Mizan-Tepi University: School of Computing & Informatics Department of Information Systems

Mizan-Tepi University
School of Computing & Informatics
Department of Information Systems
Course: Research Methods in Information Systems
Chapter 5: Analysis, interpretation and Presentation of Data

Chapter 6: Ethics in Research, and project
By Rashid Wage
January, 2023
Chapter Five- 5
5.1 Data Presentation and Analysis
Data presentation and Analysis forms an integral part of all academic studies, commercial,
industrial and marketing activities as well as professional practices. Presentation of data requires
skills and understanding of data. It is necessary to make use of collected data which is considered
to be raw data which must be processed to put for any application. Data analysis helps in the
interpretation of data and takes a decision or answer the research question. This can be done by
using data processing tools and software. Data analysis starts with the collection of data followed
by data processing by various data processing methods and sorting it. Processed data helps in
obtaining information from it as the raw data is non-comprehensive in nature. Presenting the data
includes the pictorial representation of the data by using graphs, charts, maps and other methods.
These methods help in adding the visual aspect to data which makes it much more comfortable
and quicker to understand. Various methods of data presentation can be used to present data and
facts. Widely used format and data presentation techniques are mentioned below:
1. As text: raw data with proper formatting, categorization, identification is most extensively
used and very effective way of presenting data. Such format is widely found in books,reports,
research papers and in this artic module itself.
2. In tabular form: tabular form is generally used to differentiate, categorize, and relate
different datasets.It can be simple pros and cons table, or a data with corresponding value such as
annual GDP, a bank statement, monthly expenditure etc.
3. In graphical Form – Data can further be presented in a simpler and even easier form by
means of using graphical form. The input for such graphical data can be another type of data
itself or some raw data. For example, a bar graph & pie chart takes tabular data as input. The
tabular data in such case is processed data itself but provides limited use. Converting such data
or raw data into graphical form directly makes itquick and easier to interpret.
The significance of data presentation and analysis

