-October

Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-December

Shishira Magha-Phalguna January-February

43
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY Distribution of Rainfall
' The average annual rainfall in India is about 125 cm, but it has great spatial variations (Refer
Figure 4.9).
' High Rainfall Zones: Regions with over 200 cm of rainfall include the west coast, Western
Ghats, and the sub-Himalayan areas in the northeast, especially parts of the Khasi and
Jaintia hills, which receive more than 1,000 cm. The Brahmaputra valley and adjoining hills
get slightly less, under 200 cm.
' Medium Rainfall Zones: Areas receiving between 100-200 cm encompass southern Gujarat,
east Tamil Nadu, northeastern Peninsula, and areas covering Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar,
eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Ganga plain, and parts of the northeast.
' Low Rainfall Zones: Regions like western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu
and Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat, and the Deccan Plateau experience rainfall between
50-100 cm.
' Inadequate Rainfall Zones: Certain parts of the Peninsula, notably in Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Ladakh, and most of western Rajasthan, receive less than 50 cm of
rainfall.
' Snowfall: This phenomenon is limited to the Himalayan region.

Figure 4.9: India: Annual Rainfall

Variability of Rainfall
' A characteristic feature of rainfall in India is its variability. The variability of rainfall is computed
with the help of the following formula:
Standard Deviation
C.V  100, where C.V is the co-efficient of variation.
Mean

44
' Areas with less than 25% variability include the western coasts, Western Ghats, north-eastern

Climate
Peninsula, eastern Ganga plains, north-eastern India, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and
southwestern Jammu and Kashmir. These regions typically receive more than 100 cm of annual
rainfall.
' On the other hand, regions like western Rajasthan, northern Jammu and Kashmir, and the
interior Deccan plateau, which receive less than 50 cm of rainfall annually, experience a
variability of over 50%.
' The remaining parts of India, receiving between 50-100 cm of rainfall, exhibit a variability
ranging from 25% to 50% (Refer to Figure 4.10).

Figure 4.10: India: Variability of Annual Rainfall

Climatic Regions of India

' Koeppen's classification: It based upon specific letter symbols such as 'S' for semi-arid regions
and 'W' for arid regions. Further sub-divisions were marked by additional lowercase letters like
'f' for sufficient precipitation or 'm' for rainforests despite a dry monsoon season.
' He delineated five primary climatic types:
* Tropical climates: Mean monthly temperatures are consistently above 18°C throughout
the year.
* Dry climates: Precipitation is notably low relative to temperature. These are further
categorised as semi-arid (S) or arid (W).
* Warm temperate climates: The coldest month has a mean temperature ranging between
18°C and -3°C.
* Cool temperate climates: The warmest month averages above 10°C, while the coldest
month falls below -3°C.
* Ice climates: The warmest month's mean temperature remains below 10°C.

45
 ' As per Koeppen’s scheme, India comprises eight distinct climatic regions (Refer to Table
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY 4.1 and Figure 4.11).

Figure 4.11: India: Climatic Regions According to Koppen's Scheme

Table 4.1: Climatic Regions of India According to Koeppen's Scheme
Type of Climate
± Amw – Monsoon with short dry Season
± As – Monsoon with dry summer
± Aw – Tropical savannah
± BShw – Semi-arid steppe climate
± BWhw – Hot desert
± Cwg – Monsoon with dry winter
± Dfc – Cold humid winter with short
summer
± E – Polar type
Areas
± West coast of India south of Goa
± Coromandel coast of Tamil Nadu
± Most of the Peninsular plateaus, south of the Tropic of Cancer
± North-western Gujarat, some parts of western Rajasthan
and Punjab
± Extreme western Rajasthan
± Ganga plain, eastern Rajasthan, northern Madhya Pradesh,
most of North-east India
± Arunachal Pradesh
± Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand

Monsoons and Economic Life in India

' Agriculture's Dependence on Monsoon: The agricultural cycle in India heavily depends on the
monsoon, as the majority of the population relies on farming. The majority of this agriculture
is centred around the patterns of the southwest monsoon.
' Temperature and Crop Growth: Barring the Himalayas, India's temperature is conducive to
year-round crop cultivation.

46
' Diversity in Crops and Challenges from Rainfall Variability: Inconsistent rainfall can lead

Climate
to droughts or floods, affecting regions annually.
' Prosperity Tied to Rainfall: Timely and adequate rainfall is crucial for agriculture, especially
in areas without developed irrigation. Any failure in monsoon patterns can severely impact
agricultural output.
' Soil Erosion Issues: The sudden onset of the monsoon can cause widespread soil erosion.
' Winter Rainfall Benefits: In northern India, rainfall during winter, brought by temperate
cyclones, aids the growth of rabi crops.
' Lifestyle: The regional climatic variations influence the diverse food habits, clothing preferences,
and housing styles across India.

Global Warming
' It refers to the long-term warming of the planet’s overall temperature.
' The Greenhouse Effect: An increase in gases such as carbon dioxide, methane,
chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide termed "greenhouse gases" intensifies the greenhouse
effect.
Consequences of Global Warming:
' Melting Polar Regions: Due to global warming, polar ice caps and mountain glaciers are
melting, causing ocean levels to rise.
' Projected Temperature Rise: Over the past 150 years, Earth's surface temperature has
increased. Predictions indicate a further 2°C rise by 2100.
' Sea Level Concerns: It is estimated that sea levels will rise by 48 cm by the end of the 21st
century, which would lead to more frequent flooding events.

Conclusion
India's weather is a mix of complex patterns primarily influenced by the monsoons. The oscillation
between the dry north-easterly winds and moisture-rich south-westerly winds produces the
subcontinent's different climatic zones, however, the Himalayas and the oceans also play important
roles in regulating temperatures. India's climate is an excellent example of both unity and diversity,
with severe temperatures in places like Rajasthan and Ladakh and a variety of precipitation patterns
from Meghalaya to Tamil Nadu.
Glossary:
± Climate: It is the average weather conditions of a place over a period of years.
± Precipitation: It is any liquid or frozen water that falls from the sky and reaches the ground.
± Frost: The thin, white layer of ice that forms when the air temperature is below the freezing point of
water, especially outside at night.
± Isobars: A line on a map or chart that connects places of equal barometric pressure.
± Jet streams: These are narrow bands of strong wind that generally blow from west to east all across the
globe. The two most constant jet streams are the mid-latitude and subtropical jet streams.
± The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): It is the region that circles the Earth, near the equator,
where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres come together.
± El Niño: It is a climate pattern that describes the unusual warming of surface waters in the eastern
Pacific Ocean.
± La Niña: It is a climate pattern that describes the cooling of surface-ocean water along the tropical west
coast of South America.
± Monsoon: It is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds of a region.
± Rainforest: It is an area of tall, mostly evergreen trees with a high amount of rainfall.



47
 Natural Hazards
5 and Disasters
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of chapter 6- XI NCERT (India Physical
Environment) and Unit 11- XI CBSE (A Supplementary Textbook in Geography).

Introduction
Disasters are as old as human history but the dramatic increase and the damage caused by them in
the recent past have become a cause of national and international concern. A Disaster is a serious
disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material,
economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceed the ability of the affected community
or society to cope using its own resources. Disasters can be caused by naturally occurring events,
such as earthquakes, hurricanes, flooding, or tornadoes, or they can be due to man-made events,
either accidental (such as an accidental toxic spill or nuclear power plant event), or deliberately
caused (such as various terrorist bombings and poisonings).

Meaning of Disaster
Word Origin
' Disaster can be defined as “A serious disruption in The term disaster owes its origin to the
the functioning of the community or a society causing French word “Desastre” which is a
widespread material, economic, social or environmental combination of two words ‘des’ meaning
losses which exceed the ability of the affected society to bad and ‘aster’ meaning star. Thus the
cope using its own resources”. term refers to ‘Bad or Evil star’.
' It is a result of the combination of hazard, vulnerability and insufficient capacity to reduce
the potential chances of risk (Refer to Figure 5.1).

Vulnerability DISASTER Hazard

Underlying Dynamic Unsafe Trigger

Causes Pressure Conditions Events
Limited access to Limited access to Dangerous Earthquake
resources - Institutions Location
Tsunamis
Illness and disabilities - Education Dangerous
- Training Floods
Age/sex Buildings
- Skills Cyclones
Poverty Population Low Income
Volcanic Eruption
........................... Expansion Level
Drought
Urbanization Landslide
Uncontrolled
War
development
Technological Accident
Environmental
Environmental Pollution
degradation
........................... ............................

Figure 5.1: Meeting of Vulnerability and Hazard Causing Disaster

' Drought and famine have proved to be the deadliest disasters globally, followed by floods,

Natural Hazards and Disasters

technological disasters, earthquakes, wind storms, extreme temperature, etc.
' Global economic loss related to disaster events averages around US $880 billion per year.
As per World Bank report of 2018 it is now US $520 billion each year. Figure 5.2 shows the
deadliest disasters of the decade (1992 – 2001).
Trend of Disaster in Recent Times
From 1994 to 1998, reported
disasters average was 428 per
year but from 1999 to 2003, this
figure went up to an average of 707
disaster events per year showing an
increase of about 60 per cent over
the previous years.
The biggest rise was in countries
Figure 5.2: World Scenario: Reported Deaths of low human development, which
from all Distasters (1992-2001) suffered an increase of 142 percent.

