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Introduction
Historical Perspective
Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate Ages with them. In the
origin of human life on Earth, the Stone Age, people used only natural materials, like stone, clay,
skins, and wood. When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the Bronze Age
started about 3000 BC. The use of iron and steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in wars
started at about 1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap process to make steel around
1850, which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the industrial world.
Understanding of how materials behave like they do, and why they differ in properties was only
possible with the atomistic understanding allowed by quantum mechanics, that first explained atoms
and then solids starting in the 1930s. The combination of physics, chemistry, and the focus on the
relationship between the properties of a material and its microstructure is the domain of Materials
Science. The development of this science allowed designing materials and provided a knowledge base
for the engineering applications (Materials Engineering).
Like many other things, materials are classified in groups, so that our brain can handle the complexity.
One could classify them according to structure, or properties, or use. The one that we will use is
according to the way the atoms are bound together:
Metals: valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea' that "glues" the ions
together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are opaque to light (shiny if
polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.
Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between atoms). Their electrical
properties depend extremely strongly on minute proportions of contaminants. They are opaque to
visible light but transparent to the infrared. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.
Ceramics: atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by Coulomb
forces between them. They are usually combinations of metals or semiconductors with oxygen,
nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and carbides). Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals.
Polymers: are bound by covalent forces and also by weak van der Waals forces, and usually based on
H, C and other non-metallic elements. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100 – 400 C), and
are lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. Examples: plastics (nylon, Teflon, polyester) and
rubber.
Other categories are not based on bonding. A particular microstructure identifies composites, made of
different materials in intimate contact (example: fiberglass, concrete, wood) to achieve specific
properties. Biomaterials can be any type of material that is biocompatible and used, for instance, to
replace human body parts.
Advanced Materials
Materials used in "High-Tec" applications, usually designed for maximum performance, and normally
expensive. Examples are titanium alloys for supersonic airplanes, magnetic alloys for computer disks,
special ceramics for the heat shield of the space shuttle, etc.
Structure:
At the atomic level: arrangement of atoms in different ways. (Gives different properties for
graphite than diamond both forms of carbon.)
At the microscopic level: arrangement of small grains of material that can be identified by
microscopy. (Gives different optical properties to transparent vs. frosted glass.)
Properties are the way the material responds to the environment. For instance, the mechanical,
electrical and magnetic properties are the responses to mechanical, electrical and magnetic forces,
respectively. Other important properties are thermal (transmission of heat, heat capacity), optical
(absorption, transmission and scattering of light), and the chemical stability in contact with the
environment (like corrosion resistance).
Processing of materials is the application of heat (heat treatment), mechanical forces, etc. to affect
their microstructure and, therefore, their properties.
Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature structural materials
Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in nuclear waste
processing.
Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist high temperatures.
Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly.
Civil construction – materials for unbreakable windows.
Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics.
All engineering disciplines need to know about materials. Even the most "immaterial", like software or
system engineering depend on the development of new materials, which in turn alter the
To be able to select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and performance.
To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use.
To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties.
Properties of Materials
The factor which determines the behaviour and properties of the material is its structure. Structure can
be classified as follows depending on the level of observation.
1. Macro structure
2. Micro Structure
3. Crystal structure
4. Atomic structure
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Fundamental Concepts
Atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Electron and protons are negative and
positive charges of the same magnitude, 1.6 × 10-19 Coulombs.
The mass of the electron is negligible with respect to those of the proton and the neutron, which form
the nucleus of the atom. The unit of mass is an atomic mass unit (amu) = 1.66 × 10 -27 kg, and equals
1/12 the mass of a carbon atom. The Carbon nucleus has Z=6, and A=6, where Z is the number of
protons, and A the number of neutrons. Neutrons and protons have very similar masses, roughly equal
to 1 amu. A neutral atom has the same number of electrons and protons, Z.
A mole is the amount of matter that has a mass in grams equal to the atomic mass in amu of the atoms.
Thus, a mole of carbon has a mass of 12 grams. The number of atoms in a mole is called the Avogadro
number, Nav = 6.023 × 1023. Note that Nav = 1 gram/1 amu.
Calculating n, the number of atoms per cm3 in a piece of material of density d (g/cm3).
Thus, for graphite (carbon) with a density d = 1.8 g/cm3, M =12, we get 6 × 1023 atoms/mol × 1.8
g/cm3 / 12 g/mol) = 9 × 1022 C/cm3.