Research Methods in Information Systems
Data presentation and analysis plays an essential role in every field. An excellent presentation
can be a deal maker or deal breaker. Some people make an incredibly useful presentation with
the same set of facts and figures which are available with others. At times people who did all the
hard work but failed to present it present it properly have lost essential contracts, the work which
they did is unable to impress the decision makers. So to get the job done especially while dealing
with clients or higher authorities presentation matters! No one is willing to spend hours in
understanding what you have to show and this is precisely why presentation matters! It is thus
essential to have clarity on what is data presentation.
Data analysis helps people in understanding the results of surveys conducted, makes use of
already existing studies to obtain new results. It helps to validate the existing research or to
add/expand the current research.
These two go hand in hand, and it will be difficult to provide a complete differentiation between
the two. Adding visual aspect to data or sorting it using grouping and presenting it in the form of
table is a part of the presentation which further helps in analyzing data. During a study with an
aim and multiple objectives, data analysis will be required to complete the required objectives
and compiling or presenting the analyzed data will help in overall analysis and concluding the
study.
Data analysis is the process of developing answers to questions through the examination and
interpretation of data. The basic steps in the analytic process consist of identifying issues,
determining
the availability of suitable data, deciding on which methods are appropriate for answering
the questions of interest, applying the methods and evaluating, summarizing and
communicating the results.
Analytical results underscore the usefulness of data sources by shedding light on relevant issues.
Data analysis plays a key role in data quality assessment by pointing to data quality problems in
a given survey. Analysis can thus influence future improvements to the survey process.
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Compiled By: Rashid Wage@MTU_SCI_IS_3rd Year
Data analysis is essential for understanding results from surveys, administrative sources and pilot
studies; for providing information on data gaps; for designing and redesigning surveys; for
planning new statistical activities; and for formulating quality objectives.
You can have a variety of data which can be used in presentations. Some of these types include:
• Time Series Data • Scorecard
• Bar Charts • Scatter Charts
• Combo Charts • Bullet Charts
• Pie Charts • Area Chart
• Tables • Text & Images
• Geo Map
Steps for presenting and analyzing data:
1. Frame the objectives of the study and make a list of data to be collected and its format.
2. Collect/obtain data from primary or secondary sources.
3. Change the format of data, i.e., table, maps, graphs, etc. in the desired format
4. Sort data through grouping, discarding the extra data and deciding the required form
to make data comprehensible
5. Make charts and graphs to help to add visual part and analyse trends.
6. Analyze trends and relate the information to fulfill the objectives.
Presentation of data:
1. A presentation should have a predefined sequence of arguments being made to support the
study. Start with stating the Aim of study and the objectives required to reach the aim.
2. Break the objectives in multiple parts and make a list of data to be collected, the sources of
data, form in which data exist and needs to be obtained, conducting a primary survey for
information which does not exist.
3. Form and explain the methodology adapted to carry out a study.
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4. Data collection through primary survey needs to have well thought of sampling methods.
Thiswill help inreducing the efforts and increasing efficiency. Sample size should be give
n importance and correct sampling technique should be applied.
5. Present only the required information and skip the background research to make your point
more clear.
6. Do not forget to give credits and references in the end and where ever required.
The presentation can be done using software such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Prezi, Google
Analytics and other analytic software. It can also be done by making models, presenting on paper
or sheets, on maps or by use of boards. The methods selected depend on the requirement and
the resources available.
How to present the different type of data and which format to choose
Since there are a number of options available while presenting data, careful consideration should
be given to the method being used. A basic understanding of the desired result/ form is helpful to
choose the correct form of representation. One cannot expect to get liner data from a pie chart,
thus basic knowledge and application of different type of presentation methods saves time.
Additionally, there should be enough sample available so as to get some meaningful analysis and
result. Some of the popular ways of presenting the data includes Line graph, column chart, box
pot, vertical bar, scatter plot. These and other types are explain below with brief information
about their application.
Secondary surveys form a significant part of data research and primary means of data collection
by conducting various studies and making use of existing data from multiple sources. The data
thus
obtained from multiple sources like Census department, Economics and Statistics Depart
ment, Election Commission, Water Board, Municipal Bodies, Economic surveys, Website
feedbacks, scientific research, etc. is compiled and analyzed. Data is also required to forecast and
estimate the change in the requirement of various resources and thus provide them accordingly.
Phasing and prioritization form another important part for the effective implementation of the
proposals.
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Such presentation of data and information can be either by means of manual hand drawings/
graphs & tables, whereas much effective and accurate way for such presentation is by means of
specialized computer software. Different types of charts which can be used for data presentation
and analysis.
Bar Charts/Bar Graphs: These are one of the most widely used charts for showing the grown
of a company over a period. There are multiple options available like stacked bar graphs and the
option of displaying a change in numerous entities. These look as shown in the image below:
Category 4
Category 3 Series 1
Category 2 Series 2
Series 3
Category 1
0% 50% 100%
1. Line Chart: These are best for showing the change in population, i.e., for showing the trends.
These also work well for explaining the growth of multiple areas at the same time.
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4 Series 1
Series 2
2
Series 3
0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
Presentation using line chart
2. Pie Charts: These work best for representing the share of different components from a total
100%. For e.g. contribution of different sectors to GDP, the population of different states in a
country, etc.
Sales
1st Qtr
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
4th Qtr
Result presentation using pie chart
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3. Combo Chart: As the name suggests it is a combination of more than one chart type. The
one shown in the figure below is a combination of line and bar graph. These save space and are
at times more effective than using two different charts. There can even be 3 or more charts
depending on the requirement.
Result presentation using combo chart
5.2 Exploring, Displaying and Examining Data
Displaying data
Displaying data in research is the last step of the research process. It is important to display data
accurately because it helps in presenting the findings of the research effectively to the reader.
The purpose of displaying data in research is to make the findings more visible and make
comparisons easy. When the researcher will present the research in front of the research
committee, they will easily understand the findings of the research from displayed data. The
readers of the research will also be able to understand it better. Without displayed data, the data
looks too scattered and the reader cannot make inferences.
There are basically two ways to display data: tables and graphs. The tabulated data and the
graphical representation both should be used to give more accurate picture of the research. In
quantitative research it is very necessary to display data, on the other hand in qualitative data the
researcher decides whether there is a need to display data or not. The researcher can use
appropriate software to help tabulate and display the data in the form of graphs. Microsoft excel
is one such example, it is a user-friendly program that you can use to help display the data.
Tables for displaying data in research
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The use of tables to display data is very common in research. Tables are very effective in
presenting a large amount of data. They organize data very well and makes the data very visible.
A badly tabulated data also occurs, in case, you do not have knowledge of tables and tabulating
data consult a statistician to do this step effectively.
Parts of a table
To know the tables and to tabulate data in tables you should know the parts or structure of the
tables. There are five parts of a table, namely;
Title
The title of the table speaks about the contents of the table. The title should have to be concise
and precise, no extra details. The title should be written in sentence case.
Stub
The column at the left-most of the table is called as stub. A stub has a stub-heading at the top of
the column, not all tables have stub. The stub shows the subcategories that are listed along Y-
axis.
Caption
The caption is the column heading, the variable might have subcategories which are captioned.
These subcategories are provided on the X-axis, the captions are provided on the top of each
column.
Body
The body of the table is the actual part of the table in which resides the whole values, results, and
analysis.
Footnotes
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There can be many different types of notes that you may have to provide at the end of the table.
The footnotes are provided just below the table and labeled as the source. The source generally
are provided when the table has been taken from some other source. They are also provided for
explaining some point in the table. Sometimes there is some part of the table that is taken from a
source so it should also be mentioned.
Graphs to display data
The purpose of displaying data is to make the communications easier. Graphs should be
used in displaying data when they can add to the visual beauty of the data. The researcher
should decide whether there is a need for table only or he should also present data in the form of
a suitable graph.
Types of graphs
You can use a suitable graph type depending on the type of data and the variables involved in the
data.
The histogram
The histogram is a graph that is highly used for displaying data. A histogram consists of
rectangles that are drawn next to each other on the graph. The rectangles have no space in
between them. A histogram can be drawn for a single variable as well as for two or more than
two variables. The height of the bars in the histogram represents the frequency of each variable.
It can be drawn for both categorical and continuous variables.
The bar chart
The bar chart is similar to a histogram except in that it is drawn only for categorical variables.
Since it is used for categorical variables, therefore, it is drawn with space between the rectangles.
The frequency polygon
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A frequency polygon is also very much like a histogram. A frequency polygon consists of
frequency rectangles drawn next to each other but the values taken to draw the rectangles are the
midpoint of the values. The height of the rectangles describes the frequency of each interval. A
line is drawn that touches the midpoints at the highest frequency level on Y-axis and it touches
the X-axis on each extreme end.
The cumulative frequency polygon
The cumulative frequency polygon is also a frequency polygon, it is drawn using the cumulative
frequencies on the Y-axis. The values on the X-axis are taken by using the endpoints of the