Relationship between Hazard, Vulnerability and Disaster

± Any hazard – flood, earthquake or cyclone which is a triggering along with greater vulnerability would
lead to disaster causing greater loss to life and property.
± However, with greater capacity of the individual/community and environment to face these disasters, the
impact of a hazard reduces.
± Therefore, we need to understand the three major components namely hazard, vulnerability and capacity
to have a basic understanding of disaster management.
± For example, an earthquake in an uninhabited desert isn't a disaster; it becomes one when it affects
people and their assets. Hence, disasters occur when hazards and vulnerability intersect.

Hazard
' Hazard may be defined as “A dangerous condition or event that threatens or has the potential
for causing injury to life or damage to property or the environment’’.
' Hazards can be grouped into two broad categories namely natural and manmade.
' Natural hazards: These hazards have natural origin such as meteorological, geological or even
biological origin.
Additional Information
* Geological origins such as tsunamis, earthquakes,
volcanoes etc. Hazards are always prevalent, but
the hazard becomes a disaster only
* Meteorological origins such as cyclones, cloudburst, when there is greater vulnerability
etc. and inadequate capacity to cope
* Biological origins such as viral, fungal etc. with it.
Types Hazards
Geological Hazards Earthquake, Landslide, Tsunami, Dam burst, Volcanic eruption,
and Mine Fire, Landslide.
Water & Climatic Hazards Tropical Cyclone, Tornado and Hurricane, Cloudburst, Floods, Drought,
Hailstorm, Heat & Coldwave, Snow Avalanche, Coastal Erosion.
Environmental Hazards Environmental pollutions, Desertification, Deforestation, Pest
Infection.
Biological Human/Animal Epidemics, Pest attacks, Food poisoning, Weapons
of Mass Destruction.

49
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY Chemical, Industrial and
Nuclear Accidents
Chemical disasters, Oil spills/Fires Industrial disasters, Nuclear

Accident related Boat/Road/Train accidents/air crash, Urban fires, Forest fires,

Electric Accidents, Building collapse, Festival related disasters,
Mine flooding
' Manmade hazards: These occur due to human negligence and are associated with industries
or energy generation facilities and include explosions, leakage of toxic waste, pollution, dam
failure, wars etc
Vulnerability
' POINTS TO structure,
Vulnerability may be defined as “the extent to which a community, PONDER services or
geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the Disasters cause large scale
impact of a particular hazard, on account of their nature, destruction and damage to life
construction and proximity to hazardous terrains or and property. However, the
disaster-prone area”. disaster's effect is amplified
' Vulnerabilities can be categorised into physical and socio- with increased vulnerability.
economic vulnerability. Can you think of the
factors that can make
Physical Vulnerability: some people more
' It includes notions of who and what may be damaged or vulnerable than others?
destroyed by natural hazards.
' It is based on the physical condition of people and elements at risk, such as buildings,
infrastructure etc.
Socio-economic Vulnerability:
' It refers to the degree to which individuals and communities are susceptible to harm from
disasters due to their social and economic status. For example, people who are poor and living
on the sea coast are generally at higher risk vis-a-vis rich people in case of cyclones and floods.
Risk
POINTS TO PONDER
' Risk is a measure of the expected losses due to a Natural Hazards such as Floods,
hazard event occurring in a given area over a specific Tsunamis, Landslides etc. are known
time period. for wreaking havoc and leading to
' It is a function of the probability of a particular loss of life and property. Are natural
hazards truly natural? Do humans
hazardous event and the losses each would cause.
play a significant role affecting
' A community is said to be at ‘risk’ when it is exposed to their intensity and frequency?
hazards and is likely to be adversely affected by its impact.
Classification of Natural Disasters

Earthquakes
Earthquake refers to the sudden shaking of the earth's crust. Do You know?
It is highly destructive of all the natural disasters.
An earthquake with a magnitude
Causes of Earthquakes 7.5 on the Richter scale releases
' Earthquakes due to Plate Tectonics: Earthquakes 30 times the energy than one with
result from a series of earth movements brought about 6.5 magnitudes. An earthquake of
by a sudden release of energy during the tectonic magnitude 3 is the smallest normally
activities in the earth’s crust. felt by humans.

50
' Earthquakes due to other causes: It could also be triggered by volcanic eruption, rock falls,

Natural Hazards and Disasters

landslides, subsidence, particularly in the mining areas, impounding of dams and reservoirs,
etc.
Measuring Earthquakes
Do You know?
' Earthquakes can be measured by the use of two
distinctively different scales of measurement The largest earthquake that has
demonstrating magnitude and intensity. been recorded with Richter Scale is
9.25 (Alaska, 1969 and Chile, 1960).
1. Richter Scale
' Earthquake magnitude is determined by the use of a seismograph, which is an instrument
that continuously records ground vibration. The scale was developed by a seismologist named
Charles Richter, so-called the Richter Scale.
List of Significant Earthquakes in India
Year Location Magnitude of 6+
1950 Arunachal Pradesh - China Border 8.5
1956 Anjar, Gujarat 7.0
1967 Koyna, Maharashtra 6.5
1975 Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh 6.2
1988 Manipur - Myanmar Boarder 6.6
1988 Bihar - Nepal Border 6.4
1991 Uttarkashi - Uttar Pradesh Hills 6.0
1993 Latur - Maharashtra 6.3
1997 Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh 6.0
1997 Chamoli, Uttar Pradesh 6.8
2001 Bhuj, Gujarat 6.9
2005 Muzaffarabad (Pakistan) Impact in Jammu & Kashmir 7.4
2. Mercalli Scale
' The second type of scale, the earthquake intensity scale measures the effects of an earthquake
where it occurs and was developed in 1902 by Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. Hence this
scale is called the Mercalli scale.
' Mercalli Scale expresses the intensity of an earthquake's effect on people, structure and the
earth’s surface in values from I to XII.
* Intensity of VI and below: People can feel the shake and there are cracks in the walls.
* Intensity of XII: General panic with buildings collapsing totally and there is a total disruption
in normal life.
Distribution Pattern of Earthquakes in India
' The seismic zoning map of India (Refer Figure 5.3) is divided into the following five earthquake
zones:
* Very high damage risk zone
* High damage risk zone
* Moderate damage risk zone
* Low damage risk zone
* Very low damage risk zone

51
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY Additional Information
± The Indian plate is slowly moving northwards at a rate of one centimeter per year, encountering resistance
from the Eurasian plate to the north.
± This ongoing pressure buildup eventually results in the sudden release of energy, leading to earthquakes
along the Himalayan region.
± Areas most susceptible to these earthquakes include Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Darjeeling in West Bengal, and all seven northeastern states.

' Very high damage risk zone: North-east states, areas to the north of Darbhanga and Araria
along the Indo-Nepal border in Bihar, Uttarakhand, Western Himachal Pradesh (around
Dharamshala) and Kashmir Valley in the Himalayan region and the Kachchh (Gujarat) are
included in the Very High Damage Risk Zone.
' High damage risk zone: Parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Northern
parts of Punjab, Eastern parts of Haryana, Delhi,
Western Uttar Pradesh, and Northern Bihar fall under Do You Know ?
the High Damage Risk Zone. New Delhi lie in very high damage
' Remaining parts of the country fall under Moderate risk zone whereas big cities like
to very Low Damage Risk Zone. Most of the areas Mumbai and Chennai are in
of the Deccan plateau are considered safe as far as moderate damage risk zone.
earthquakes are concerned.

Figure 5.3: Earquake Hazard Zones in India

52
Consequences of Earthquakes

Natural Hazards and Disasters

' Earthquakes are often associated with fear and horror due to the scale, magnitude and
suddenness at which it spreads disasters on the surface of the earth.
' It becomes a calamity when it strikes the areas of high density of population.
' It damages and destroys the settlements, infrastructure, transport and communication
network, industries and other developmental activities.
' It robs the population of the material and socio-cultural gains that they have preserved over
generations.
' It renders people homeless, which puts pressure and stress, particularly on the weak economy
of developing countries.
' It also causes fires, dam failure and landslides which may block waterways and also cause
flooding.
' It may damage manufacturing industries and break down communication facilities.
' There is also a huge loss to the public health system, transport, communication and water
supply in the affected areas.
' Surface seismic waves produce fissures on the upper layers of the earth’s crust through which
water and other volatile materials gush out, inundating the neighbouring areas.
Earthquake Hazard Mitigation
' It is not possible to prevent the occurrence of an earthquake. Hence, the next best option is
to emphasise disaster preparedness and mitigation rather than curative measures. such as:
' Establishing earthquake monitoring centres (seismological centres) for regular monitoring
and fast dissemination of information among the people in the vulnerable areas.
' Use of Geographical Positioning System (GPS) can be of great help in monitoring the movement
of tectonic plates.
' Preparing a vulnerability map of the country and dissemination of vulnerability risk information
among the people.
' Educating people about the ways and means of minimising the adverse impacts of disasters.
' Modifying the house types and building designs in the vulnerable areas and discouraging the
construction of highrise buildings, large industrial establishments and big urban centres in
such areas.
' Making it mandatory to adopt earthquake-resistant designs and use of light materials in major
construction activities in vulnerable areas.

