Solutions

 Solutions, in chemistry, are

homogeneous mixtures of two or more
substances.
The substance present in largest quantity
usually is called the solvent. The solvent
can be either a liquid or a solid.
The substance that is present in smallest
quantity is said to be dissolved and is called the
solute. The solute can be either a gas, a liquid,
or a solid. Types of Solutions
 Concept Check Saturated Solution
Coke lists as its ingredients as:
“carbonated water, high fructose corn syrup
and/or sucrose, caramel color, phosphoric acid,
natural flavors, caffeine”.
What is the solvent?
What are the solutes?
Solutions
How does a solid dissolve into a
liquid?

How Does a Solution Form?

• Solvent molecules are attracted to
surface ions.
• Each ion is surrounded by solvent
molecules.

Ionic solid dissolving in water

Types of Solutions
Gaseous solutions – air
Liquid solutions – drinks
Solid solutions – steel or other alloys
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 • percent by volume = volume of
component per total volume (expressed
as a percentage)
• Ppm = mass of component per total
mass of solution x 106
=milligrams solute per Kilogram
solution
Frequently used standards of concentration
Measurement Notation Generic Typical
formula units
Mass wt% Mass solute x %
percentage 100
Mass solution
Volume Vol% mL solute x %
percentage 100
mL solution
Molality m moles solute mol/kg
kg of solvent or m

Molarity M moles solute mole/L

liter of or M
solution
Parts per ppm milligram mg/kg
million solute
Kilogram
solution

Concentration is the measure of how much of a

given substance is mixed with another
substance. To concentrate a solution, one must
add more solute, or reduce the amount of
solvent.
 dilute – is for solution of relatively low
concentration
 concentrated- is for solution of
relatively high concentration

Ways of Expressing Concentrations of

Solutions
There are many ways to express concentration
mathematically
• Percent by mass = mass of component per
total mass (expressed as a percentage)
• Mole fraction = moles of component per total
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moles (expressed as a value between 0 and 1)

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• Molality = moles of solute per kg of solvent

• Molarity = moles of solute per liter of solution
 (a) Calculate the mass percentage of NaCl
in a solution containing 1.50 g of NaCl in
50.0 g of water.
(b) A commercial bleaching solution
contains 3.62 mass % sodium
hypochlorite, NaOCl. What is the mass
of NaOCl in a bottle containing 2500 g
of bleaching solution?
(c) A commercial bleach solution contains
3.62 mass % NaOCl in water.
Calculate (a) the molality,
(b) the mole fraction of NaOCl,
(c) the mole fraction of H2O in the
solution.
(d) A solution contains 5.0 g of toluene
(C7H8) and 225 g of benzene and has a
density of 0.876 g/mL. Calculate the
molarity of the solution.
Problems:
1. Five (5) grams of KCl was added to 50 grams
of water. What is the % by mass of the solution?
2. Twenty (20) ml of isopropyl alcohol was
mixed with 80 ml of water. What is the %by
volume of the isopropyl alcohol solution?
3. Find the molarity of a solution made by
dissolving 5 grams NaCl in enough water to
make 200 ml of salt solution.
4. What is the molality of a solution made by
dissolving 2 grams of ferrous sulfate in 100
grams water?
5. Five (5.000) grams of ammonium nitrate are
dissolved in 100.0 grams water. The resulting
solution is 104.2 ml. What is the concentration
of the solution in
a. wt% b. Vol% c. mole fraction d. molarity
e. molality f. ppm
6. What weight of Ca(OH)2 are present in 250 ml
of a 0.25M solution?
7. What weight in grams of water would be
needed to prepare 5 molal solution
containing 20 grams of NaCl?
8. How many grams of 20% KCl solution are
necessary to yield 5 grams of KCl?
9. How many ml of ethyl alcohol and ml of
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water are needed to prepare a 500 ml of 70%
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by volume ethyl alcohol?
Solution Stoichiometry
How much volume of one solution to react with
another solution
□ Given volume of A with molarity MA
□ Determine moles A
□ Determine moles B
□ Find target volume of B with molarity
MB
Titration
□ q Use a solution of known
concentration to determine
concentration of an unknown
□ q Must be able to identify endpoint of
titration to know stoichiometry
□ q Most common applications with acids
and bases
Moles of A= moles of B
MA x V A = MB x V B
Problems:
1. How much 0.125 M NaHCO3 is required to
neutralize 18.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl?
2. How many ml of 0.0186 M Ca(OH)2 are
theoretically required to neutralize 0.0315
grams of H3AsO4 ?
3. How many ml of 0.15 M H2SO4 are required
to neutralize
a. 30 ml of 0.30M KOH?
b. 20.0 ml of a solution containing 10.0 g of
KHCO3 per 100 ml?
c. 0.1027g CaCO3?
123 mL of a 1.00 M solution of NaCl is mixed
with 72.5 mL of a 2.71 M solution of AgNO3.
What is the mass of AgCl(s) formed in
the precipitation reaction?
 Solubility

is the measure of how many grams of solute

can dissolve in 100 grams of solvent (or in the
case of water, solute per 100 milliliters.