interval. The endpoints of the interval are joined to each other the reason being that the
cumulative frequency is always based on the upper limit of an interval.
The stem and leaf display
The stem and leaf display is another easy way to display data. The stem and leaf display if
rotated to 90 degrees become a histogram.
The pie chart
The pie chart is a very different way to display data. The pie chart is a circle, as a circle has 360
degrees so it is taken in percentage and the whole pie or circle represent the whole population.
The pie or circle is divided into slices or sections, each section represents the magnitude of the
category or the sub-category.
The trend curve
The trend curve is also called as the line diagram. It is drawn by plotting the midpoints on the X-
axis and the frequencies commensurate with each interval on the Y-axis. The trend curve is
drawn only for a set of data that has been measured on the continuous, interval or ratio scale. A
trend diagram or the line diagram is most suitable for plotting values that show changes over a
period of time.
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The area chart
The area chart is a variation of the trend curve. In area chart, the sub-categories of a variable can
be displayed. The categories in the chart are displayed by shading them with different colors or
patterns. For example, if there are both males and females category in the dataset both can be
highlighted in this chart.
The scattergram
A scattergram is a very simple way to plot the data on a chart. The scattergram is used for data
where the change in one variable affects the change in the other variable. The frequency against
each interval is plotted with the help of dots.
Examining data
The following pages were designed to provide a rough guide as to how to examine data.
These instructions are by no means exhaustive or complete and the statistics suggested do not
take into consideration special situations and unusual data characteristics. After the database is
complete and clean, you need to start the process of analysis. Progressing through these steps
will improve the efficiency of your analysis and help prevent you from spending hours in front of
the computer on “fishing trips.” Use the process outlined below when you begin to think about
writing the report for your project. The questions contained in the next few pages were designed
to be generic and useful for most projects. Our purpose was to develop a systematic process so
that you can assemble in one place, the relevant information needed to write up your
methodology and select the appropriate way to analyze the data.
Four phases are outlined:
1. The first step is to clarify the metadata associated with the information you are about to
examine. This means that you need to know some basic things about the way the data were
collected. Use this information to help write the “methodology” section of your report (of course
you will need to draw upon additional information to provide details about the
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methodology when you are actually writing this section). However, this form will provide a
good place to start. Some of this information may already be recorded in the codebook.
2. The next step is to identify which variables you are interested in examining. This is a critical
step because the temptation is to look at the relationship between everything. Statistically this is
considered “fishing” for good results.1 Avoid fishing at all costs. It wastes time and leads to a
dramatic increase in the sampling error.
3. The third step is to select the appropriate statistics for the variables you want to examine. This
procedure is dependent on a number of characteristics of the data. 4. The final step is to create
tables of your findings. These tables along with appropriate graphs or charts will then be inserted
into your report along with your interpretations of the results.
Step 1: Develop Metadata for the Project
Prior to sitting down to examine a dataset, it is important to review the data collection
methodology (sometimes we refer to this as metadata). Some details about the data collection
should be found in the project files and also at the bottom of the codebook associated with your
dataset. When writing up the results you will need to write a couple of paragraphs outlining the
procedures that were followed to gather the information. The more specific you are on this step
the better the final report will be. After sorting out the metadata move on to Step 2. Answer as
completely as you can each of the following:
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Step 2: Making Predictions
Prior to sitting down to a database to examine the information, it is important to have a clear
sense of what you want to look for. Your ideas should be based in a thorough examination of the
relevant literature. This intensive literature review was done early in the project, probably when
the grant proposal was written or before the data collection instruments were created. While
you may not have been involved in this aspect of the project‟s development, the project
director will be able to tell you what patterns are expected. Also, after spending many hours
collecting and cleaning the data, you will also have your own ideas developed about which
variables may be related. Isolating specific variables to examine is very important, especially
when dealing with large datasets. If you do not narrow down your focus, you will spend hours, if
not days, fishing for significant findings. Follow the steps below to select key variables to
examine.
Step 3: Selecting the Appropriate Statistic
Selecting the appropriate statistic to examine your data (both univariate and bivariate analysis)
can be very confusing; there are many statistics to choose from. Basically, the selection of the
statistic depends on three factors: q the level of measurement for the variables you are looking at,
q whether you expect that the data will have a certain underlying distribution (i.e. linear); and, q
the sampling frame (whether it was a random sample). The first two aspects are the most
important to the selection of appropriate statistics. To select the appropriate statistic for your
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analysis please fill in the table below identifying the level of measurement for each variable
involved.
Step 4: Creating Tables and/or Graphics
All tables and graphics must have the following elements:
1. Informative Title: describes what appears in the image or what variables/analysis are
presented in the table.
2. Notes: located below the table or image to provide additional information needed to interpret
the data or to identify its source:
a. data source(s)
b. time period (when data was collected and the time period of the data)
c. sample size or data coverage
d. significance levels or notes about the statistics presented (tables only)
3. Legend: if needed, to explain symbolism or truncated variable names
4. Axis Labels and value labels (when appropriate if creating a chart) A number of different
tables are presented in the following pages. These are by no means the most perfect tables but
they will provide some guidance as to some ideas of formatting for different kinds of analyses.
Note that the decimal points must always line up. Also, if you are in doubt, pick-up a few
Criminology journals and model your tables after their formats.
Exploring data
Data exploration is the initial step in data analysis, where users explore a large data set in an
unstructured way to uncover initial patterns, characteristics, and points of interest. This process
isn‟t meant to reveal every bit of information a dataset holds, but rather to help create a broad
picture of important trends and major points to study in greater detail.
Data exploration can use a combination of manual methods and automated tools such as
data visualizations, charts, and initial reports.
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This process makes deeper analysis easier because it can help target future searches and begin
the process of excluding irrelevant data points and search paths that may turn up no results. More
importantly, it helps build a familiarity with the existing information that makes finding better
answers much simpler.
Many times, data exploration uses visualization because it creates a more straightforward view of
data sets than simply examining thousands of individual numbers or names.
In any data exploration, the manual and automated aspects also look at different sides of the
same coin. Manual analysis helps users familiarize themselves with information and can point to
broad trends.
These methods are also by definition unstructured so that users can examine a whole set without
any preconceptions. Automated tools, on the other hand, are excellent at pruning out less
applicable data points, reorganizing data into sets that are easier to analyze, and scrubbing data
sets to make their findings relevant.
In any situation where you have a massive set of information, data exploration can help cut it
down to a manageable size and focus efforts to optimize your analysis.
Most data analytics software includes visualization tools and charting features that make
exploration at the outset significantly easier, helping reduce data by rooting out information that
isn‟t required, or which can distort results in the long run.
By taking the time to perform a real exploration of your data along with visualization tools, you
can also start finding correlations, patterns, and determine if a certain path is worth researching,
or if the information is less usable.
Data exploration can also assist by reducing work time and finding more useful and actionable
insights from the start alongside presenting clear paths to perform better analysis.
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Data exploration: is the first step of data analysis used to explore and visualize data to uncover
insights from the start or identify areas or patterns to dig into more. Using interactive dashboards
and point-and-click data exploration, users can better understand the bigger picture and get to
insights faster.
Starting with data exploration helps users to make better decisions on where to dig deeper into
the data and to take a broad understanding of the business when asking more detailed questions
later. With a user-friendly interface, anyone across an organization can familiarize themselves
with the data, discover patterns, and generate thoughtful questions that may spur on deeper,
valuable analysis.
Data exploration and visual analytics tools build understanding, empowering users to explore
data in any
visualization. This approach speeds up time to answers and deepens users‟ understanding
by covering more ground in less time. Data exploration is important for this reason because it
democratizes access to data and provides governed self-service analytics. Furthermore,
businesses can accelerate data exploration by provisioning and delivering data through visual
data marts that are easy to explore and use.
Data exploration can help businesses explore large amounts of data quickly to better understand
next steps in terms of further analysis. This gives the business a more manageable starting point
and a way to target areas of interest. In most cases, data exploration involves using data
visualizations to examine the data at a high level. By taking this high-level approach, businesses
can determine which data is most important and which may distort the analysis and therefore
should be removed. Data exploration can also be helpful in decreasing time spent on less 5.3
Hypothesis Test
What is a Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is an educated guess about something in the world around you. It should be
testable, either by experiment or observation. For example:
• A new medicine you think might work.
• A way of teaching you think might be better.
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• A possible location of new species.
• A fairer way to administer standardized tests.
It can really be anything at all as long as you can put it to the test.
In other words, it‟s a statement that provides an explanation for why or how something works,
based on facts (or some reasonable assumptions), but that has not yet been specifically tested.
For example, a hypothesis might look something like this:
A consumer‟s likelihood to trust a financial advisor is influenced by their perception of the