Tsunami
' The term Tsunami has been derived from the Japanese term Tsu meaning 'harbour' and
tsunami meaning 'waves’.
' A tsunami refers to a series of large waves usually Do You Know?
noticed on sea or ocean surfaces that can lead to a
considerable amount of loss of life and property. It is Sometimes, Tsunami wave height can
a sudden displacement of water that can take place in go upto 15m or more, which causes
any waterbody if underlying causes are present there. large-scale destructions along the
shores. Thus, these are also called
' Phenomena such as Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic
Shallow Water Waves.
eruptions or large meteoroid impacts result in sudden
displacement of ocean water.

53
 Causes of a Tsunami
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' The geological movements that cause tsunamis are produced in three major ways:
* Fault movements on the seafloor, accompanied by an earthquake cause tsunamis.
* Landslides either occurring underwater or originating above the sea.
* Volcanic activity near the shore or underwater such as in 1883, the violent explosion of
the Krakatoa in Indonesia, produced a tsunami measuring 40 meters which crushed Java
and Sumatra.

General Characteristics of Tsunami

' The speed of waves in the ocean depends upon the Do You Know?
depth of the water. It is more in the shallow water than
India has volunteered to join the
in the deep ocean. When a tsunami enters shallow
International Tsunami Warning
water, its wavelength gets reduced and the period System after the December 2004
remains unchanged, which increases the wave height. tsunami disaster
' The impact of tsunamis is less over the ocean and
more near the coast.
' Tsunamis are frequently observed along the Pacific Ring of Fire, particularly along the coast
of Alaska, Japan, the Philippines and other islands of Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and India.
' After reaching the coast, the tsunami waves release enormous energy and water flows turbulently
onto the land destroying port cities, structures, buildings and other settlements.
' The mitigation of hazards created by tsunamis is difficult, it is beyond the capacity of individual
states or governments to mitigate the damage. Hence, combined efforts at the international
level are the possible ways of dealing with these disasters.

Adverse Effects of Tsunami

' Local tsunami events or those less than 30 minutes from the source cause the majority of
damage.
' Flooding during tsunamis causes major destruction to the human settlements, roads and
infrastructure.
' Waves withdrawing back to the ocean, sweep out the foundations of the buildings, and houses
carried out to sea.
' Damage to ports and airports may prevent the importation of needed food and medical supplies.
' Drowning deaths occur as people are either washed away or crushed by giant waves and debris
during tsunamis.
' Basic civic facilities get hampered such as unavailability of drinking water, damaged sewage
pipe etc.
' It may lead to crop loss, loss of livelihood like boats and nets, environmental degradation, etc.

Risk Reduction Measures

' Tsunami walls such as Japan tsunami walls of up to 4.5m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated
coastal areas.
' Flood gates and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunamis.
' Site Planning and Land Management is an important tool in reducing tsunami risk.

54
' Educate the community about good construction practices such as

Natural Hazards and Disasters

* Avoid building or living in buildings within several hundred feet of the coastline.
* Construct the structure on a higher ground level with respect to mean sea level.
* Elevate coastal homes
* Construction water breakers to reduce the velocity of waves.
* Use of water and corrosion-resistant materials for construction.
* Construction of community halls at higher locations, which can act as shelters at the time
of a disaster.
* Flood management to mitigate flooding resulting from a tsunami.

Tropical Cyclone
' Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure areas confined to the area lying between 30°N and
30° S latitudes, in the atmosphere around which high-velocity winds blow.
' Horizontally, it extends up to 500-1,000 km and vertically from the surface to 12-14 km.
' It is energised by the release of latent heat on account of the condensation of moisture that the
wind gathers after moving over the oceans and seas.

Cyclone Type Region

Typhoons Northwest Pacific Ocean (west of dateline)
Hurricanes North Atlantic Ocean
Northeast Pacific Ocean (east of dateline)
South Pacific Ocean
Tropical Cyclones Southwest Pacific Ocean
Southeast Indian Ocean
Severe Cyclonic Storms North Indian Ocean
Willie-Willie (Cyclone) Australia
Tornadoes South America

Condition for tropical cyclone

' Warm sea surface temperature above 27 degrees Celsius.
' Large and continuous supply of warm and moist air
that can release enormous latent heat.
' Strong Coriolis force that can prevent the filling of
low pressure at the centre (absence of Coriolis force
near the equator prohibits the formation of tropical
cyclones between 0°-5°°latitude).
' Unstable condition through the troposphere that
creates local disturbances around which a cyclone
develops.
' Absence of strong vertical wind wedge, which
disturbs the vertical transport of latent heat.
POINTS TO PONDER
Indian Coasts are frequently hit by
Tropical Cyclones causing large scale
destruction. However, the frequency
as well as the intensity of the Cyclones
in the Bay of Bengal are much higher
than those in the Arabian sea. What
do you think might be the reasons
behind this? Recently an increasing
trend has been noticed in
the Arabian sea. Find out the
reasons for such a change.

55
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY Warm sea temperature > 27°C

Continuous supply of
Conditions for warm & moist air.
Tropical Cyclone
Strong coriolis force

Absence of strong vertical

wind wedge

Figure 5.4: Stages of Cyclone Formation

Spatio-temporal Distribution of Tropical Cyclones in India

' Owing to its peninsular shape surrounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east and the Arabian Sea
in the west, the tropical cyclones in India originate in these two important locations.
' The coastal areas are often struck by severe cyclonic storms with an average velocity of
180 km/h.
' Most of the cyclones originate between 10°-15°north latitudes during the monsoon season.
' However, in the case of the Bay of Bengal, cyclones mostly develop during the months of
October and November. Here, they originate between 16°-20° N latitudes and to the west of
92° E. By July the place of origin of these storms shifts to around 18° N latitude and west of
90°E near the Sunderban Delta.

56
 Natural Hazards and Disasters
Figure 5.5: Wind and Cyclone Hazard Zones

Consequences of Tropical Cyclones

' Sudden, brief onslaught, high winds cause major damage to infrastructure and housing.
' Abnormal rise in the sea level known as Storm Surge resulting in inundation of human
settlements, and agricultural fields.
' Ground and pipe water supply may get contaminated by flood waters.
' High winds and rains ruin the standing crops and food stock lying in low-lying areas.
' Salt from the seawater may get deposited on the agricultural land and increase the salinity.
' The loss of the crop may lead to acute food shortage.
' Disruption in the communication links as the wind may bring down the electricity and
communication towers.
' Transport lines (road and rail) may be curtailed, lack of proper communication affects the
effective distribution of relief materials.

57
 Risk Reduction Measures
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' Coastal belt Plantation: It act as a wide buffer zone against strong winds and flash floods.
' Hazard Mapping: A hazard map will
show areas vulnerable to cyclones. It will
be useful for disaster risk preparedness.
' Good Construction Practices (Refer
Figure 5.6) should be adopted such as:
* House design: All elements holding
the structures need to be properly
anchored to resist the uplift or flying
off of the objects.
* A row of planted trees will act as a
shield. It reduces the energy.
* Buildings should be wind and water- Figure 5.6: Safe Construction Practices
resistant.
* Buildings storing food supplies must be protected against the winds and water.
* Communication lines should be installed underground.
* Provide strong halls for community shelter in vulnerable locations.

Floods
' A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually meant to be dry. While
it may occur along river banks, lakes and sea coasts, river flooding is the most common of all
around the world.
' Inundation of land and human settlements by the rise of water in the channels and its spill-
over presents the condition of flooding.
' Floods are relatively slow in occurrence and often occur in well-identified regions and within
the expected time in a year.

Causes of Floods
' Floods can result from various factors, including storm surges in coastal regions, prolonged
high-intensity rainfall, ice and snowmelt, reduced infiltration rates, and the presence of eroded
materials in water due to increased soil erosion.
' Indiscriminate deforestation, unscientific agricultural practices, disturbances along natural
drainage channels, and the colonization of floodplains and riverbeds collectively increase the
intensity, magnitude, and gravity of floods.

Distributional Pattern of Floods in India

' Rashtriya Barh Ayog (National Flood Commission) identified 40 million hectares of land as
flood-prone in India. Most flood-affected states are Assam, West Bengal and Bihar (Refer to
figure 5.7)
' Most of the rivers in the northern states like Punjab and Uttar Pradesh are also vulnerable to
occasional floods.
' Sometimes, Tamil Nadu experiences flooding during November-January due to the retreating
monsoon.