Factors Affecting Solubility

Factor Concept Example
More surface area
Powdered sugar
gives more
will dissolve in
Surface area opportunity for
water faster than
Stoichiometry with Solutions solute-solvent
rock candy.
1. H3PO4 + 3 NaOH --> Na3PO4 + 3 H2O contact
How much 0.20 M H3PO4 is needed to Sugar dissolves
react with 100 ml. of 0.10 M NaOH? Solids are more
more readily in
2. 2 HCl + Zn --> ZnCl2 + H2 When you use soluble in hot
hot water, but CO2
25 ml. of 4.0 M HCl to produce H2 gas, Temperature solvents, gases are
dissolves better in
how many grams of zinc does it react more soluble in cold
cold soda than
with? What volume of H2 gas is solvents
warm soda.
produced at STP? Non-polar
3. CaCO3 + 2 HCl --> CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 compounds dissolve Alcohol and water
How much 0.80 M HCl would be needed in non-polar are both polar,
to dissolve a CaCO3 pearl which weighs solvents, and polar and they are
4.0 grams? Polarity compounds dissolve miscible. Oil is
4. 3 Fe + 2 Au(NO3)3 --> 3 Fe(NO3)2 + 2 in polar solvents. If non-polar and is
Au Throwing some scrap iron in a gold one liquid is polar, immiscible in
nitrate solution causes the gold metal and the other isn't, water.
to precipitate. How much 0.50 M gold they are immiscible.
nitrate solution would react with 224
Gases dissolve
grams of iron metal?
better under higher
5. Sea water is about 0.50 M NaCl. To Leaving the cap
pressure, due to
produce Cl2 gas, a company evaporates off a soda bottle
Pressure greater forces
sea water, melts the NaCl, and runs will let the
pushing the gas
electricity through it. 2 NaCl --> 2 Na + carbonation out.
molecules into the
Cl2 How many liters of sea water are
solvent.
needed to fill a tank car with 1,120,000
liters of chlorine gas at STP? If a solution is
6. H3PO4 + 3 NaOH --> Na3PO4 + 3 H2O If agitated by stirring
36.0 ml. of H3PO4 react exactly with or shaking, there is
Everyone knows
80.0 ml. of 0.500 M NaOH, what is the an increase in
to stir their coffee
concentration of the phosphoric acid? Agitation kinetic motion and
after adding
Answers: 1) 17 mL 2) 3.3 g of zinc and 1.1 L of contact of particles.
sugar.
H2 3) 0.10L 4) 5.3 L 5) 2.0 x105 L 6) Therefore, the rate
0.370 M of solubility
increases.
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 Why?
Chemists use the saying “like dissolves like”: Larger molecules have stronger dispersion
 Polar substances tend to forces.
dissolve in polar solvents.
 Nonpolar substances tend to
dissolve in nonpolar solvents.
Temperature
□ Generally, the solubility of solid solutes
in liquid solvents increases with
increasing temperature.
□ The opposite is true of gases. Higher
temperature drives gases out of
solution.
 Carbonated soft drinks are
more “bubbly” if stored in the
refrigerator.
 Warm lakes have less O2
dissolved in them than cool Gases in Solution
lakes. The solubility of liquids and
solids does not change
Temperature and Solubility appreciably with pressure.
Solid solubility and temperature But, the solubility of a gas in a
□ solubility increases with increasing liquid is directly proportional to
temperature its pressure.
□ solubility decreases with increasing □ Increasing pressure
temperature above solution forces
more gas to dissolve.
Pressure
□ Has little or no effect on the solubilities
of liquids or solids
□ Has a great effect on the solubility of
gases
□ Higher the pressure, the greater the
solubility of a gas

Gas solubility and temperature

□ solubility usually decreases with
increasing temperature

Solubility of Gases
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In general, the solubility of gases in water

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increases with increasing mass.