competence and skill of the financial advisor.
In this example, we‟re making a statement about the relationship between

perceptions of competence and likelihood to trust. The link between the two seems plausible
and logical, but it is not proven (at least not in a scientifically rigorous way in every possible
context). So, this qualifies as a
hypothesis (loosely speaking). In the world of research, however,
a hypothesis needs a few more criteria to constitute a true research hypothesis or scientific
hypothesis. Let‟s take a look at these criteria.
A research hypothesis (also called a scientific hypothesis) is a statement about the expected
outcome of a scientific study (for example, a dissertation or thesis).
What is a Hypothesis Statement?
If you are going to propose a hypothesis, it‟s customary to write a statement. Your statement will
look like this: “If I … (do this to an independent variable) … then (this will happen to the
dependent variable).” For example:
• If I (decrease the amount of water given to herbs) then (the herbs will increase in size).
• If I (give patients counseling in addition to medication) then (their overall depression scale
will decrease).
• If I (give exams at noon instead of 7) then (student test scores will improve).
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• If I (look in this certain location) then (I am more likely to find new species).
A good hypothesis statement should:
 Include an “if” and “then” statement (according to the University of California).

 Include both the independent and dependent variables.
 Be testable by experiment, survey or other scientifically sound technique.
 Be based on information in prior research (either yours or someone else‟s).
 Have design criteria (for engineering or programming projects).
What is Hypothesis Testing?
Hypothesis testing is a way for you to test the results of a survey or experiment to see if you have
meaningful results. You‟re basically testing whether your results are valid by figuring out the
odds that your results have happened by chance. If your results may have happened by chance,
the experiment won‟t be repeatable and so has little use.
Hypothesis testing can be one of the most confusing aspects for students, mostly because before
you can even perform a test, you have to know what your null hypothesis is. Often, those tricky
word problems that you are faced with can be difficult to decipher. But it‟s easier than you think;
all you need to do is:
1. Figure out your null hypothesis,
2. State your null hypothesis,
3. Choose what kind of test you need to perform,
4. Either support or reject the null hypothesis.
What is the Null Hypothesis?
If you trace back the history of science, the null hypothesis is always the accepted fact. Simple
examples of null hypotheses that are generally accepted as being true are:
1. DNA is shaped like a double helix.
2. There are 8 planets in the solar system (excluding Pluto).
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3. Taking Vioxx can increase your risk of heart problems (a drug now taken off the market).
valuable analysis by selecting the right path forward from the start.
5.4 Measures of association
Measures of association, in statistics, any of various factors or coefficients used to quantify a

relationship between two or more variables. Measures of association are used in various fields of
research but are especially common in the areas of epidemiology and psychology, where
they frequently are used to quantify relationships between exposures and diseases or
behaviours.
The method used to determine the strength of an association depends on the characteristics of the
data for each variable.
Data may be measured on an interval/ratio scale, an ordinal/rank scale, or a nominal/categorical

scale. These three characteristics can be thought of as continuous, integer, and qualitative
categories, respectively.
There are a number of other measures of association for a variety of circumstances. For example,
if one variable is measured on an interval/ratio scale and the second variable is dichotomous
(have two Outcomes), then the point-biserial correlation coefficient is appropriate. Other
combinations of data types (or transformed data types) may require the use of more specialized
methods to measure the association in strength and significance.
Other types of association describe the way data are related but are usually not investigated for
their own interest. Serial correlation (also known as autocorrelation), for instance, describes how
in a series of events occurring over a period of time, events that occur closely spaced in time tend
to be more similar than those more widely spaced. The Durbin-
Watson test is a procedure to test the significance of such correlations. If the correlations
are evident, then it may be concluded that the data violate the assumptions of independence,
rendering many modeling procedures invalid. A classical example of this problem occurs when
data are collected over time for one particular characteristic. For example, if an epidemiologist
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wanted to develop a simple linear regression for the number of infections by month, there would
undoubtedly be serial correlation: each month‟s observation would depend on the prior month‟s
observation.
This serial effect (serial correlation) would violate the assumption of independent observations
for simple linear regression and accordingly render the parameter
estimates for simple linear regression as not credible.
One goal of research may be to establish a relationship between or among variables. The first
step toward this goal is to demonstrate that a relationship exists. The second step is to quantify
the strength and direction of the relationship using one or more appropriate measures of
association. Several statistical techniques for determining the strength of the association among
dependent and independent variables are presented below. The choice of which technique to use
is largely driven by the level of data being analyzed (i.e. – Ratio, Interval, Ordinal, Nominal,
Binary). Table 1 is provided at the end of the paper to assist in choosing the correct statistical
approach given the level of the data collected.
The measures of association refer to a wide variety of coefficients that measure the statistical
strength of the relationship on the variables of interest; these measures of strength, or association,
can be described in several ways, depending on the analysis. There are certain statistical
distinctions that a researcher should know in order to better understand the measures of statistical
association. First, the researcher should know that measures of association are not the same as
measures of statistical significance. The measures of significance have a null hypothesis that
states that there is no significant difference between the strength of an observed relationship and
the strength of an expected relationship by means of simple random sampling. Therefore, there is
a possibility of having a relationship that depicts strong measures of association but is not
statistically significant, and a relationship that depicts weak measures of association but is very
significant. The coefficient that measures statistical association, which can vary depending on the
analysis, that has a value of zero signifies no relationship exists. In correlation analyses, if the
coefficient (r) has a value of one, it signifies a perfect relationship on the variables of interest. In
regression analyses, if the standardized beta weight (?) has a value of one, it also signifies a
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perfect relationship on the variables of interest. In regards to linear relationships, the measures of
association are those which deal with strictly monotonic, ordered monotonic, predictive
monotonic, and weak monotonic relationships. The researcher should note that if the
relationships in measures of association are perfect due to strict monotonicity, then it should be
perfect by other conditions as well. However, in measures of association, one cannot have
perfect ordered and perfect predictive monotonicity at the same time. The researcher should note
that the linear definitions of perfect relationships in measures of association are inappropriate for
curvilinear relationships or discontinuous relationships. The measures of association define the
strength of the linear relationship in terms of the degree of monotonicity. This degree of
monotonicity used by the measures of association is based on the counting of various types of
pairs in a relationship. There are basically four types of pairs in the measures of association.
These are concordant pairs (i.e. the pairs that agree with each other), discordant pairs (i.e. the
pairs that do not agree with each other), the tied pair on one variable, and the tied pair on the
other variable. The researcher should note that as the concordant pair increases, all the linear
definitions of perfect relationships in measures of association increases the coefficient of
association towards +1. There are certain assumptions that are made on the measures of
association: The measures of association assume categorical (nominal or ordinal) and continuous
types of level data. The measures of association assume a symmetrical or asymmetrical type of
causal direction. The measures of association that define an ideal relationship in terms of the
strict monotonicity will attain the value of one only if the two variables have evolved from the
same marginal distribution. The measures of association also ignore those rows and columns
which have null values.
Report witting : Presenting insights and findings; Written and oral reports
A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a
systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the
research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.
In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that
clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-
written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas
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of the research process. So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are
some of the basic features that define a research report.
• It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables
and graphs.
• It is written in a formal language.
• A research report is usually written in the third person.
• It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
• It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
• It always includes recommendations for future actions.
Also, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If
you‟re dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and
if you‟re dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report.
Technical Research Report
A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-
based research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical
audience; that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study.
In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific

information about the research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods.
Also, the use of language is highly specialized and filled with jargon.
Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports.
Popular Research Report
A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not
necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make
information accessible to everyone.
It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings an
d recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in
newspapers and magazines.
Importance of a Research Report
• Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is
to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report.
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A research report serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic

investigation to all and sundry.
• Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you‟d be able to identify

knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what has been done while hinting at
other areas needing systematic investigation.
• In market research, a research report would help you understand the market needs and
peculiarities at a glance.
• A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner.
• It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time
detailing the findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via
email and have stakeholders look at it.
A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different
requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken
down into multiple sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information.
Structure and Example of a Research Report
• Title
This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the
aims, objectives, and findings of a research report.
• Table of Contents
This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.
• Abstract
An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the
research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a
summary of your research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner.
An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of
your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and
How.
• Introduction
Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as
the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report
introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or
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would require more work. In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research
problem and also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is
expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are contained in the research.
• Literature Review
A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words,
it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are
relevant to your systematic investigation.
It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your
research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its
possible implications for the existing body of knowledge in your field of study.
• An Account of Investigation
This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and
research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process
including the data collection and analysis procedures.
In a quantitative research report, you‟d need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and
other quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report,
you are expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research
including interviews and focus groups.
• Findings
In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation.
• Discussion
This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected
to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your
hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar results.
• Conclusions
This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the
entire study.
• References and Appendices
This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources.
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Written and oral Reports
Presenting a quality presentation of research findings can have an inordinate effect on a reader‟s
or a listener‟s perceptions of a study‟s quality. The oral presentations of research findings should
be developed with concern for organization, visual aids, and delivery in unique communication
settings. Presentation quality can enhance or detract from what might otherwise be excellent
research.
A final report, which documents the methodology and findings of the research, is an essential
requirement of the every research project. The researcher has an obligation to report failures, as
well as successes, so that others can benefit from the experiences. Other researchers may be able
to modify the procedures used in an unsuccessful study to produce a positive outcome. But this
can only be done if the unsuccessful study is documented properly.
One can also argue that research reports are more likely to be written, and
to a higher standard, in agencies which have a strong research function. While this is lar
gely a management and organizational issue, it is a fact that when staff performs research
studies that also have line responsibilities, there are pressures to use the results and little
incentive to document the findings.
Conversely, when research is conducted in accordance with a plan, by staff that recogniz
es the importance of reports, especially if they can call on the assistance of an editor and report
production staff, there is a much greater probability that a high quality report will materialize.
Writing a report is hard work, which may be why some reports are never completed! There is no
single way to write a report with respect to organization, content or format. However, there are a
number of guidelines, which make the task easier, and improve the quality of the final product.
The other form of publication of interest to the transportation community is the scientific paper.
A paper is often written after a final report because, as discussed in Chapter One, publication,
especially in a peer-reviewed journal, increases the awareness of the study, and contributes to the
professional reputation of the authors. A paper is not a substitute for a final report because
limitations on the length of papers usually mean that data, explanations and mathematical
derivations must be condensed.
Writing style
A scientific paper is a formal text written in an impersonal, objective, neutral and professional
way. The writing is concise with specific wordings and formulations. The writing should be clear
as well and lead to a deeper understanding of the subject.
1. Avoid colloquial or informal language. Eliminate all „filler‟ and needless words. Biased
language is not acceptable in academic writing.
2. Avoid personal or familiar language. Do not directly address the reader and do not ask
rhetorical questions. Remember that the use of personal pronouns does not fit into an objective,
scientific paper.
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3. Avoid ambiguous, imprecise or vague words such as „various‟, „some‟, „particular‟,