58
 Figure 5.7: Flood Hazard Zones Natural Hazards and Disasters
Negative Consequences of Floods
' Floods destroy valuable crops every year.
' It damages physical infrastructure such as roads, rails, bridges and human settlements.
' Millions of people are rendered homeless and are also washed down along with their cattle in
the floods.
' It also spreads diseases like cholera, gastro-enteritis, hepatitis and other waterborne diseases.

59
 Positive Consequences of Floods
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' Every year, floods deposit fertile silt over agricultural fields which is good for the crops.
' Majuli (Assam), the largest riverine island in the world, is the best example of good paddy crops
after the annual floods in Brahmaputra.
Flood Mitigation
' Construction of flood protection embankments in flood-prone areas.
' Construction of dams, afforestation.
' Discouraging major construction activities in the upper reaches of most of the flood-creating
rivers.
' Removal of human encroachment from the river channels and depopulating the flood plains.
This is particularly true in western and northern parts of the country which experience flash
floods.
' Cyclone centres may provide relief in coastal areas which are hit by a storm surge.
Droughts
' It refers to the absence of water for a long period of time, at a place.
Types of Droughts
' Meteorological Drought: It is a situation when there is a Hydrological Meteorological
prolonged period of inadequate rainfall marked with mal- Drought Drought
distribution of the same over time and space.
' Agricultural Drought: It is also known as soil moisture Type of
drought, characterised by low soil moisture that is Droughts
necessary to support the crops, thereby resulting in crop
failures. Moreover, if an area has more than 30 per cent of Agricultural Ecological
its gross cropped area under irrigation, the area is excluded Drought Drought
from the drought-prone category.
' Hydrological Drought: Availability of water in different storages and reservoirs like aquifers,
lakes, reservoirs, etc. falls below what the precipitation can replenish.
' Ecological Drought: When the productivity of a natural ecosystem fails due to a shortage of
water and as a consequence of ecological distress, damages are induced in the ecosystem.
Drought Areas in India
' Nearly 19 per cent of the total geographical area of the country and 12 per cent of its total
population suffer due to drought every year.
' On the basis of the severity of droughts, India can be divided into the following regions:
* Extreme Drought Affected Areas: Most parts of Rajasthan, particularly areas to the west
of the Aravali hills, i.e. Marusthali and Kachchh regions of Gujarat fall in this category.
* Severe Drought Prone Area: Parts of eastern Rajasthan, most parts of Madhya Pradesh,
eastern parts of Maharashtra, interior parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Plateau,
northern parts of interior Tamil Nadu and southern parts of Jharkhand and interior Odisha
are included in this category.
* Moderate Drought Affected Area: Northern parts of Rajasthan, Haryana, southern
districts of Uttar Pradesh, the remaining parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra except Konkan,
Jharkhand and Coimbatore plateau of Tamil Nadu and interior Karnataka are included in
this category.

60
 Figure 5.8: Drought Prone Areas
Natural Hazards and Disasters
Consequences of Drought

' Crop failure leads to scarcity of food grains (akal), and fodder (trinkal).
' Large-scale death of cattle and other animals.
' Migration of humans and livestock.
' Scarcity of water compels people to consume contaminated water resulting in the spread of
many waterborne diseases like gastroenteritis, cholera, hepatitis, etc.

61
 Measures
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
Droughts have both immediate as well as long-term disastrous consequences on the social and
physical environments. Thus, planning for drought has to take both aspects into consideration.
Immediate measures:
' Provision for the distribution of safe drinking water.
' Medicines for the victims.
' Availability of fodder and water for the cattle.
' Shifting of the people and their livestock to safer places.
Long-term measures:
' Identification of groundwater potential in the form of aquifers.
' Transfer of river water from the surplus to the deficit areas.
' Planning for inter-linking of rivers.
' Construction of reservoirs and dams.
' Remote sensing and satellite imageries can be useful in identifying the possible river basins
that can be interlinked and in identifying the groundwater potential.
' Dissemination of knowledge about drought-resistant crops and proper training to farmers.
' Rainwater harvesting can be an effective method in minimising the effects of drought.

Landslides
' A sudden movement of rock, boulders, earth or debris down a slope is termed a landslide.
' Landslides are natural disasters occurring mainly in mountainous terrains where there are
conducive conditions of soil, rock, geology and slope.
' Landslides are sudden, unpredictable and are largely controlled by macro or regional factors,
landslides are largely controlled by highly localised factors.
Landslide Vulnerability Zones
' Very High Vulnerability Zone:
* Highly unstable, relatively young mountainous areas in the Himalayas and Andaman and
Nicobar.
* High rainfall regions with steep slopes in the Western Ghats and Nilgiris, the north-
eastern regions,
* Areas that experience frequent ground-shaking due to earthquakes.
* Areas of intense human activities, particularly those related to the construction of roads,
dams, etc. are included in this zone.
' High Vulnerability Zone: All the Himalayan states and the states from the northeastern
regions except the plains of Assam are included in the high vulnerability zones.
' Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone:
* Areas that receive less precipitation such as Trans-Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti
(Himachal Pradesh).
* Undulated yet stable relief and low precipitation areas in the Aravali.
* Rain shadow areas in the Western and Eastern Ghats.
* The Deccan plateau also experiences occasional landslides.

62
 * Landslides due to mining and subsidence are most common in states like Jharkhand,

Natural Hazards and Disasters

Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Goa and Kerala.
' Other Areas: The remaining parts of India, particularly states like Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal (except district Darjeeling), Assam (except district Karbi Anglong)
and Coastal regions of the southern States are safe as far as landslides are concerned.
Consequences of Landslides
' Landslides have a relatively small and localised area of direct influence.
' Roadblocks, destruction of railway lines and channel-blocking due to rock falls.
' Diversion of river courses due to landslides can also lead to flood and loss of life and property.
' It also makes spatial interaction difficult, risky as well as a costly affair, which, adversely
affects the developmental activities in these areas.
Mitigation
' Adoption of area-specific measures to deal with landslides.
' In the high vulnerability zones, there should be restrictions on the construction and other
developmental activities such as roads and dams.
' Limiting agriculture to valleys and areas with moderate slopes.
' Control on the development of large settlements should be enforced.
' Promoting large-scale afforestation programmes.
' Construction of bunds to reduce the flow of water.
' Terrace farming should be encouraged in the northeastern hill states where Jhumming
(Slash and Burn/Shifting Cultivation) is still prevalent.

Disaster Management
' It is mainly a disaster Risk Reduction strategy involved in a continuous and integrated process
of planning, organising, coordinating and implementing measures.
' It includes all measures which reduce disaster-related losses of life, property or assets by either
reducing the hazard or vulnerability of the elements at risk.
' Disaster Risk Reduction initiatives are generally based on two-pronged strategies of Preparedness
and Mitigation.
Disaster Risk Reduction

1. Preparedness:
± Measures taken before the occurrence of disaster aimed at minimising loss of life, disruption of critical
services, and damage when the disaster occurs.
± Preparedness includes the formulation of viable emergency plans, development of warning systems,
maintenance of inventories, training of personnel, search and rescue measures, and evacuation plans for
areas at risk from a recurring disaster.
2. Mitigation:
± Measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard and the vulnerability in order to reduce the scale
of a future disaster.
± Examples of mitigation measures: Water management in drought-prone areas, relocating people away
from the hazard-prone areas, strengthening structures to reduce damage when a hazard occurs, and
reducing the economic and social vulnerabilities of potential disasters.

63
 Disaster Management Cycle
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' Disaster Management includes the sum total of all activities, programmes and measures which
can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose of avoiding a disaster,
reducing its impact or recovering from its losses.
The three key stages of disaster risk management are:
1. Before a disaster (Pre-disaster)
* Activities taken to reduce human and property losses caused by a potential hazard.
* For example carrying out awareness campaigns, strengthening the existing weak points
structures, preparation of the disaster management plans at household and community
level etc.
2. During a disaster (Disaster occurrence): Initiatives are taken to ensure that the needs of victims
are met and suffering is minimised. Activities taken under this stage are called emergency response
activities.
3. After a disaster (Post-disaster): Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with the purpose
to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of affected communities, immediately after a disaster
strikes. These are called response and recovery activities.

Figure 5.9: Disaster Management

Yokohama Strategy and International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) Yokohama
Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World
± All the member states of the United Nations and other states met at the World Conference on Natural
Disaster Reduction in the city of Yokohama from May 23rd-27th, 1994.
± It acknowledged that the impact of natural disasters in terms of human and economic losses has risen in
recent years, and society, in general, has become vulnerable to natural disasters.