For a molecular solid like ice, one uses the molecular mass, M (H2O) = 18. With a density of 1 g/cm3,
one obtains n = 3.3 × 1022 H2O/cm3. Note that since the water molecule contains 3 atoms, this is
equivalent to 9.9 × 1022 atoms/cm3.
Most solids have atomic densities around 6 × 1022 atoms/cm3. The cube root of that number gives the
number of atoms per centimeter, about 39 million. The mean distance between atoms is the inverse of
that, or 0.25 nm. This is an important number that gives the scale of atomic structures in solids.
Electrons in Atoms
The forces in the atom are repulsions between electrons and attraction between electrons and protons.
The neutrons play no significant
role. Thus, Z is what characterizes
the atom.
Elements are categorized by placing them in the periodic table. Elements in a column share similar
properties. The noble gases have closed shells, and so they do not gain or lose electrons near another
atom. Alkalis can easily lose an electron and become a closed shell; halogens can easily gain one to
form a negative ion, again with a closed shell. The propensity to form closed shells occurs in
molecules, when they share electrons to close a molecular shell. Examples are H2, N2, and NaCl.
The ability to gain or lose electrons is termed electronegativity or electropositivity, an important factor
in ionic bonds. Atom is the smallest portion of matter and it consists of a nucleas (which contains
protons and neutrons) whilst electrons revolve around the nucleas in an orbital.
Note:
All the elements in the periodic table can be divided in to three categories.
o Metals
o Non – Metals
o Metalloids (elements that exhibit the properties of both metals and non metals) – B, Si,
Ge, As, Sb, Te
About 80% of the metals in the periodic table are metals because the outer most shells of these
elements are not fully occupied and electrons move freely from one atom to another giving
high electrical and thermal conductivity.
All the metals except (mercury)
Hg are solid at room
temperature.
The light metals (s block
elements — IA & IIA) are soft
and chemically reactive
because they have only 1 or 2
electrons in the outer shell and
give away these electrons very
easily. Hence, the ionization
energy is very low.
The noble gases (group VIIIA
- He, Ne, Ar, etc.,) have the
last orbital fully filled and
they are chemically inert or
inactive.
The d-block elements
(groups IIIA - VIIA) have atoms in which the outermost d-orbital is filling. These
elements need only a few electrons to complete their outer shell which they try to get from
(or share with) the other atoms. Hence, the ionization energy of these elements is high and is
mostly non-metallic.
Most non-metals are gaseous but bromine (Br) is a liquid.
The d-block elements (groups IB - VIIIB) are the elements in which the d-orbit is
filling. From these, the elements in which the d-orbit is not fully occupied are called the
"transition metals" (groups IIIB — VIIIB). They are stronger and harder than the other
metals.
H can be in group IA (because it has only one electron) or group VIIA because, like the halogens, it
needs one electron to complete its outer energy level. However, its properties differ from those
of both groups.
He can be placed in group IIA, but it is placed in group VIIIA. This is because its highest energy
level is completely filled with two electrons, and its properties are similar to those of other
noble gases that are chemically inert.
The Coulomb forces are simple: attractive between electrons and nuclei, repulsive between electrons
and between nuclei. The force between atoms is given by a sum of all the individual forces, and the
fact that the electrons are located outside the atom and the nucleus in the center.
When two atoms come very close, the force between them is always repulsive, because the electrons
stay outside and the nuclei repel each other. Unless both atoms are ions of the same charge (e.g., both
negative) the forces between atoms is always attractive at large internuclear distances r. Since the force
is repulsive at small r, and attractive at small r, there is a distance at which the force is zero. This is the
equilibrium distance at which the atoms prefer to stay.
The interaction energy is the potential energy between the atoms. It is negative if the atoms are bound
and positive if they can move away from each other. The interaction energy is the integral of the force
over the separation distance, so these two quantities are directly related. The interaction energy is a
minimum at the equilibrium position. This value of the energy is called the bond energy, and is the
energy needed to separate completely to infinity (the work that needs to be done to overcome the
attractive force.) The strongest the bond energy, the hardest is to move the atoms, for instance the
hardest it is to melt the solid, or to evaporate its atoms.
Bonds form between atoms due to forces of attraction and repulsion that operate between them. The
types of bonds formed between atoms (inter-atomic bonds) are grouped into two categories.
1) Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonds form between a metal and a non-metal. The metallic element gives up one or more
electrons to the non-metallic element, producing two oppositely charged ions. Ionic bond lacks the
directionality. An example is NaCl. In the molecule, there are more electrons around Cl, forming Cl -
and less around Na, forming Na+. Ionic bonds are the strongest bonds. In real solids, ionic bonding is
usually combined with covalent
bonding.
Cl - 1s22s22p63s23p5 – Takes
that electron and forms Cl- ion
This is the bond when one of the atoms is negative (has an extra electron) and another is positive (has
lost an electron). Then there is a strong, direct Coulomb attraction.
Due to the electrostatic forces (attractive forces) that exists between the negatively charged and the
positively charged ions a bond is formed between them. This is referred to as an ionic bond. To
preserve the charge neutrality, the positive and negative ions must alternate in a symmetrical fashion.
Attractive force
q2
Attractive force, F
4 0 r 2
r
Where q – charge on each ion, 0 – permittivity, r – separation of the ions
Work as the ions are brought to a separation r from infinity,
u fdr U
q2
r 4 0 r
2) Covalent Bonding
In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the molecules, to saturate the valency. The simplest
example is the H2 molecule, where the electrons spend more time in between the nuclei than outside,
thus producing bonding.
Covalent bonding takes place between non – metallic elements near one another in the periodic table.
The bond is formed due to sharing of their outer electrons, so that each atom has a complete outer
electron shell. Covalent bond is directional.
A B
Energy in a covalent bond, U m
n (m<n)
r r
Attractive part Repulsive part
3) Metallic Bonding
The metallic bond occurs between atoms with only a few electrons in their outer s and p orbitals.
These electrons are bound to the atom much less strongly than those in the atoms of non – metals.
Hence, they are free to move from atom to atom. This is responsible for the high electrical and thermal
conductivity of metals. Therefore metallic bonding is observed only among atoms in metallic elements
and the bond is formed due to the electrostatic attraction between the electron cloud and the ions. Since
the electrons can move freely between atoms, metals have non-directional bonds (therefore close
packing of atoms is possible and close packing in planes make it possible to deform without fracture).
Metallic bond is the dominant bond in metals and alloys. In metals, the atoms are ionized, loosing
some electrons from the valence band. Those electrons form an electron sea, which binds the charged
nuclei in place, in a similar way that the electrons in between the H atoms in the H2 molecule bind the
protons. In a solid metal the highest energy electrons tends to leave the parent atoms and combine to
form a “sea” (sometimes referred to as an electron cloud).
Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24% of the mass of the planet. They
are all around us in such forms as steel structures, copper wires, aluminum foil, and gold jewelry.
Metals are widely used because of their properties: strength (a measure of the ability of a material to
support a load), ductility, high melting point, thermal and electrical conductivity, and toughness (the
ability to absorb energy of deformation without breaking. High toughness requires both high strength
and high ductility).
These properties also offer clues as to the structure of metals. As with all elements, metals are
composed of atoms. The strength of metals suggests that these atoms are held together by strong
bonds. These bonds must also allow atoms to move; otherwise how could metals be hammered into
sheets or drawn into wires? A reasonable model would be one in which atoms are held together by
strong, but delocalized, bonds.
Atoms with filled outer shells, such as inert gases and non polar covalently bonded molecules are held
together by forces known as Van der Waals’ forces. This is due to a temporary dipolar attraction
between uncharged atoms. These bonds are very weak with low binding energies. The low binding
energies result in very low melting and boiling temperature. These bonds are non-directional due to the
fluctuating character of dipoles.
Examples:
Hydrogen Bond
Hydrogen bonds are formed between polar covalently bonded molecules containing H bonded to a
highly electronegative atom. Examples: HF, H2O, NH3 and HCl.
H Cl- H Cl-
+ +
H + (or proton) acts as a bridge
between strongly electronegative
Cl H Cl H
- + - + Cl atoms.
Hydrogen atoms are strongly attracted to two different atoms, thereby acting as a bond between them.
This type of bond is called a “hydrogen bond”.
Molecules
If molecules formed a closed shell due to covalent bonding (like H2, N2) then the interaction between
molecules is weak, of the van der Waals type. Thus, molecular solids usually have very low melting
points.
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Fundamental Concepts
Atoms self-organize in crystals, most of the time. The crystalline lattice is a periodic array of the
atoms. When the solid is not crystalline, it is called amorphous. Examples of crystalline solids are
metals, diamond and other precious stones, ice, graphite. Examples of amorphous solids are glass,
amorphous carbon (a-C), amorphous Si, most plastics.