„numerous‟. Try to avoid impersonal expressions. Be clear, concrete, specific, precise and direct.
If possible, choose specific wordings which will lead to more concise writing.
4. Do not use „wordy‟ expressions either. To illustrate:
✓ „Since‟ or „because‟ are easier to read than „for the reason that‟ or „owing to the fact that‟.
✓ „Although‟ is easier to read than „despite the fact that‟ or „regardless of the fact that‟.
✓ „If‟ is easier to read than „in the event that‟
Written language
Scientific papers should be written with correct grammar, spelling and punctuation.
1. Write out numbers at the beginning of a sentence.
2. Spell out cardinal numbers from one to nine and ordinal numbers from first to ninth. Numbers
below 10 are usually written as words. Also write out hundred, thousand and million in words.
Please consider the following exceptions:
Write the number in numerals if numbers have been measured or calculated, followed by a unit
of measurement. Usually, a space is inserted between the number and the unit.
3. Writing correctly punctuated sentences is essential to enhance readability:
✓ Do not forget punctuation.
✓ Make sure you are using punctuation marks correctly. Do not use• commas instead of full
stops.
To separate items in a list, use a colon. Commas are used between each item (use a semicolon if
you are including the items on a separate line in the text) and end the last item in the list with a
full stop.
✓ Do not use excessive punctuation.
Review Question
1. What is Analysis means in research methodology?
2. How to present data in research in work?
3. How to write report in research work?
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4. What is hypothesis testing?
5. Discus on measurement association in research study?
Summary
Data presentation and analysis forms an integral part of all academic studies, commercial,
industrial and marketing activities as well as professional practices. Data analysis helps in the
interpretation of data and takes a decision or answer the research question. This can be done by
using data processing tools and software. Data analysis starts with the collection of data followed
by data processing by various data processing methods and sorting it.
Processed data helps in obtaining information from it as the raw data is non
comprehensive in nature. Presenting the data includes the pictorial representation of the
data by using graphs, charts, maps and other methods. These methods help in adding the visual
aspect to data which makes it much more comfortable and quicker to understand. Widely used
format and data presentation techniques are mentioned below: as a text: raw data with proper
formatting, categorization, identification, in tabular form: tabular form is generally used to
differentiate, categorize, and relate different datasets, and in graphical Form: Data can further be
presented in a simpler and even easier form by means of using graphical form, like b bar graph &
pie chart.
The steps for presenting and analyzing data include: (1) frame the objectives of the study and
make a list of data to be collected and its format, (2) collect/obtain data from primary or
secondary sources, (3) change the format of data, i.e., table, maps, graphs, etc. in the desired
format, (4) Sort data through grouping, (5) discarding the extra data and deciding the required
form to make data comprehensible, (6) make charts and graphs to help to add visual part and
analyse trends, (8) analyse trends and relate the information to fulfill the objectives.
A hypothesis is an educated guess about something in the world around you. It should be
testable, either by experiment or observation. It can really be anything at all as long as you can
put it to the test. If you are going to propose a hypothesis, it‟s customary to write a statement.
Your statement will look like this: “If I … (do this to an independent variable) … then (this will
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happen to the dependent variable).” For example: If I (decrease the amount of water given to
herbs) then (the herbs will increase in size). Hypothesis testing is a way for you to test the results
of a survey or experiment to see if you have meaningful results. You‟re basically testing whether
your results are valid by figuring out the odds that your results have happened by chance. If your
results may have happened by chance, the experiment won‟t be repeatable and so has little use. If
you trace back the history of science, the null hypothesis is always the accepted fact. Simple
examples of null hypotheses include: DNA is shaped like a double helix.
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CHAPTER SIX: ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Conducting research can be simplistic and uncomplicated. However, before conducting the
research, it is important that the prospective researcher be aware of the ethical aspects and apply
appropriate ethics.
Objectives
From this chapter the reader should be able to do the following:
1. Define what is meant by ethics and explain its importance to criminological research.
2. Present and discuss the various characteristics of ethical problems in criminological research.
3. Explain how the researcher‟s role influences and is influenced by ethical concerns.
4. Discuss the various ethical considerations presented.
5. Describe the relationship that exists between ethics and professionalism including a “code of
ethics.”
6. List and describe the four ethical criteria.
7. Present and discuss the five reasons why confidentiality and privacy are important research
concerns.
8. Describe the impacts of institutional review boards and research guidelines (such as those
mandated by the National Institute of Justice) on criminological research.
7.1 Introduction
Ethics refers to doing what is morally and legally right in the conducting of research. This
requires the researcher to be knowledgeable about what is being done; to use reasoning when
making decisions; to be both intellectual and truthful in approach and reporting; and to consider
the consequences, in particular, to be surethat the outcome of the research outweighs any
negatives that might occur. Using this approach, ethical decisions are much easier.
Criminology and criminal justice are virtual playgrounds of ethical confrontations. There is no
aspect of them in which ethical questions or dilemmas do not exist, including research. This is
particularly true when the research is of an applied nature. The ethical issues encountered in
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applied social research are subtle and complex, raising difficult moral dilemmas that, at least on
a superficial level, seem impossible to resolve. These dilemmas often require the researcher to
strike a delicate balance between the scientific requirements of methodology and the human
rights and values potentially threatened by the research (Bryman, 2008; Creswell, 2008).
Criminal justice and criminological research almost always involve dealings with humans and
human behavior. It is prudent to be aware of the characteristics associated with ethical problems
in social research. Although there does not seem to be a consensus as to what these
characteristics are, and there is no comprehensive list, the following have been identified as
recognizable characteristics of ethical problems (Bachman & Schutt, 2008; Dunn, 2009;
Kraska & Neuman, 2008; McBurney & White, 2007):
1. A single research problem can generate numerous questions regarding appropriate behavior
on the partof the researcher.
2. Ethical sensitivity is a necessity but is not necessarily sufficient to solve problems that might
arise.
3. Ethical dilemmas result from conflicting values as to what should receive priority on the part
of the researcher.
4. Ethical concerns can relate to both the research topic and how the research is conducted.
5. Ethical concerns involve both personal and professional elements in the research.
When dealing with humans, ethics plays an important role. It all begins with the researcher‟s
role.
7.2 The researcher’s role
Contrary to popular belief, the justician or criminologist who