64
 Natural Hazards and Disasters
± It also accepted that these disasters affected the poor and disadvantaged groups the worst, particularly
in the developing countries, which are ill-equipped to cope with them.
± The conference adopted the Yokohama strategy as a guide to the rest of the decade and beyond, to
mitigate the losses due to these disasters.
± The resolution of the World Conference on Natural Disasters Reduction is as mentioned below:
* Priority attention to the developing countries, particularly the least developed, land-locked countries
and small-island developing states.
* Developing and strengthening national capabilities and, where appropriate, national legislation for
natural and other disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness, including the mobilisation of
non-governmental organisations and participation of local communities.
* Promoting and strengthening sub-regional, regional and international cooperation in activities to
prevent, reduce and mitigate natural and other disasters, with particular emphasis on
U Human and institutional capacity-building and strengthening.
U Technology sharing: the collection, dissemination and utilisation of information.
U Mobilisation of resources.
± It also declared the decade 1990-2000 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
(IDNDR).

Conclusion
On the basis of the above discussion, it can be concluded that disasters can be natural or the results
of human activities, and all hazards need not turn into disasters. Since it is difficult to eliminate
disasters, particularly natural disasters, the next best option is mitigation and preparedness. The
passing of the Disaster Management Act, of 2005 and the establishment of the National Institute
of Disaster Management are some examples of the positive steps taken by the Government of India.
Glossary
± Disaster: A serious disruption in the functioning of the community or society.
± Hazard: A dangerous condition or event that threatens or has the potential to cause injury to life or
damage to property.
± Famine: A lack of food over a long period of time in a large area that can cause the death of many people.
± Technological Disaster: A technological disaster is an event caused by a malfunction of a technological
structure or some human error in controlling or handling the technology.
± Wind Storm: A wind that is strong enough to cause light damage to trees and buildings and may or may
not be accompanied by precipitation. Wind speeds during a windstorm typically exceed 55 km per hour.
± Meteorology: Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere, atmospheric phenomena, and atmospheric
effects on our weather.
± Meteorological Disaster: Disaster caused by extreme weather produced by the earth's atmosphere.
± Geological Disaster: Natural disasters caused by a geological process are called geological disasters.
These are earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.
± Epidemic: An epidemic is a sudden disease outbreak that affects a large number of people in a particular
region, community, or population.
± Tectonic Plate: A tectonic plate is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock, generally composed
of both continental and oceanic lithosphere.
± Disaster Management Act, 2005: The act aims to establish an efficient disaster management system for
the country in the event of natural and man-made calamities.

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65
 6 Soils
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapter 2 of Class VII NCERT and
Chapter 6 of Class XI NCERT.

Introduction
POINTS TO PONDER
Soil, which is crucial for sustaining various life forms, evolves
Have you ever wondered how
from the weathering of parent rock material over millennia. It soil is formed and how lack of
is a major source of our food and some clothing materials. Soil rain or excess of rain can affect
formation is determined by multiple factors, including climate, the characteristics of soil? Can
vegetation, and human activity, which comprise components you think of other factors that
like minerals, humus, water, and air. Also, the various agents affect the formation of soil
of weathering and gradation have acted upon the parent rock and contribute to variation of
material to produce a thin layer of soil. Understanding and its characteristics? And how
classifying soil through scientific study is vital for sustainable variation in characteristics
utilisation and enhancing its productivity. contributes to variation
in crop pattern, culture,
Soil food choices etc?
' Soil is a mixture of rock debris and organic materials that
develop on the earth’s surface.
' The arrangement of layers of soil is known as the soil
profile. It has three layers:
* Horizon A with organic and mineral matter,
* Horizon B as a transitional zone,
* Horizon C with loose parent material

Classification of Soils Figure 6.1: Soil Profile

' The diverse relief and climatic conditions of India
have led to a variety of soils in the region.
' Historically, the soil was initially categorised simply as
fertile (Urvara) or sterile (Usara).
' In the 16th century, classification evolved to consider
various factors like texture, colour, land slope, and
moisture content, leading to the identification of main
soil types such as sandy, clayey, silty, and loam, along
with colour-based classifications like red, yellow, and
black.
 Soils
ICAR has classified the soils of the India into ± Post-independence, scientific
examinations greatly expanded
the following order as per the USDA soil taxonomy with the establishment of the Soil
S.I. Order Area (in Thousand Percentage Survey of India in 1956 and
No. Hectares) contributions from the National
Bureau of Soil Survey under the
(i) Inceptisols 130372.90 39.74 Indian Council of Agricultural
(ii) Entisols 92131.71 28.08 Research (ICAR)
(iii) Alfisols 44448.68 13.55 ± Significant studies were undertaken
in areas like Damodar Valley.
(iv) Vertisols 27960.00 8.52
± ICAR, aligning with international
(v) Aridisols 14069.00 4.28 standards, has based recent soil
(vi) Ultisols 8250.00 2.51 classifications on the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA)
(vii) Mollisols 1320.00 0.40 Soil Taxonomy, furthering the
(viii) Others 9503.10 2.92 understanding and standardization
Total 100 of Indian soil types.

Figure 6.2: Major Soil Types of India

67
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY Alluvial Soils
Red & Yellow Laterite Arid Peaty
Area Soil Soil Soil Soil

' These soils, prevalent in northern plains and river

valleys, covering about 40% of India's terrain, are majorly
transported and deposited by rivers, extend through Types of Soil
Rajasthan to Gujarat's plains, and are also seen in
eastern deltas and river valleys of the Peninsular region
(Refer to Figure 6.2).
Saline Black Forest Alluvial
Characteristics Soil Soil Soil Soil

' Notably, in the Upper and Middle Ganga plains, two

distinct types, Khadar (new alluvium) and Bhangar
(older alluvium), are found.
* Khadar is enriched annually by flood deposits.
* Bhangar is located away from flood plains.
* Both types bear calcareous concretions known as
Kankars.
' These soils become more loamy and clayey, moving
from the lower Ganga plain to the Brahmaputra valley,
with sand content reducing from west to east.
' Alluvial soils exhibit a colour spectrum from light grey
to ash grey, with shades depending on deposition Figure 6.3: Alluvial Soil
depth, material texture, and maturity time.
' Due to their fertility, alluvial soils are heavily cultivated.
Mineral composition
' Their texture ranges from sandy loam to clay, generally rich in potash but lacking in phosphorus.

Black Soil
Area
' It predominantly covers the Deccan Plateau
and is found in parts of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil
Nadu, with significant depth in the upper reaches
of the Godavari and Krishna rivers and the north-
western Deccan Plateau. (Refer to Figure 6.4)
Characteristics Figure 6.4: Black Soil during Dry Season

' It is also referred to as 'Regur Soil' or 'Black Cotton Soil', these soils are characterised by their
clayey, deep, and impermeable nature.
' They exhibit a unique behaviour of swelling and becoming sticky when wet and shrinking
upon drying, leading to wide cracks during dry seasons, a phenomenon referred to as ‘self-
ploughing’.
' This characteristic enables slow moisture absorption and retention, benefiting crops,
especially rain-fed ones, by providing moisture during dry periods.

68
Mineral Composition

Soils
' On a chemical level, black soils are rich in lime, iron, magnesia, and alumina, with a good
content of potash, but are deficient in phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic matter.
' Their colour spectrum ranges from deep black to grey, embodying fertile and cultivable
properties favourable for agricultural activities.
Red and Yellow Soil
Area
' These are predominantly found on crystalline igneous rocks in the eastern and southern
regions of the Deccan Plateau under low rainfall conditions and extend along the piedmont
zone of the Western Ghat, showcasing a stretch of red loamy soil.
' These soils are also present in parts of Odisha, Chattisgarh, and southern areas of the Middle
Ganga Plain.
Characteristics
' They exhibit a reddish hue due to iron diffusion in crystalline and metamorphic rocks, turning
yellow when hydrated. While the fine-grained red and yellow soils are typically fertile, the
coarse-grained variants in dry upland areas lack fertility.
Mineral Composition
' These soils are generally deficient in nitrogen, phosphorous, and humus, delineating a crucial
understanding of their utilisation and management.
Laterite Soil
' Derived from the Latin word ‘Later’ meaning brick, laterite soils form in high temperature and
rainfall areas, undergoing intense leaching due to tropical rains, which wash away lime and
silica, leaving behind soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium compounds.
Area
' Being widely used as bricks for construction, laterite soils predominantly occupy higher areas
of the Peninsular plateau, notably found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh,
and the hilly regions of Odisha and Assam.
Characteristics
' In regions of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala, red laterite soils are favourable for tree
crops like cashew nuts.
' This distribution and character of laterite soils are crucial for understanding their agricultural
and constructional utility in these regions.
' The high temperature aids bacteria in rapidly decomposing the humus content.
Mineral Composition
' Because they lack organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate, and calcium but are abundant in iron
oxide and potash, these soils are initially unsuitable for cultivation, requiring manures and
fertilisers to enhance fertility.
Arid Soil
Area
These soils are chiefly found in western Rajasthan, showcasing the region's arid topography. (Refer
to Figure 6.5)

69
 Characteristics
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' They are characterised by a colour range from
red to brown, predominantly having a sandy
structure and a saline nature, with salt content
so high in certain areas that common salt can be
extracted through evaporation.
' Due to the arid climate, high temperatures, and
rapid evaporation, these soils lack moisture and
humus, with nitrogen being insufficient, though
phosphate content remains normal.
Mineral Composition Figure 6.5: Arid Soil

' A notable feature is the 'kankar' layers in the lower horizons due to increasing calcium
content, which restricts water infiltration but ensures soil moisture retention when irrigation is
introduced, aiding sustainable plant growth.
' Their fertility is hindered by the low humus and organic matter content, highlighting a need for
substantial soil management for productive agricultural usage.