All solid materials (ionic, covalent, metals) may be classified on the basis of their atomic arrangement
as crystalline or amorphous.
Crystalline Amorphous
Atoms are situated in a repeating or Atoms are not packed in definite orderly
periodic array over large atomic distances. arrangement. Amorphous solids have short
Crystalline solids have short range order as range order but there is no long range order.
well as long range order (E.g. metals & (E.g. Glass & Polymers)
ceramics)
Above their melting point, metals are liquids, and their atoms are randomly arranged and relatively
free to move. However, when cooled below their melting point, metals rearrange to form ordered,
crystalline structures.
Arrangement of atoms in a
Liquid and a solid
Crystalline Materials
All most all metals and ceramics are made entirely of small crystals in which atoms are packed in
regular, repeating three dimensional patterns. These are called crystalline materials.
Single Crystals: For a crystalline solid when the periodic and repeated arrangement of atoms extends
throughout the entire specimen it results a single crystal. High technology requires preparing these.
E.g.: tiny semiconductors, single crystal turbine blades (for very high strength).
Polycrystalline Materials: A solid can be composed of many crystalline grains, not aligned with each
other. It is called polycrystalline. The grains can be more or less aligned with respect to each other.
Where they meet is called a grain boundary.
Anisotropy: Different directions in the crystal have a different packing. For instance, atoms along the
edge FCC crystals are more separated than along the face diagonal. This causes anisotropy in the
properties of crystals; for instance, the deformation depends on the direction in which a stress is
applied.
Non-Crystalline Solids
In amorphous solids, there is no long-range order. But amorphous does not mean random, since the
distance between atoms cannot be smaller than the size of the hard spheres. Also, in many cases there
is some form of short-range order. For instance, the tetragonal order of crystalline SiO2 (quartz) is still
apparent in amorphous SiO2 (silica glass.)
Polymers: Long chain polymers made by a process of polymerization. These chains are arranged
randomly and not as regularly repeating 3D patterns and hence they are non crystalline or amorphous.
However some polymers can contain both amorphous and crystalline regions. The atoms within a long
chain molecule are held together by covalent bonding, and the molecules themselves are bonded by
Van der Waals’ forces.
Glass: usually consists of oxides (SiO2) with atoms packed in a non crystalline manner. This is a solid
up to well over 1000˚C because of strong covalent bonds linking the Si to the O atoms. Addition of
soda (Na2O) breaks up the structure and lowers the softening temperature (at which the glass can be
worked) to about 700˚C. Glass is used for bottles, windows,.etc.
Lattice: Atomic arrangements in crystalline solids can be described with respect to a network of lines
in three dimensions. A three dimensional array of points coinciding with atom positions is called as a
lattice. The intersections of the lines are called “lattice sites” (or lattice points). Each lattice site has the
same environment in the same direction.
Unit cell: The unit cell is the smallest structure that repeats itself by translation through the crystal.
We construct these symmetrical units with the hard spheres. The most common types of unit cells are
the faced-centered cubic (FCC), the body-centered cubic (FCC) and the hexagonal close-packed
(HCP). Other types exist, particularly among minerals.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 10 -
ME2302 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
The body-centered cubic (BCC) (unit cell has atoms at each of the eight corners of a cube plus one
atom in the center of the cube). Because each of the corner atoms is the corner of another cube, the
corner atoms in each unit cell will be shared among eight unit cells. The BCC unit cell consists of a net
total of two atoms, the one in the center and eight eighths from the corners.
In the FCC arrangement, there are eight atoms at corners of the unit cell and one atom centered in each
of the faces. The atom in the face is shared with the adjacent cell. FCC unit cells consist of four atoms,
eight eighths at the corners and six halves in the faces.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 11 -
ME2302 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Crystal arrangement of close-packed layers of particles where three layers of particles alternate
positions
SC 1 6 2 0.52
BCC 2 8 4/ √3 0.68
HCP 6 12 0.74
The closest packed direction in a BCC cell is along the diagonal of the cube; in a FCC cell is along the
diagonal of a face of the cube.
Density Computations
The density of a solid is that of the unit cell, obtained by dividing the mass of the atoms (n atoms x
Matom) and dividing by Vc the volume of the cell (a3 in the case of a cube). If the mass of the atom is
given in amu (A), then we have to divide it by the Avogadro number to get Matom. Thus, the formula
for the density is:
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 12 -
ME2302 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Example:
Copper (Cu) has a f.c.c. structure with a lattice parameter of 3.61Å. What is the density of Cu?