conducts research is considered a scientist. Ignoring the distinctions made between a natural
scientist and a social scientist, both are scientists who are governed by the laws of inquiry
(Kaplan, 1963). Both require an ethically neutral,
objective approach to research. As mentioned in Chapter 1, ethical neutrality requires tha
t the
researcher‟s moral or ethical beliefs not be allowed to influence the gathering of data or
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the conclusions that are made from analyzing the data. Objectivity means striving to prevent
personal ideology or prejudices from influencing the process. As can be seen, the two have a
similar concern: maintaining the integrity of the research. In addition to these concerns, the
researcher, whether a nuclear physicist or a criminologist, must also ensure that the research
concerns do not negatively impact on the safety of others.
The researcher‟s role often coexists and at times even conflicts with other important roles, such
as practitioner, teacher, academic, scholar, and citizen. This meshing of roles can often cause the
researcher to lose objectivity in his or her approach to the collection, analysis, and reporting of
the data. In particular, there are the concerns over the individual‟s morals, values, attitude, and
beliefs interfering with completing an objective study.
Individuals are raised with certain ideals, identified as morals and values. What those are is
commonly reflected in one‟s attitudes and behaviors. Weak or strong morals and values can
affect how one conducts research. For example, individuals raised to believe that success is very
important, regardless of the costs, might regard the “borrowing” of someone else‟s research
efforts and passing them off as their own as acceptable; or they might accept the manipulation of
data to gain more desirable results. An even more repugnant scenario is one in which the
researcher continues with his or her research despite knowing that to do so will cause physical
harm or emotional anguish for others. In each of these cases, ethically the decisions are wrong.
Because the researcher‟s role is intertwined with other roles, ethics becomes even more difficult
to manage. Ultimately, it is up to the individual to decide the importance of personal ethics.
However, this is just one aspectof ethics in research.
7.3 Ethical Considerations
Conducting research in and of itself can be problematic. Accessibility, funding, timing, and other
factors may all impose problems. The reality is there can be ethical concerns at every step of the
research process (Bickman & Rog, 2009). With this in mind, the considerations discussed next
should not be viewed as more important at any one particular time in the process, but rather they
apply throughout the research.
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Ethical Ramifications
One of the first things to consider is whether the topic to be studied has innate ethical
ramifications. Sometopics are controversial by their very nature. For instance, the individual
interested in gangs might decide that the best way to gain data is to become a participant
observer. As such, chances are that the researcher may have to witness or even be asked to
participate in illegal activity. Ethically as well as legally, this information should be given to the
police, but doing so might jeopardize the research. Although it is apparent what decision should
be made (the research should be adjusted to avoid such a dilemma or possibly even abandoned
outright), the right one is not always made simply because of how important the research is
perceived to be to the individual. Therefore, before embarking on a research topic, the ethical
implications of the research itself must be addressed.
Harm to Others
Another consideration is what effects the research might have on the research targets. When the
research involves direct human contact, ethics plays an important role. Whether the targets are
victims, accused offenders, convicted offenders, practitioners, or the general public, a major
consideration is whether the research might cause them any harm. Harm can be physical,
psychologic, or social.
Physical harm most often can occur during experimental or applied types of research, such as
testing new drugs or weapons. Psychologic harm might result through the type of information
being gathered. For example, in a study of victims of sexual assault, the research might delve
into the events before, during, and after the assault. This line of questioning may inflict more
psychologic harm in addition to that which already exists as a result of the assault. Finally, social
harm may be inflicted if certain information is released that should not have been. Consider a
survey of sexual orientation among correctional officers where it becomes public knowledge as
to who is gay. This information may cause those individuals to be treated differently, perhaps
discriminated against, causing sociologic harm. It is important that the researcher consider what
type of harm may befall respondents or participants before starting the research.
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Privacy Concerns
The right to privacy is another ethical consideration. Individuals in America have a basic right to
privacy. In many cases, research efforts may violate that right. How far should individuals be
allowed to pry into the private or public lives of others in the name of research? Ethically
speaking, if a person does not want his or her life examined, then that right should be granted.
All persons have a right to anonymity. However, there are a variety of documents accessible to
the public in which information can be gathered that individuals would prefer to be unavailable,
such as arrest records, court dockets, and tax and property records. The ethical questionthat
arises here is whether a person should have the right to consent to access to certain types of
information in the name of research. Giving consent in general is a major ethical consideration.
Particularly in survey research it is common for the researcher either to ask for specific consent
from the respondents or at least acknowledge that by completing the survey, the respondent has
conferred consent. Normally, this only requires having the individual sign an informed consent
form or for the instructions to indicate that the survey is completely anonymous, voluntary, and
that the information is only being used for the purpose of research.
Voluntary Participation
As should have been noted in the previous example, not only did the researchers seek to obtain
consent, they also informed prospective respondents that participation was voluntary. Too
frequently criminologic researchers
require their subjects to sign consent forms but (particularly within institutional settings,
such as military organizations, schools, and prisons) neglect to inform them that their
participation is voluntary. In fact, in these environments, participation is often coerced. Not all
research must use voluntary participation, but it is stressed that there must be valid reasons that
can be given showing that the knowledge could not otherwise be reasonably obtained and that
no harm will come to the participants from their compulsory involvement.
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Regardless of the fact that the research was not intrusive and could cause no harm to the
respondents, informed consent was required. The rule of thumb in these situations is if there is
any doubt as to whether the research could be in any way construed to be intrusive, then consent
should be obtained from the subjects. It is also best to assure them that their participation is
voluntary and they may choose not to take part in the study.
Within the academic setting, informed consent and voluntary participation do not seem to be an
unusual requirement. To ensure that informed consent is provided, and to judge the value and
ethical nature of the research, many universities have an Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Established primarily for the review of research, usually experimental or applied, dealing directly
with human subjects, university IRBs often extend their review over any type of research
involving human respondents
(survey or otherwise). Although having to attain IRB approval can be somewhat
frustrating, it is a useful
process because it helps to reaffirm the researcher‟s perceptions and beliefs about the
research and can help identify prospective ethical problems. Also, reviewers may see problems
overlooked by the researcher. It is better to err on the side of caution.
The process generally is not that difficult. It usually requires the researcher to submit ba
sic information about the proposed research, often in a format designed by the university.
Appendix A contains an example of a request submitted to an IRB for approval. Although not all
IRBs make use of the same format, the information required is similar across institutions.
Informed consent is valuable because it is important that research targets are allowed the right to
refuse to be part of the research. Although in survey research consent may not be a major
problem (because permission can be written into the documents), it does raise an interesting
dilemma for observational research (when the researcher may not want the subjects to know they
are being observed). The ethical consideration here is that as long as the subjects are doing what
they normally would be doing and the observations do not in any way directly influence their
behavior or harm them, it is ethically acceptable.
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Deception
Some types of research (particularly field research that requires the researcher to in essence “go
undercover”) cannot be conducted if the subjects are aware that they are being studied. Such
research is controversial and must be carefully thought out before
it is undertaken (Vito, Kunselman, & Tewksbury, 2008). All too often the deception is based
more on the researcher‟s laziness or bias rather than a real need to deceive. For example, a
researcher is interested in studying juvenile behavior within the confines of a juvenile facility.
Rather than explain to administrators and the subjects what he or she is doing, the research is
conducted under the guise of an internship or volunteer work.
Depending on the type of research, there are always some ethical considerations. What is
interesting is that the science of research itself is viewed as ethically neutral or amoral. The
ethical dilemmas rise from the fact that researchers themselves are not neutral. This fosters the
need for regulation in the conducting of research so that it does meet ethical standards (Fowler,
2009; Gavin, 2008).
7.4 The Professionalism of Research
According to Merriam-Webster‟s Online Search, a professional is one whose “conduct, aims, or