Saline Soils

Area
' Predominantly found in arid, semi-arid, waterlogged, and swampy regions due to the dry
climate and poor drainage, their texture varies from sandy to loamy.
' Major occurrences are noted in western Gujarat, the eastern coast deltas, and the northern
Sundarban areas of West Bengal. The Rann of Kachchh sees salt depositing crusts brought by
the Southwest Monsoon, while seawater intrusion in deltas further contributes to soil salinity.

Characteristics
' Also known as Usara soils, saline soils are marked by a high proportion of sodium, potassium,
and magnesium, rendering them infertile and unsupportive of vegetative growth.
' Intensive cultivation zones, especially Green Revolution areas with excessive irrigation,
witness fertile alluvial soils turning saline.
' The capillary action, encouraged by excessive irrigation in dry climates, deposits salt on the
soil's top layer.
' This scenario, particularly seen in Punjab and Haryana, prompts advice for farmers to add
gypsum as a remedial measure against soil salinity, emphasising a balance between
irrigation practices and soil management to maintain soil fertility and agricultural productivity.

Mineral Composition
' Saline soils are deficient in nitrogen and calcium.

Peaty Soils

Area
' Geographically, peaty soils are widely distributed in northern Bihar and southern Uttrakhand,
along with coastal stretches of West Bengal, Orissa, and Tamil Nadu.

70
Characteristics

Soils
' These soils are typically heavy, black in colour, and, in many locales, exhibit alkaline properties.
' Peaty soils are prominently found in regions with heavy rainfall and high humidity, conducive
to lush vegetation growth that, upon decomposition, contributes to the soil's rich humus and
organic content, often reaching 40-50%.
' The substantial organic matter within these soils reflects the region's dense vegetative cover,
which in turn is significantly influenced by the local climatic conditions.

Mineral Composition
' Peaty soils have a low proportion of minerals compared to organic matter, with the exact mineral
content varying depending on the specific location and conditions in which the soil has formed.

Forest Soils

Area
' Forest soils, inherent to regions with ample rainfall, exhibit varied structure and texture
based on the specific mountainous environment such as in Arunachal Pradesh, and Himachal
Pradesh.

Characteristics
' They are categorised as loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained on upper slopes.
Particularly in the snow-clad regions of the Himalayas, these soils undergo denudation,
becoming acidic with a low humus content.
' However, the soils in the lower valleys are notably fertile.

Soil Degradation
' It is defined as a decline in soil fertility, marked by a reduction in nutritional status and soil
depth due to erosion and misuse.
' This degradation is identified as a key factor driving the depletion of the country's soil resource
base.
' The extent of soil degradation varies across different regions, influenced by local topography,
wind velocity, and rainfall levels.

Soil Erosion
' Soil erosion, described as the destruction of soil cover,
results from an imbalance between soil-forming and
erosional processes, intensified by natural or human
factors such as deforestation and overuse of land for
settlement, cultivation, and grazing.
' The dynamics of erosion vary with regional conditions;
wind plays a significant role in arid areas, while
water erosion, manifested as sheet and gully
erosion (Refer Figure 6.6), prevails in regions with
heavy rainfall and steep slopes.
* Sheet erosion: It discreetly removes the fertile
topsoil. Figure 6.6: Soil Erosion

71
 * Gully erosion: It visibly fragments agricultural lands, forming ‘badland topography’ with
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY ravines, notably in the Chambal basin, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, costing India
around 8,000 hectares of land annually.

Implications of Soil Erosion

POINTS TO PONDER
' Soil erosion not only jeopardizes agriculture but
also escalates issues like river siltation, leading Have you ever thought about the inter
relationship between soil erosion and
to reduced carrying capacity of rivers and frequent
food crisis, water crisis and livelihood
floods.
crisis? Can millet cultivation be the
' Deforestation exacerbates soil erosion, especially in panacea for mitigating these
hilly regions, by removing the root-bound protection problems? Can you think of
and humus supply to the soil. other such measures?
' Over-irrigation in arable lands induces soil salinity
as salt from lower profiles resurfaces, diminishing soil fertility.
' Moreover, reliance on chemical fertilisers without organic manures hardens the soil and
declines its fertility over time, a challenge observed in command areas of river valley projects
post the Green Revolution.
' With nearly half of India's total land facing degradation, the nation confronts a loss of
millions of tonnes of soil and nutrients annually, adversely impacting national productivity.
' The stark data necessitates immediate initiatives for soil reclamation and conservation to abate
the detrimental cycle of soil degradation and ensure sustainable agricultural productivity.

Soil Conservation
' Soil conservation is a process of maintaining soil
fertility and preventing erosion and emerges as a
human-centric remedy to the degradation induced
by human activities.
' The initial step entails restricting cultivation on
sloped lands with a gradient of 15-25 per cent,
instead of encouraging terrace farming (Refer
Figure 6.7).
' Over-grazing and shifting cultivation have led
to erosion, necessitating education for villagers on
sustainable practices. Figure 6.7: Terrace Farming

Remedial measures
' Several remedial measures, like contour bunding, contour terracing, regulated forestry,
controlled grazing, cover cropping, mixed farming, and crop rotation, are advocated to
mitigate soil erosion.
' To address gully erosion, terracing and the construction of check dams are suggested, along
with efforts to control the extension of gullies through plugging, terracing, or cover vegetation
planting.
' In arid regions, shielding cultivable lands from sand dunes through shelterbelts of trees, agro-
forestry, and converting non-arable lands into pastures are recommended.
' Exemplifying this, the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) has experimented with
stabilising sand dunes in western Rajasthan.

72
 Soils
The Central Soil Conservation Board
± It was established by the Government of India and has devised numerous soil conservation plans tailored
to the diverse climatic and social conditions across regions.
± However, these plans are considered fragmental. Integrated land-use planning, entailing land classification
according to capability and the right utilisation of lands as per prepared maps, is endorsed as a holistic
approach for soil conservation.
± The execution and success of these conservation measures fundamentally lie with the individuals who
manage the lands and reap the benefits, underscoring the human-centric essence of soil conservation in
India.

Conclusion
Soil, a pivotal entity, nurtures diverse life forms and significantly contributes to our daily
sustenance. Its formation, influenced by natural and human-induced factors, reveals a
complex structure that varies across regions. Unveiling the intricacies of soil through careful
study and classification paves the way for sustainable practices, ensuring its preservation
and continued fertility for future generations. Hence, a profound understanding of soil is
imperative for harmonising human activities with nature's delicate balance.

Glossary:
± Humus: It is a dark, organic material that forms in soil when plant and animal matter decays.
± Delta: It is a triangular area of low, flat land where a river splits into smaller rivers before flowing into
the sea.
± Hydrated: It means having absorbed enough water or other liquid.
± Evaporation: It is the process of a liquid turning into a gas.
± Capillary Action: It is the movement of a liquid through a narrow space without the help of external
forces, like gravity.
± River Siltation: It is the accumulation of fine sediments, such as silt or clay, in a river or lake.
± Deforestation: It is the large-scale removal of trees from forests or other lands for human activities.
± Terrace Farming: It is an agricultural practice farmers employ on steep slopes, hilly areas, and higher
altitudes.
± Agroforestry: It is a land management practice that combines agriculture and trees.



73
 7 Natural Vegetation
Bibliography: This chapter encompasses the summary of Chapter 5- XI NCERT (India Physical
Environment) and Chapter 5- IX NCERT (Contemporary India).

Introduction
Natural vegetation denotes a plant community that remains undisturbed for an extended period,
allowing its individual species to adapt fully to the local climate and soil conditions. India boasts
diverse natural vegetation due to variations in climate and soil. It is recognized as one of the world's
12 mega biodiversity countries, a home to approximately 47,000 plant species, including 15,000
flowering plants (constituting 6 percent of the world's total). Additionally, India hosts numerous
nonflowering plants like ferns, algae, and fungi, along with around 90,000 animal species and a rich
diversity of fish in its freshwater and marine ecosystems.

Figure 7.1: Natural Vegetation of India

Types of Forests

Natural Vegetation
Indian forests can be categorized into distinct groups based Littoral &
Swamp Forest
on shared characteristics like the prevailing vegetation
Tropical Tropical Evergreen
type and climatic regions: Deciduous & Semi-Evergreen
Forest Types of Forest
' Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen Forests Forests
' Tropical Deciduous Forests
Montane Tropical
' Tropical Thorn Forests Forest Thorn
' Montane Forests Forest

' Littoral and Swamp Forests

Tropical Evergreen
' Location: Tropical Evergreen forests are located along western slope of the Western Ghats,
hills of the northeastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
' Climate and Rainfall: Climate in these forests is warm and humid with an annual precipitation
of over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22° C.
' Characteristics
* These forests are well-structured,
featuring layers near the ground
covered in shrubs and creepers,
followed by short and tall trees that
can reach heights of 60 meters or
more.
* The region's warm and consistently
wet climate fosters lush vegetation,
including various types of trees,
shrubs, and creepers, creating a
multi-layered forest.
* Leaves on the trees do not have
a specific season for shedding,
flowering, or fruiting, resulting in
year-round greenery.
* Flora: Notable commercially valuable
trees in these forests include ebony,
mahogany, rosewood, rubber, and
cinchona.
* Fauna: Common wildlife in
these forests includes elephants,
monkeys, lemurs, and deer. One-
horned Rhinoceros are also found
in Assam and West Bengal’s forests.
Additionally, these forests are home
Figure 7.2: Tropical Evergreen Forest
to numerous birds, bats, sloths,
scorpions, and snails.

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NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY Semi Evergreen Forests
' Semi-evergreen forests are located in regions with lower rainfall. These forests contain a
combination of evergreen and moist deciduous trees, and the presence of undergrowth climbers
contributes to their evergreen appearance.
' Key tree species in these forests include white cedar, hollock, and kail.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

These are the most widespread forests in India and are also called the monsoon forests.
' Location: They are spread over regions which receive rainfall between 70-200 cm.
' Classification on the basis of the availability of water
* Moist Deciduous Forests: These forests are found in regions which record rainfall between
100-200 cm; in the northeastern states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of
the Western Ghats and Odisha.
U Flora: Teak is the most dominant species of this forest, while Bamboos, sal, shisham,
sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun and mulberry are other commercially important
species.
* Dry Deciduous Forests: These forests are found in regions where rainfall ranges between
70 -100 cm. On the wetter margins, it has a transition to the moist deciduous forest;
having a parkland landscape with open stretches in which teak and other trees interspersed
with patches of grass.
U Rainier areas of the Peninsula and regions of the northern Indian plain.
U In drier margins, it has a transition to thorn forests; having a vast grassland with
naked trees all around. Eg. western and southern part of Rajasthan. Tendu, palas,
amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc. are the common trees of these forests.
' In these forests, the common animals found are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant. A huge
variety of birds, lizards, snakes and tortoises are also found here.

Tropical Thorn Forests

' Location: Tropical Thorn Forests occur in the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm.
* In semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh.
' Characteristics
* These consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs.
* Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order to get
moisture.
* The stems are succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize
evaporation.
* In these forests, plants remain leafless for most part of the year and give an expression of
scrub vegetation.
* Important species found are babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas,
Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti etc. Tussocky grass grows up to a height of 2 m as
the undergrowth.
* In these forests, the common animals are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass,
horses and camels.

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Montane Forests

Natural Vegetation
' These forests are characterized by the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude
that leads to a corresponding change in natural vegetation (Figure 7.3).

Mosses & Lichens Snow Covered

4500 m
Alpine
Grasses Grassland
3600 m
Silver Fir, Alpine
Juniper, Pine Vegetation
1500 – 3000 m
Pine, deodar Temperate
Silver Fir Forests
1000 – 2000 m
Oaks, Evergreen Broad
Chestnuts Leaf Trees

Figure 7.3: Montane Forest

' Types:
* Northern Mountain Forests:
U These ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, which
change with the altitude.
U Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas, which is succeeded
by the wet temperate type of forests between an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m. In the
higher hill ranges of northeastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and Uttaranchal,
evergreen broadleaf trees such as oak and chestnut are predominant.
U Between 1500 and 3000 meters temperate forests containing coniferous trees, like
pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar, are found. These forests cover mostly the
southern slopes of the Himalayas, places having high altitude in southern and north-
east India. At higher elevations, temperate grasslands are common.
TUNDRA

4000 m
ALPINE
Trees stunted as snowline nears
3000 m
Coniferous forest - Blue pine,
TEMPERATE
2000 m
WET
TEMPERATE
1000 m
DECIDUOUS FOREST
VEGETATION
U At elevations between 3,000 to 4,000 meters, there is a shift to Alpine forests and
meadows. Predominant species in this region include silver firs, junipers, pines, birch,
and rhododendrons. These meadows are widely used for seasonal nomadic grazing by
tribes such as the Gujjars, Bakarwals, Bhotiyas, and Gaddis.

77
 At even higher altitudes surpassing 4,000 meters, the vegetation consists of mosses
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY U
and lichens as part of the tundra landscape.
* Southern Mountain Forests:
U Found in three distinct areas of Peninsular India i.e.; the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas
and the Nilgiris.
U As they are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the sea level, vegetation is
temperate in the higher regions, and subtropical on the lower regions of the Western
Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
U These temperate forests are also called Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills.
U Some trees of economic significance found in these forests include, magnolia, laurel,
cinchona and wattle.
' Fauna: The common animals found in these forests are Kashmir stag, spotted deer, wild sheep,
jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horned wild ibex, bear and
rare red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.

Littoral and Swamp Forests

' India has a rich variety of wetland habitats with a total area of 3.9 million hectares. 70
percent of this comprises areas under paddy cultivation, indicating its importance.
' India’s wetlands are categorized into eight groups as follows:
* Reservoirs in the Deccan Plateau in the southern part of the country, along with lagoons
and other wetlands along the southwestern coast.
* Extensive saline areas in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and the Gulf of Kachchh.
* Freshwater lakes and reservoirs stretch from Gujarat eastward through Rajasthan
(including Keoladeo National Park) and into Madhya Pradesh.
* Delta wetlands and lagoons along the eastern coast of India, exemplified by Chilika Lake.
* Freshwater marshes in the Gangetic Plain.
* Floodplains along the Brahmaputra River.
* Lakes and rivers in the mountainous region of Kashmir and Ladakh.
* Mangrove forests and other wetlands in the island chains of the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.

Mangroves
' The mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. km which
is 7 percent of the world’s mangrove forests.
' According to India State of Forest Report 2021, the
mangroves cover is now 4,992 sq km which is merely
3.3 percent of the world's mangrove forest.
' These grow along the coasts in the salt marshes,
tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries (Figure 7.4).
' They consist of a number of salt-tolerant species of
plants.
' The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna,
the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered by such
vegetation. Figure 7.4: Mangrove Forests

78
' In the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, sundari trees are found, which provide durable hard timber.

Natural Vegetation
Palm, coconut, keora, agar, etc., also grow in some parts of the delta.
' The Royal Bengal Tiger is a famous animal in these forests. Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and
snakes are also found in these forests.

MEDICINAL PLANTS
India is known for its herbs and spices from ancient times. Some 2,000 plants have been
described in Ayurveda and at least 500 are in regular use. The World Conservation Union's
Red List has named 352 medicinal plants of which 52 are critically threatened and 49
endangered. The commonly used plants in India are:
Sarpagandha ± Used to treat blood pressure; it is found only in India.
Jamun ± The juice from ripe fruit is used to prepare vinegar, which is carminative
and diuretic, and has digestive properties. The powder of the seed is
used for controlling diabetes.
Arjun ± The fresh juice of leaves is a cure for earache. It is also used to regulate
blood pressure.
Babool ± Leaves are used as a cure of eye sores. Its gum is used as a tonic.
Neem ± Has high antibiotic and antibacterial properties.
Tulsi ± Is used to cure cough and cold.
Kachnar ± Is used to cure asthma and ulcers. The buds and roots are good for
digestive problems.
Source: Medicinal Plants by Dr. S. K. Jain, 5th edition 1994, National Book Trust of
India.

Forest Conservation
' Forests maintain a complex connection with life and the environment, offering various direct
and indirect benefits to our economy and society. Therefore, the preservation of forests is
crucial for the well-being and progress of humanity.
' Consequently, the Government of India introduced a nationwide forest conservation policy,
implementing a forest policy in 1952 with the dual objectives of safeguarding and expanding
forest reserves while also addressing the requirements of local communities.
National Forest Policy 1952
' Bringing 33 percent of the geographical areas under forest cover;
' Maintaining environmental stability and to restore forests where ecological balance was
disturbed;
' Conserving the natural heritage of the country, its biological diversity and genetic pool;
' Checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands and reduction of floods and droughts;
' Increasing the forest cover through social forestry and afforestation on degraded land;
' Increasing the productivity of forests to make timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural
population dependent on forests, and encourage the substitution of wood;
' Creating a massive people’s movement involving women to encourage planting of trees, stop
felling of trees and thus, reduce pressure on the existing forest. Based on the forest conservation
policy the many steps were initiated, few of which are discussed in following sections.