(Atomic weight of Cu = 63.5 g/mole)
63.5 g / mole
Weight of atoms = x 4 atoms / unit cell
6.02 x 10 23 atoms / mole
= 4.2192 x 1023 g/unit cell
4.2192 x 10 22
Therefore, Density =
(3.61x 10 8 )3
= 8.96 g/cm3
Some materials may exist in more than one crystal structure, this is called polymorphism. If the
material is an elemental solid, it is called allotropy. An example of allotropy is carbon, which can exist
as diamond, graphite, and amorphous carbon.
The FCC and HCP are related, and have the same APF. They are built by packing spheres on top of
each other, in the hollow sites. The packing is alternate between two types of sites, ABABAB.. in the
HCP structure, and alternates between three types of positions, ABCABC… in the FCC crystals.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 13 -
ME2302 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Packing factor (packing Density): Fraction of volumes of the unit cell occupied by the atoms.
Packing factor = volume of atoms in unit cell / volume of the unit cell,
FCC & HCP ≈ 0.74, BCC ≈ 0.68
Coordination Number (CN)
CN is the number of equidistant nearest neighboring atoms for each atom.
BCC → CN= 8
HCP & FCC → CN= 12
Lattice Parameters (constants)
Height, width, Breadth of a unit cell are known as lattice constants or parameters. Consider a unit cell.
4r a 2 b 2 = 2a
2
r a
4
HCP:
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 14 -
ME2302 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
a
4r = 2a r
2
x y z
Intercepts 1
Reciprocals 1/ 1/1 1/
Miller indices 0 1 0
Miller indices of the plane is (010)
z
P x y Z
a/6 Co – ordinates of P relative to O 1/6 0 1
y
Smallest integers 1 0 6
Miller indices 106
o x
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 15 -
ME2302 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
z
111
A family of directions is given by the brackets <xyz>.
y
x 100 110
Planar Density
Planar density is the number of atoms per unit area within a plane.
a
For a s.c. structure:
a
(1 / 4 4) 1 110
(100) = 2
=
a a2 2a
1 / 4 4 0.707
(110) = = a
2a 2 a2
(1 / 6 3) 1
(111) = 100
3a 2a 3a 2
2 ]
2a 2a
2 2 2
111
0.577
=
a2
2a
Therefore, for a simple cubic crystal, planar density of (100) > (110) > (111), and the close-packed
plane in a s.c. structure is the (100) plane.
Linear Density
The linear density is the number of atoms per unit length in particular direction of the unit cell.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 16 -
ME2302 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Materials choose a crystal structure (bcc, fcc or hcp) that gives minimum energy and this structure
may not necessarily be close packed. Crystal structure may change with temperature. Example: iron
from bcc structure to fcc structure at 911˚C.
˚C
Liquid Fe
1536
δ Fe (BCC) δ - Ferrite
1391
γ Fe (FCC) Austenite
914
α Fe (BCC) Ferrite
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 17 -
ME2302 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
Unit cell structures determine some of the properties of metals. For example, FCC structures are
more likely to be ductile than BCC, (body centered cubic) or HCP (hexagonal close packed).
Many elements and compounds exist in more than one crystalline form under different conditions of
temperature and pressure. This phenomenon is called polymorphism or allotropy
(a) (b (c)
)
Crystalline ceramics: (a) covalently bonded silica (SiO2) (b) ionically bonded alumina (Al2O3) and (c) NaCl.
Crystalline solids with directionally bonded atoms and molecules are generally not-close packed due to
the directional requirement of the bonds. Example: Diamond
Diamond:
Diamond which is an allotrope of carbon has a three dimensional structure. Each
carbon atom is connected to four others by covalent bonds and are at the corners
of a regular tetrahedron.
Graphite:
This has a layer type structure, with each carbon atom surrounded by three other
carbon atoms. Since the fourth electron is free to move from atom to atom, the
graphite conducts electricity. Coordination Number =3. Layers of graphite are held
together by week van der Waals forces. Therefore, sheets of graphite are strong but
they slide over each other very easily. Materials like clay and talc also contain a layer
type structure similar to this.