qualities . . . characterize or mark a profession or a professional person”. A profession is defined
as “a: a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often long and intensive academic
preparation b: a principal calling, vocation, or employment c: the whole body of
persons engaged in a calling”. Research in itself is a profession, and when mixed with other
professions there is an even greater need to conduct business in a professional manner. This often
means that the profession has established a code of ethics.
Many professions have support of written codes of ethics for research. However, although
criminal justice and criminology do not have a globally applicable code, the Academy of
Criminal Justice Sciences, an organization to which many academic researchers are members,
did develop a code of ethics for its
members that includes a section on researcher ethics. Furthermore, although there seems t
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o be no universal code of ethics with respect to research, grant-funded research is more likely to
have ethical constraints imposed.
Ethical Research Criteria
Even though there is no universally recognized research code of ethics, there are some
specifically identified criteria that, when applied or followed, assist in producing ethical
research. These criteria, discussed next, include avoiding harmful research, being objective,
using integrity, and protecting confidentiality.
Avoiding Harmful Research
The goal of research is to discover knowledge not previously known or to verify existing data. In
many instances this can be done without ever having to inflict any undue stress, strain, or pain on
respondents (i.e., historical or survey research). Unfortunately, at times research can be
physically or emotionally harmful. The ethical approach is to avoid any such research regardless
of how important its findings might be unless it can be shown that good from the information far
outweighs the harm (an eventuality that is rare even in criminological research).
Being Objective
Biases can be detrimental to a research project. One such bias deals with objectivity. Assume
you do not like drinkers, that you perceive them as weak willed and careless. Your research deals
with individuals convicted of driving while intoxicated. You are interested in their reasons for
driving while impaired. The chances are good that if you allow your personal feelings against
drinkers to guide you in your research, the results will be skewed, biased, and subjective. It is
important, for good ethical research, to maintain objectivity. Of course, being objective is just
one important characteristic of the ethical researcher.
Using Integrity
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The last thing a researcher wants is for the results not to meet expectations. Sometimes, because
of how important the research is perceived to be, there may be a tendency to manipulate the data
and report it in a manner that shows the research was successful; that is, put a positive spin on an
otherwise negative result. This is especially possible when the research is evaluative
and its results could influence additional funding for the program being evaluated. When faced
with this dilemma, because of the desire not to jeopardize the program‟s future or to improve
future chances for research, the researcher may not report the true findings. This is extremely
unethical, but unfortunately, may be more commonplace than one would like to believe. The
ethical researcher accepts the findings and reports them as discovered.
Protecting Confidentiality
One of the biggest concerns in conducting research is the issue of confidentiality or privacy. As
it has been suggested, privacy and confidentiality are two ethical issues that are crucial to social
researchers who, by the very nature of their research, frequently request individuals to share with
them their thoughts, attitudes, and experiences.
Because a good portion of criminal justice and criminological research involves humans, chances
are great that sensitive information may be obtained in which other non-
research efforts might be interested. For example, conducting gang research where street
names and legal names are collected perhaps along with identifying tattoos, scars, and so forth,
and voluntary statements of criminal history. This information is extremely valuable to a police
agency. Ethically, that information must remain confidential.
Reasons for Confidentiality and Privacy
Overall, five reasons have been identified as to why confidentiality and privacy are important in
research (Adler& Clark, 2007; Kline, 2009; Maxfield & Babbie, 2009):
1. Disclosure of particularly embarrassing or sensitive information may present the respondent

with a riskof psychology, social, or economic harm.
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2. Sensitive information, if obtained solely for research purposes, is legally protected in