79
 Social Forestry
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren
lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development.
' The National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into three
categories:
* Urban forestry: It pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and privately
owned lands in and around urban centers such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues,
industrial and commercial green belts, etc.
* Rural forestry: It lays emphasis on promotion of agroforestry and community-forestry.
U Agroforestry: It is the raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive
of the waste patches; It combines forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the
simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and fruit;
U Community Forestry: Raising of trees on public or community land such as the
village pasture and temple land, roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, and
schools etc.
U Aim: It aims at providing benefits to the community as a whole, under which the
people of landless classes can associate themselves in tree raising and thus, get those
benefits which otherwise are restricted for landowners.
* Farm Forestry: Farmers grow trees for commercial and non-commercial purposes on
their farm lands, the margins of agricultural fields, grasslands and pastures, land around
homes and cow sheds may be used.
Wildlife
Statistics
' India possesses a rich natural heritage in its wildlife, with approximately 4-5% of all known
plant and animal species worldwide being present in the country.
' India also boasts significant biodiversity, including 13% of the global bird population, 12% of
Fish species, and 5-8% of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals.
Notable Wildlife in India POINTS TO PONDER

' It includes elephants in the hot, wet forests of Assam, Have you ever visited thorn forests
Karnataka, and Kerala; one-horned rhinoceroses in of Rajasthan, tropical rainforest of
the swampy lands of Assam and West Bengal; wild Kaziranga national park and sholas
ass in the Rann of Kachchh; and camels in the Thar of Nilgiri? Did you observe that there
Desert. exists huge variation in the type of
plants and animals? Can you
' India is unique for having both tigers and lions, with
Indian lions primarily residing in the Gir forest in think of reasons behind such
Gujarat and tigers found in Madhya Pradesh, the a megadiversity of flora and
Sundarbans of West Bengal, and the Himalayan fauna?
region.
' In Ladakh's high-altitude regions, one can find yak, Tibetan antelope, bharal (blue sheep), wild
sheep, and kiang (Tibetan wild ass).
Causes of Concern
' Despite this remarkable diversity, human activities have significantly disrupted these
ecosystems.
' Factors like industrialization, land clearance for agriculture and settlements, deforestation for
resources, grazing by domestic cattle, hunting, and forest fires have led to a decline in wildlife
numbers.

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' This exploitation has resulted in the endangerment and extinction of numerous plant and

Natural Vegetation
animal species, making conservation efforts imperative.
Wildlife Conservation in India
' India has a rich tradition of valuing wildlife, evident in timeless tales like Panchtantra and
Jungle Books, which instill a deep love for wildlife, particularly in young minds.
' In 1972, India introduced a comprehensive Wildlife Act, serving as the primary legal framework
for wildlife conservation and protection. This legislation has two main objectives:
* Safeguarding endangered species listed in the Act's schedule.
* Providing legal support for the preservation of designated conservation areas such as
National Parks, sanctuaries, and closed areas.
' The 1972 act underwent substantial amendments in 1991, resulting in stricter penalties and
provisions for safeguarding specific plant species and the conservation of endangered wild
animals (Figure 7.5).

Figure 7.5: Wildlife Reserves

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 Project Tiger (1973)
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
' Objective: The primary goal of the initiative is to ensure the existence of a sustainable tiger
population in India, valued for its scientific, aesthetic, cultural, and ecological significance.
* Additionally, it aims to preserve areas of significant biological importance as natural
treasures, accessible for the benefit, education, and enjoyment of the public.
' Area under the Project: Initially, Project Tiger was
POINTS TO PONDER
inaugurated in nine tiger reserves, covering a total
area of 16,339 square kilometers. This initiative Have you heard about Project Cheetah?
has since expanded to encompass 54 tiger reserves, Such projects incur huge amounts of
encompassing a substantial 75,796.83 square money. Do you think such projects
kilometers of core tiger habitats distributed across are necessary? Do these projects in
18 states. any way contribute to conservation
' Achievement: Remarkably, India has witnessed a of the ecosystem? Can you
growth in its tiger population from 1,411 in 2006 to think of its impact on the
2,967 in 2020, representing 70% of the global tiger livelihood of tribals?
population.
Project Elephant (1992)
' Initiated in 1992, this project was established to provide support to states with wild elephant
populations roaming freely. The project is currently operational in 16 states.
' Goal: Its primary objective is to secure the enduring existence of recognized sustainable
elephant populations within their native habitats.
' Additionally, the Government of India has undertaken several other initiatives, including the
Crocodile Breeding Project, Project Hangul, and the conservation of Himalayan Musk
deer.
Biosphere Reserves
' A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem of terrestrial and coastal areas
which are internationally recognised within the framework of UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere
Programme (MAB).
' Objective:
* There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India (Figure 7.6 and Table 7.1), of which 12 Biosphere
Reserves have been recognised by the UNESCO on World Network of Biosphere Reserves.

CONSERVATION DEVELOPMENT
Conservation of Association of
Biodiversity and environment with
ecosystem development

BIOSPHERE
RESERVE

LOGISTICS
International network for research and monitoring

Objectives of a Biosphere Reserve

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 Table 7.1: List of Biosphere Reserves

Natural Vegetation
SI. Name of the Biosphere Reserve Date of Location in the States/UT
No. and Total Geographical Area (km2) Designation
1. Nilgiri (5520) 01.08.1986 Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and
Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani
Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka).
2. Nanda Devi (5860.69) 18.01.1988 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Almora
Districts in Uttarakhand.
3. Nokrek (820) 01.09.1988 Part of East, West and South Garo Hill Districts
in Meghalaya.
4. Manas (2837) 14.03.1989 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari,
Kamrup and Darang Districts in Assam
5. Sunderban (9630) 29.03.1989 Part of delta of Ganges and Brahamaputra river
system in West Bengal.
6. Gulf of Mannar (10500) 18.02.1989 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar extending
from Rameswaram island in the North of
Kaniyakumari in the South of Tamil Nadu.
7. Great Nicobar (885) 06.01.1989 Southern most island of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
8. Similipal (4374) 21.06.1994 Part of Mayurbhanj District in Odisha.
9. Dibru-Saikhowa (765) 28.07.1997 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts in
Assam.
10. Dihang-Dibang (5111.5) 02.09.1998 Part of Upper Siang, West Siang and Dibang
Valley Districts in Arunachal Pradesh.
11. Pachmarhi (4981.72) 03.03.1999 Part of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chhindwara
Districts in Madhya Pradesh.
12. Khangchendzonga (2619.92) 07.02.2000 Part of North and West Districts in Sikkim
13. Agasthyamalai (3500.36) 12.11.2001 Part of Thirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts
in Tamil Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram,
Kollam and Pathanamthitta districts in Kerala.
14. Achanakmar-Amarkantak 30.03.2005 Part of Anuppur and Dindori Districts of Madhya
(3835.51) Pradesh and Bilaspur district of Chhattisgarh.
15. Kachchh (12,454) 29.01.2008 Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendranagar and
Patan Districts in Gujarat.
16. Cold Desert (7770) 28.08.2009 Pin Valley National Park and Surrounding;
Chandratal and Sarchu and Kibber Wildlife
sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh.
17. Seshachalam (4755.997) 20.09.2010 Seshachalam hill ranges in Eastern Ghats
encompassing part of Chittoor and Kadapa
Districts in Andhra Pradesh.
18. Panna (2998.98) 25.08.2011 Part of Panna and Chhattarpur Districts in
Madhya Pradesh.
Sites with Bold Letters have been included in the World Network of BRs of UNESCO.

83
NCERT NOTES INDIAN GEOGRAPHY

Figure 7.6: Biosphere Reserves

Conclusion
India's natural vegetation is a testament to its incredible biodiversity. From the lush evergreen forests
of the Western Ghats to the arid thorn forests of Rajasthan, the country's diverse landscapes support
a wide array of plant and animal life. This rich tapestry of ecosystems not only contributes to India's
ecological balance but also holds immense cultural and economic significance. However, these
ecosystems face growing threats from deforestation, habitat loss, and climate change. It is imperative
for India to continue its efforts in conserving and restoring its natural vegetation, not only for the sake
of its unique biological heritage but also for the well-being of its people and the planet as a whole.
Glossary:
± Fauna: The animal life of a given area or time.
± National Park: A National park is an area which is strictly reserved for the protection of the wildlife and
where activities such as forestry, grazing or cultivation are not allowed.
± Protected Forest: An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act or the State Forest Acts
having limited degree of protection. In Protected Forests, all activities are permitted unless prohibited.
± Reserved Forest: An area notified under the provisions of Indian Forest Act or the State Forest Acts
having full degree of protection. In Reserved Forests, all activities are prohibited unless permitted.
± Sanctuary: A sanctuary is an area, which is reserved for the conservation of animals only and operations
such as harvesting of timber, collection of minor forest products are allowed so long as they do not affect
the animals adversely.
± Virgin Vegetation: Virgin vegetation refers to plant communities that have developed naturally without
human interference and have remained untouched by human activities.



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