Fullerenes:
Fullerene consists of a series of large molecules each
containing an even number of carbon atoms arranged in the
form of a closed hollow cage (i & ii). The most stable form
C60 is produced by laser-vaporizing graphite in an inert
atmosphere. It is found that C60 in various compound forms (i) (ii)
can function as an insulator, a conductor, a semiconductor,
and a superconductor.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 18 -
ME2302 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Materials scientists learn about these mechanical properties by testing materials. Results from the tests
depend on the size and shape of material to be tested (specimen), how it is held, and the way of
performing the test. That is why we use common procedures, or standards, which are published by the
ASTM.
To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is calculated per unit area, also called normalization
to the area. Force divided by area is called stress. In tension and compression tests, the relevant area is
that perpendicular to the force. In shear or torsion tests, the area is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
Stress—Strain Behavior
Elastic deformation.
When the stress is removed, the material returns to
the dimension it had before the load was applied.
Valid for small strains (except the case of rubbers).
Deformation is reversible, non permanent
Plastic deformation
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 19 -
ME2302 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Elastic moduli measure the stiffness of the material. They are related to the second derivative of the
interatomic potential, or the first derivative of the force vs. internuclear distance. By examining these
curves we can tell which material has a higher modulus. Due to thermal vibrations the elastic modulus
decreases with temperature. E is large for ceramics (stronger ionic bond) and small for polymers (weak
covalent bond). Since the interatomic distances depend on direction in the crystal, E depends on
direction (i.e., it is anisotropic) for single crystals. For randomly oriented policrystals, E is isotropic.
Anelasticity
Here the behavior is elastic but not the stress-strain curve is not immediately reversible. It takes a
while for the strain to return to zero. The effect is normally small for metals but can be significant for
polymers.
Materials subject to tension shrink laterally. Those subject to compression, bulge. The ratio of lateral
and axial strains is called the Poisson's ratio n.
n = elateral/eaxial
The elastic modulus, shear modulus and Poisson's ratio are related by E = 2G(1+n)
Tensile Properties
UTSs
UYP
D
B
LYP E
Stress A C
Strain
Yield point. If the stress is too large, the strain deviates from being proportional to the stress. The
point at which this happens is the yield point because there the material yields, deforming permanently
(plastically).
Yield stress. Hooke's law is not valid beyond the yield point. The stress at the yield point is called
yield stress, and is an important measure of the mechanical properties of materials. In practice, the
yield stress is chosen as that causing a permanent strain of 0.002.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 20 -
ME2302 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
The reason for plastic deformation, in normal materials, is not that the atomic bond is stretched beyond
repair, but the motion of dislocations, which involves breaking and reforming bonds.
The stress corresponding to the maximum load that the material can withstand before the initiation of
fracture is called the “Ultimate Tensile Strength.”
UTS = Pmax /AO
At this point, the sample develops a neck (the cross sectional area decreases). The load now acts on a
diminishing cross-sectional area and therefore, the stress decreases with further strain until the sample
fractures.
Note:
The UTS is the maximum level of stress that should neither exceed during metal working process nor
in service of a material.
Necking
begins
Tensile strength
When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-strain passes through a maximum, called the
tensile strength (sTS) , and then falls as the material starts to develop a neck and it finally breaks at the
fracture point
Note that it is called strength, not stress, but the units are the same, MPa.
For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important property than the tensile
strength, since once the it is passed, the structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits.
Proof Stress
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 21 -
ME2302 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Ductility
The ability to deform before braking. It is the opposite of brittleness. Ductility can be given either as
percent maximum elongation emax or maximum area reduction.
%EL = emax x 100 %
%AR = (A0 - Af)/A0
These are measured after fracture (repositioning the two pieces back together).
Resilience.
Capacity to absorb energy elastically. The energy per unit volume is the area under the strain-stress
curve in the elastic region.
Toughness
Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. The energy per unit volume is the total area under the strain-
stress curve. It is measured by an impact test.
Impact test
This test indicates that the material is highly sensitive to notches resulting from the presence of internal
cracks.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 22 -
ME2302 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
If the energy absorbed by the sample is low, the material is brittle and low in toughness.
If the energy absorbed by the sample is high, the material is soft, ductile, and high in toughness.
When one applies a constant tensile force the material will break after reaching the tensile strength.
The material starts necking (the transverse area decreases) but the stress cannot increase beyond s TS.
The ratio of the force to the initial area, what we normally do, is called the engineering stress. If the
ratio is to the actual area (that changes with stress) one obtains the true stress.
P
True Stress (t) =
Ai
li
dl
True Strain (t) = = ln l lli =
l
ln i = ln
l 0 l
lo l 0 lo lo
t = ln 1 e
By considering the bond energy and the interatomic distance of a bond, it is found that the theoretical
strength of a material is given by th = E/10
From the above given values it can be observed that the actual strengths of all metals and ceramics are
often far below than the strengths predicted by calculations.
The low strength values observed in real materials are mainly due to the defects existing in real
materials.
E(GPa) th (MPa) max (MPa)
Steel 210 21,000 400-2,000
Al alloys 70 7000 70-670
Alumina 390 39,000 5,000
Diamond 1000 100,000 50,000
max = Max. Tensile strength determined from a tensile test
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 23 -
ME2302 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
If a material is taken beyond the yield point (it is deformed plastically) and the stress is then released,
the material ends up with a permanent strain. If the stress is reapplied, the material again responds
elastically at the beginning up to a new yield point that is higher than the original yield point (strain
hardening. The amount of elastic strain that it will take before reaching the yield point is called elastic
strain recovery.
Brittle materials are quite strong in compression and are often weak
in tension. Therefore, brittle materials are only tested under
compression loads.
Because the compression test increases the cross-sectional area of the sample, necking never occurs.
For ductile materials, comp tensile
For brittle materials, comp 15 tensile
Malleability
This term refers to the extent to which a material can undergo deformation in compression before
failure occurs. All ductile materials are malleable but malleable materials are not necessarily always
ductile since a soft material may lack strength and thus tear apart very easily in tension. A malleable
material is required for such process as forging, rolling, and rivets heading (hammering).
Hardness
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 24 -
ME2302 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
scratch another, diamond being the hardest and talc the softer. Now we use standard tests, where a ball,
or point is pressed into a material and the size of the dent is measured. There are a few different
hardness tests: Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc. They are popular because they are easy and non-
destructive (except for the small indent).
Hardness testing is frequently used for quality control in production due to the following reasons:
1. Sample preparation is not required.
2. Test can be conducted easily and it is not time consuming.
3. There is a direct correlation between hardness and the UTS.
Brinell hardness test – for low strength non-ferrous metals (lead, tin, aluminium) to relatively
high strength ferrous metals
Vickers hardness test – for low strength non-ferrous metals of very thin sections to very high
strength metals
Rockwell hardness test – for any type of metal – this is widely used in industry, as it is quick,
simple, and can directly read the hardness value.
Shore hardness test – only for plastics and rubbers
Rockwell hardness test can also be used to measure hardness of polymeric materials, with a lower load
being applied. The hardness of ceramic materials cannot be tested by the above methods as it may
damage the indenter. The Moh’s scale is used to determine the hardness of ceramics, which gives a
relative value compared to other known materials.
Tests do not produce exactly the same result because of variations in the test equipment, procedures,
operator bias, specimen fabrication, etc. But, even if all those parameters are controlled within strict
limits, a variation remains in the materials, due to uncontrolled variations during fabrication, non
homogenous composition and structure, etc. The measured mechanical properties will show scatter,
which is often distributed in a Gaussian curve (bell-shaped), that is characterized by the mean value
and the standard deviation (width).
Design/Safety Factors
To take into account variability of properties, designers use, instead of an average value of, say, the
tensile strength, the probability that the yield strength is above the minimum value tolerable. This leads
to the use of a safety factor N > 1 (typ. 1.2 - 4). Thus, a working value for the tensile strength would be
sW = sTS / N.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 25 -
ME2302 NON METALLIC MATERIALS
Ceramics are a range of non-metallic, inorganic materials. They are mainly oxides, nitrides, and
carbides.
They contain ionic and/or covalent bonds and are crystalline in structure. However, glass, which is
a type of ceramic, is amorphous in structure.
They are very stable and chemically non-reactive. Have high melting points, hard and brittle, can
withstand high compressive loads, and have low electrical and thermal conductivity.
Glass Properties
A special characteristic of glasses is that solidification is gradual, through a viscous stage, without a
clear melting temperature. The specific volume does not have an abrupt transition at a temperature but
rather shows a change in slope at the glass-transition temperature.
The melting point, working point, softening point and annealing point are defined in terms of viscosity,
rather than temperature, and depend on glass composition..
Good thermal shock resistance - It is the ability of a solid to withstand sudden changes in
temperature.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 26 -
ME2302 NON METALLIC MATERIALS
POLYMERS
Polymers are common in nature, in the form of wood, rubber, cotton, leather, wood, silk, proteins,
enzymes, starches, cellulose. Artificial polymers are made mostly from oil. Their use has grown
exponentially, especially after WW2. The key factor is the very low production cost and useful
properties (e.g., combination of transparency and flexibility, long elongation).
Hydrocarbon Molecules
Most polymers are organic, and formed from hydrocarbon molecules. These molecules can have
single, double, or triple carbon bonds. A saturated hydrocarbon is one where all bonds are single that
is, the number of atoms is maximum (or saturated). Among this type are the paraffin compounds,
CnH2n+2. In contrast, non-saturated hydrocarbons contain some double and triple bonds.
Isomers are molecules that contain the same molecules but in a different arrangement. An example is
butane and isobutane.
Polymer Molecules
Polymer molecules are huge, macromolecules that have internal covalent bonds. For most polymers,
these molecules form very long chains. The backbone is a string of carbon atoms, often single bonded.
Polymers are composed of basic structures called mer units. A molecule with just one mer is a
monomer.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 27 -
ME2302 NON METALLIC MATERIALS
When all the mers are the same, the molecule is called a homopolymer. When there is more than one
type of mer present, the molecule is a copolymer.
Molecular Weight
The mass of a polymer is not fixed, but is distributed around a mean value, since polymer molecules
have different lengths. The average molecular weight can be obtained by averaging the masses with
the fraction of times they appear (number-average) or with the mass fraction of the molecules (called,
improperly, a weight fraction).
The degree of polymerization is the average number of mer units, and is obtained by dividing the
average mass of the polymer by the mass of a mer unit.
Polymers of low mass are liquid or gases, those of very high mass (called high-polymers, are solid).
Waxes, paraffins and resins have intermediate masses.
linear (end-to-end, flexible, like PVC, nylon)
branched
cross-linked (due to radiation, vulcanization, etc.)
network (similar to highly cross-linked structures).
Molecular Configurations
The regularity and symmetry of the side-groups can affect strongly the properties of polymers. Side
groups are atoms or molecules with free bonds, called free-radicals, like H, O, methyl, etc.
If the radicals are linked in the same order, the configuration is called isostatic
In a stereoisomer in a syndiotactic configuration, the radical groups alternative sides in the chain.
In the atactic configuration, the radical groups are positioned at random.
The exact arrangement of side groups is important to determine whether a polymer will be crystalline
or amorphous.
H H H H H H H H H H H R H H H R H H H H H R H H
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
| | | | | | | |
H R H R H R H R
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
H R H H H R H H H R H R H H H R
Syndiotactic Atactic
Isotactic Alternate in some regular way Alternate randomly.
Side groups are on the round the chain. (PMMA) No order. (polystyrene - PS)
same side.
(polypropylene - PP)
Polymers with isotactic arrangements (even with large side groups) will be crystalline.
Polymers with atactic arrangements will generally be amorphous and are of lower density.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 28 -
ME2302 NON METALLIC MATERIALS
Copolymers
Polymer Crystallinity
Thermoplastic polymers (thermoplasts) soften reversibly when heated (harden when cooled back)
Thermoplastics are made by adding together monomers to form long chains. Such a process is known
as “addition polymerization”.
Types of Thermoplastics:
Polyethylene (C2H4)n- commonest of the thermoplastics
Vinyl compounds - compounds based on ethylene in which one or more of the H atoms have been
replaced by a different atom or group of atoms.
Note: Not all thermoplastics are vinyl compounds
H H R = Cl - Polyvinyl chloride(PVC)
| | R = CH3 - Polypropylene
C C R = C6H5 - Polystyrene
| |
H R R = COOCH3 - Polyvinyl acetate
n
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 29 -
ME2302 NON METALLIC MATERIALS
F F
H Cl | |
| | Polytetrafluroethyl
C C C C ene
Polyvinyl
| | chloride | | (PTFE) or Teflon
H Cl F F
n n
Polymers derived from a single monomer such as the polymers given above are called homopolymers.
H O H H H O H H H O H
| || | | | || | | | || |
2 N C N C O N C N C N C N H 2O
| | | | | |
H H H H H H
Elastomers
In silicone rubbers, the backbone C atoms are replaced by a chain of alternating silicon and oxygen
atoms. These elastomers are also cross-linked and are stable to higher temperatures than C-based
elastomers.
DEPARTMENT OF MME - 30 -