 Henry’s Law
The amount of gas dissolved in a solution is
directly proportional to the pressure of the gas
above the solution
P = kC
P- partial pressure of the gas
k – constant of the solution
C – concentration of the solution
Example
A soft drink is bottled so that a bottle at 25°C
contains carbon dioxide gas at a pressure of
5.0atm over the liquid. The Henry’s law constant
for carbon dioxide in solution is 32 L atm/mol.
Calculate the concentration of carbon dioxide in
the soda.

Henry’s Law Constants

Vapor Pressure Lowering

Vapor pressure of solution is always lower
than vapor pressure of pure solvent.
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Formula:
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VP sol’n = VP solvent – ΔVP

ΔVP = VP solvent x mole fraction solute
 • for electrolytes
Vapor Pressure of Water at Various i = # of ions formed for 100% dissociation
Temperature
T(oC) P(mmHg) T(oC) P(mmHg) Electrolyte
□ Electrolyte: a substance that dissolves
5 6.5 19 16.5 in water to give a solution that conducts
6 7.0 20 electric current
17.5 7 7.5 □ Any soluble ionic compound is an
21 18.7 8 8.0 electrolyte
22 19.8 9 □ Strong acids are electrolytes
8.6 23 21.1
10 9.2 24 22.4
11 9.8 25 23.8
12 10.5 26 25.2
13 11.2 27 26.2 van't Hoff Factor
14 12.0 28 28.3 Concentration If 100 %
15 12.8 29 30.0 (mol salt / kg water) Dissociation
16 13.6 30 31.8 Salt 0.1 0.01 0.001 Occurred
17 14.5 40 55.3 NaCl 1.87 1.94 1.97 2
18 15.5 50 92.5 KCl 1.85 1.94 1.98 2
60 149.5 70 233.7 K2SO4 2.32 2.70 2.84 3
80 355.1 90 525.8 MgSO4 1.21 1.53 1.82 3
100 760
2. Boiling Point Elevation
Boiling point of solution is always greater than
boiling point of pure solvent.
Formula:
BP soln = BP solvent + ΔBP
ΔBP = i Kb x m

Boiling Point Elevation Constant

Solvent Kb(oC/m) BP(oC)
Acetone 1.72 56.5
Carbon tetrachloride 5.0 76.8
benzene 2.57 80.1
ethanol 1.20 78.4
Ethyl ether 2.11 34.6
Methanol 0.80 64.7
van't Hoff factor, i, ratio of the measured Water 0.52 100
change to the calculated value as non-
electrolyte 3. Freezing Point Lowering
Freezing point of solution is always lower than
Example: i = (ΔT)measured freezing point of solvent.

(ΔT) calculated as a non-electrolyte Formula:

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FP soln = FP solvent - ΔFP

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The easy way to determine, i ΔFP = i Kf x m

• for non- electrolytes, i =1
 Freezing Point Elevation Constant
Solvent Kf(oC/m) FP(oC)
Benzene 5.12 5.5
Camphor 39.7 178
Cyclohexane 20.0 6.5
Phenol 7.27 42
Acetic Acid 3.9 16.7
Water 1.86 0

Problems on Colligative Properties:

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For non- electrolytes:

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 1. What is the boiling point and freezing point
of a solution made by dissolving 20 grams urea,
CO(NH2)2, in 300 grams water to make 318 ml
solution at 25oC?
2. If 5 liters of ethylene glycol, C2 H6 O2, density
= 1.113 g/ml, is placed in an automobile
radiator and diluted with 30 liters of water.
What is the freezing point of solution?
3. The concentration of a solution is 3.0 grams
glucose, C6H12O6, in 200 grams water. What is
the boiling point of the solution? vapor pressure
at 28 oC?
4. The freezing point of camphor is 179.80°C
and it’s Kf is 39.7°C/m. When 200.0 mg of a
compound (X) are added to 100.0 g of camphor,
it’s freezing point drops to 179.29°C. What is
the molar mass of X?
5. A 3.0 g polymer sample is dissolved in
enough benzene to produce 150. mL of
solution. If the solution’s osmotic pressure is
0.0119 atm at 25°C, what is the average MW of
the polymer?

For electrolytes:
1. The van't Hoff factor for the solute in
0.118 m LiCl is 1.89.
a) Calculate the freezing point and boiling point
of the solution.
2. Consider an aqueous 1.00 m of Na3PO4.
a) Calculate the boiling point of this solution on
the assumption that it does not ionize at all in
solution.
b) Do the same calculation assuming that it's
van't Hoff factor reflects 100% dissociation into
ions.
c) The 1.00 m solution boils at 101.183oC at 1
atm. Calculate the van't Hoff factor for this
solute in this solution.
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