situations whererespondents‟ privacy rights are protected.
3. Long-term research may require data storage of information that can identify the participants.
4. The courts can subpoena data.
5. Respondents may be suspicious as to how the information is truly going to be used.
The bottom line is that confidentiality and privacy must be maintained. There are
two methods of accomplishing this: physical protection and legal protection. Physical
protection relates to setting up the data so that links cannot be made between identifying
information and the respondents. Reducing who has access can also aid in protecting the data.
Legal protection attempts to avoid official misuse. Researchers are aided with this by an
amendment to the 1973 Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act, better known as the
“Shield Law,” which protects research findings from any administrative or judicial processes. As
noted previously, funded research through such organizations as NIJ or the National Institutes of
Health is overseen by organizational regulations. Unfortunately, these guidelines do not
completely protect the data, leaving researchers responsible for gathering the data in a manner
that best protects the respondents.
By simply meeting the four suggested criteria, a researcher can avoid many ethical probl
ems. However, perhaps the best way to avoid ethical problems is to conduct research using a
method that does not compromise ethical standards: research that is legal, relevant, and
necessary.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is presenting someone else‟s work or ideas as your own, with or without their
consent, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and
unpublished material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this
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definition. Plagiarism may be intentional or reckless, or unintentional. Under the regulations for
examinations, intentional or reckless plagiarism is a disciplinary offence.
Paraphrasing the work of others by altering a few words and changing their order, or by closely
following the structure of their argument, is plagiarism if you do not give due acknowledgement
to the author whose work you are using.
A passing reference to the original author in your own text may not be enough; you must ensure
that you do not create the misleading impression that the paraphrased wording or the sequence of
ideas are entirely your own. It is better to write a brief summary of the author‟s overall argument
in your own words, indicating that you are doing so, than to paraphrase particular sections of his
or her writing. This will ensure you have a genuine grasp of the argument and will avoid the
difficulty of paraphrasing without plagiarising. You must also properly attribute all material you
derive from lectures.
It is important to cite correctly, according to the conventions of your discipline. As well as listing
your sources (i.e. in a bibliography), you must indicate, using a footnote or an in-text reference,
where a quoted passage comes from. Additionally, you should not include anything in your
references or bibliography that you have not actually consulted.
Plagiarism is defined as stealing someone else‟s words or ideas and passing them off as your
own. In the context of academic writing, this means quoting someone‟s words without quotation
marks, or paraphrasing an idea without including a proper citation.
Plagiarism is also a relevant concern in other contexts outside of academia. You might be aware
of high- profile examples of plagiarism in the worlds of art, politics, and music. It‟s not only text
that can be plagiarized, but also creative works like music and images.
Summary
The simple act of research, especially when it involves humans, creates a plethora of possible
ethical dilemmas. Because ethics is important to professions, researchers need to be cognizant of
several ethical considerations. These include determining whether the topic itself is ethical, what
41
harm or risk is involved to respondents, and confidentiality and privacy. The key to ethical
research is a professional approach. Some professions have created a code of ethics applicable to
research. There are four criteria that when followed, alleviate the need for such a code: (1) avoid
conducting harmful research; (2) be objective; (3) use integrity in conducting and reporting the
research; and (4) protect confidentiality.
How to cite the references in Research Paper
 A citation identifies for the reader the original source for an idea, information, or image
that is referred to in a work.
 In the body of a paper, the in-text citation acknowledges the source of information used.
 At the end of a paper, the citations are compiled on a References or Works Cited list.
 The main reason for citing references properly is to avoid intellectual dishonesty and
Presenting ideas of other scholars without proper recognition goes against scientific
ethics
Properly referencing a source is not only important that the right people get the proper
recognition for their ideas. It is also crucial to the whole research publication and consumption
process for the following reasons:
 To Avoid Plagiarism – Citations allow researchers to properly quote the work of others.
It helps them acknowledge where the information came from.
 Respect for Intellectual Property Rights – Research work can include industry
information legally protected by intellectual property rights. These include trademarks,
patents, industrial designs, and geographical indications. Creative works for
entertainment are also included, ranging from films to architectural designs.
 To Provide Evidence – Citing studies and data properly allows you to provide evidence
for key points of your work. This is especially important when making a case for a
position you take.
To Give Details on Source Documents – Citations make it easier for reviewers to check for
data and even the line of arguments. Also, it helps direct the readers to original sources where
they can find more detailed information about the point you cited and the subject matter.
Basic Citation Elements
 Author(s)
42
 Title(s)
 Source or venue name (e.g. name of the journal it was published or conference where it
was presented)
 Editor(s)
 Volume and edition
 Date or year of publication
 Page numbers
 City and country
 Publisher or university for theses
 URL for online sources
 DOI
 Retrieval date for online sources with dynamic content subjected to change
When to Cite a Source
Remember to cite properly when you:
 Quote the exact words of authors
 Paraphrase or state the ideas of others in your own words
 Refer to data or data sets
 Reprint a long text passage or a copyrighted test item
 Reprint or adopt a figure or a table, including free images and diagrams from the internet
even when free or licensed via Creative Commons
 There are four popular citation formats: (1) APA (American Psychological Association), (2)
MLA (Modern Language Association), (3) Chicago/Turabian, and (4) IEEE (Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers).
APA Style Citation Guide
Researchers and writers should understand some of the following styles:
1. APA
43
The American Psychology Association – Use this style for education, psychology, sociology and
other social sciences.
• Example of APA style for a book with one author:
Doe, J. (1999). Causes of the Civil War. Ohio: Smith Books.
APA Reference List Entries Format
For the reference lists located at the end of the research paper, you need to cite four major
elements:
 Author: includes the individual author names format and group author names format
 Date: includes the date format and how to include retrieval dates
 Title: includes the title format and how to include bracketed descriptions
 Source: includes the source format and how to include database information
Citations by the Number of Authors
For a single author
Coleman (2019) stated that early…
…hominids hunted large game (Coleman, 2019).
For two authors
Smith and Johnson (2020) avoided the term…
…paradigm because of its use in ordinary language (Smith & Johnson, 2020).
For three to five authors
Use the last name of the first author and “et al.” even for the first citation:
…especially when observers are involved (James et al., 2017).
For six or more authors
Cite only the name of the first author, use et al., and the year:
…for complex adaptive systems (Chambers et al., 2019).
Chambers et al. (2010) put forward a model…
Examples of APA Reference List
Book
44
Ridley, M. (1994). The red queen: Sex and the evolution of human nature. Penguin UK.
Chapter of an Edited Book
Spurlock, C. (2005). Dire consequences of plagiarism. In J. Morgan & C. Spurlock (Eds.), The
greatest blunders in publishing (pp. 65-72). Hop Press. https://doi.org/xx.xxx/xxxx
Journal Article
Benoit, J. N., Barrowman, J. A., Harper, S. L., Kvietys, P. R., & Granger, D. (1984). Role of
humoral factors in the intestinal hyperemia associated with chronic portal
hypertension. American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, 247(5),
G486-G493.
Conference Paper/Presentation
Dodson, J. (2005, April). Faith and medicine [Conference session]. Medical Sociology 2005,
Austin, Texas.
Webpages
Coyne, J. (2020, June 29). WaPo editor emits bigoted and hateful tweets, but will she be
disciplined as others have been? Why Evolution Is True. Retrieved June 30, 2020,
from https://research.com/research/how-to-cite-a-research-paper
Thesis/Dissertation
Dough, K. (2009). The future rationale of post-modernist art [Unpublished doctoral

dissertation]. Academy of Art University. San Francisco, California.
Review Questions
1. What is ethical consideration in Research work?
2. What are the ethics of research work?
3. What is plagiarism in research work?
4. How to cite the references?
5. How can you use others research work?
45

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Mizan-Tepi University

School of Computing & Informatics

Department of Information Systems

Course: Research Methods in Information Systems

Chapter 5: Analysis, interpretation and Presentation of Data

The significance of data presentation and analysis

• Time Series Data • Scorecard

• Bar Charts • Scatter Charts

• Combo Charts • Bullet Charts

• Pie Charts • Area Chart

• Tables • Text & Images

2. Collect/obtain data from primary or secondary sources.

6. Analyze trends and relate the information to fulfill the objectives.

3. Form and explain the methodology adapted to carry out a study.

Presentation using line chart

Result presentation using pie chart

Result presentation using combo chart

5.2 Exploring, Displaying and Examining Data

Tables for displaying data in research

Graphs to display data

The bar chart

The frequency polygon

The cumulative frequency polygon

The stem and leaf display

The pie chart

The trend curve

The area chart

Four phases are outlined:

Step 1: Develop Metadata for the Project

Step 2: Making Predictions

Step 3: Selecting the Appropriate Statistic

Step 4: Creating Tables and/or Graphics

All tables and graphics must have the following elements:

c. sample size or data coverage

d. significance levels or notes about the statistics presented (tables only)

3. Legend: if needed, to explain symbolism or truncated variable names

• A new medicine you think might work.

• A way of teaching you think might be better.

• A possible location of new species.

• A fairer way to administer standardized tests.

A consumer‟s likelihood to trust a financial advisor is influenced by their perception of the

In this example, we‟re making a statement about the relationship between

What is a Hypothesis Statement?

A good hypothesis statement should:

 Include an “if” and “then” statement (according to the University of California).

What is Hypothesis Testing?

1. Figure out your null hypothesis,

2. State your null hypothesis,

3. Choose what kind of test you need to perform,

4. Either support or reject the null hypothesis.

What is the Null Hypothesis?

1. DNA is shaped like a double helix.

2. There are 8 planets in the solar system (excluding Pluto).

5.4 Measures of association

Measures of association, in statistics, any of various factors or coefficients used to quantify a

Data may be measured on an interval/ratio scale, an ordinal/rank scale, or a nominal/categorical

• It is written in a formal language.

• A research report is usually written in the third person.

• It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.

• It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.

• It always includes recommendations for future actions.

Technical Research Report

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific