Pgtdu assignment Question 5 Installing power factor improvement equipment is advisable in certain

installations for several electrical reasons.

Power factor is a measure of how efficiently electrical power is being used. When the power factor is
low, it means that there is a reactive power component in the system, which leads to inefficiencies in
energy consumption. This can result in increased energy costs, decreased system capacity, and
voltage drops.

By installing power factor improvement equipment, such as capacitors, inductive loads can be offset
and reactive power can be reduced. This helps to improve the power factor, bringing it closer to unity
(1) or as close to 1 as possible.

Improving the power factor has multiple benefits. Firstly, it reduces the overall energy consumption,
resulting in cost savings. Secondly, it increases the system capacity, allowing more electrical
equipment to be connected without overloading the system. Thirdly, it helps to stabilize and
maintain the voltage levels within acceptable limits, preventing voltage drops and fluctuations.

Furthermore, a higher power factor reduces the strain on electrical equipment, such as transformers
and motors, and increases their efficiency and lifespan. It also reduces the demand on the electrical
grid and contributes to overall energy efficiency.

In summary, installing power factor improvement equipment is advisable in certain installations to

optimize energy consumption, increase system capacity, stabilize voltage levels, reduce costs,
improve equipment efficiency, and contribute to energy efficiency.

5b

Certainly! Here are four crucial methods of power factor correction:

1. Capacitor Banks: Capacitor banks are widely used for power factor correction. They consist of a
combination of capacitors that are connected in parallel with the inductive loads. These capacitors
help to offset the reactive power component, thereby improving the power factor.

2. Synchronous Condensers: Synchronous condensers are rotating machines that operate without a
mechanical load. They are connected to the electrical system and provide reactive power support.
By adjusting the excitation of synchronous condensers, the power factor can be controlled and
improved.

3. Static Var Compensators (SVC): SVCs are solid-state devices used for power factor correction.
They utilize power electronics technology to inject capacitive or inductive reactive power into the
system, based on the requirements. SVCs provide fast and accurate control of the power factor.

4. Harmonic Filters: Harmonic filters are used to mitigate the adverse effects of harmonics that can
occur in power systems. Harmonics can distort the waveforms and reduce power factor. Harmonic
filters consist of a combination of resistors, inductors, and capacitors that counteract the harmonic
currents and improve power factor.

These methods of power factor correction play a crucial role in optimizing power factor, reducing
energy consumption, improving equipment efficiency, and maintaining a stable electrical system.
5c
Synchronous condensers are a method of power factor correction used in electrical systems. They
are rotating machines that operate without a mechanical load, designed specifically to provide
reactive power support.

Synchronous condensers are connected to the electrical system and are typically driven by an
electric motor or a turbine. They consist of a rotor and stator, similar to a synchronous generator.
However, unlike a generator, they do not generate electrical power but instead absorb or produce
reactive power.

To improve the power factor, the excitation of synchronous condensers is adjusted. By controlling
the field current, the reactive power output of the synchronous condenser can be varied. When
the condenser operates with an overexcited field, it absorbs reactive power, effectively reducing
the system's power factor. Conversely, when the condenser operates with an underexcited or zero
excitation field, it supplies reactive power and improves the power factor of the system.

Synchronous condensers offer several advantages for power factor correction. They provide
dynamic and continuous control of reactive power, allowing for instantaneous adjustments to
changing load conditions. They also offer high power factor correction capabilities and have a
robust design suitable for industrial applications.

Additionally, synchronous condensers can provide other benefits beyond power factor correction.
They help stabilize and regulate system voltage, enhance transient stability, and improve fault ride-
through capabilities. Furthermore, they can offset the effects of voltage dips and flicker caused by
intermittent renewable energy sources connected to the grid.

In summary, synchronous condensers are an effective method of power factor correction that
provide reactive power support by adjusting their excitation. They contribute to stabilizing voltage
levels, enhancing system stability, and improving overall power quality.

QUESTION 7

In a solar system, the following pieces of equipment serve specific functions:

a) Solar Panel: Solar panels are the primary component of a solar system. They generate electricity
by converting sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity. The solar panels capture photons from
the sun and convert them into electrical energy. They supply the power needed to run electrical
devices or charge batteries.

b) Battery Charge Controller: The battery charge controller is responsible for regulating the
charging process of batteries in the solar system. It helps prevent overcharging or deep discharging
of batteries by controlling the flow of current from the solar panels to the batteries. The charge
controller ensures that the batteries are charged optimally, improving their performance and
prolonging their lifespan.

c) Main Switch: The main switch, also known as the main disconnect switch or main breaker, is a
safety device that can manually disconnect the entire solar system from the electrical grid or load.
It provides a way to isolate the solar system from the electrical supply in case of maintenance,
repairs, or emergencies. It ensures the safety of individuals working on the system and protects
against electrical faults.

d) Distribution Board: The distribution board, sometimes referred to as the breaker panel or
electrical panel, is the central hub for distributing electrical power in a building. In a solar system,
the distribution board receives the power generated by the solar panels or the electrical grid (in
grid-tied systems) and distributes it to various circuits and outlets within the building. It contains
circuit breakers that protect the electrical circuits from overloading and short circuits.

These pieces of equipment work together to harness solar energy, regulate battery charging,
provide safety disconnect capabilities, and distribute electricity within a building. Each component
plays a crucial role in the efficient and safe operation of a solar system.

D) Two types of PV (photovoltaic) systems are:

1. Grid-Tied PV System: A grid-tied PV system, also known as an on-grid or grid-connected system,

is connected to the local electrical grid. It consists of solar panels, an inverter, and sometimes a net
meter. The solar panels generate electricity from sunlight, and the inverter converts the DC
electricity produced by the panels into AC electricity. This AC electricity is then used to power the
electrical loads in the building. Any excess electricity generated by the system is sent back to the
grid, and the owner may receive credits or compensation for the surplus energy. This type of
system is commonly used in areas where the electrical grid is available and allows for the
utilization of both solar power and grid power.

2. Off-Grid PV System: An off-grid PV system, also known as a stand-alone or independent system,

is not connected to the electrical grid. It operates autonomously and relies on a combination of
solar panels and batteries to generate and store electricity. The solar panels capture sunlight and
convert it into DC electricity, which is then stored in batteries for later use. In off-grid systems,
charge controllers and inverters are used to regulate the charging process of the batteries and
convert the DC electricity into AC for use by electrical loads. Off-grid PV systems are commonly
used in remote areas where access to the electrical grid is not feasible or cost-effective. They
provide self-sufficiency in terms of electrical power and are often accompanied by backup
generators to ensure continuous electricity supply, especially during periods of low sunlight or high
energy demand.

E) The design procedure of a photovoltaic (PV) system typically involves several steps to ensure
optimal performance and functionality. Here are four major steps taken in the designing
procedure:

1. Site Assessment: The first step is to conduct a thorough site assessment to gather important
information about the location. This includes evaluating the available solar resource, considering
shading factors (such as nearby buildings or vegetation that may obstruct sunlight), assessing the
structural integrity of the installation site, and calculating the available space for PV panels. Site
assessment helps determine the feasibility of installing a PV system and provides critical data for
system sizing.

2. Load Analysis: The next step involves analyzing the electrical load requirements of the site. This
includes assessing the power consumption of various electrical loads, such as lighting, appliances,
and equipment, as well as understanding their energy usage patterns. Load analysis helps
determine the size of the PV system needed to meet the site's electricity demand and ensures that
the system can adequately supply power to the required loads.
3. System Sizing: Based on the site assessment and load analysis, the next step is to size the PV
system appropriately. This involves determining the number and capacity of PV panels required to
generate enough electricity to meet the site's energy needs. Other components, such as inverters,
charge controllers, and batteries (if applicable), are also sized accordingly. System sizing considers
factors like panel efficiency, orientation, tilt angle, expected solar irradiation, and overall system
performance under different weather conditions.

4. Component Selection and Configuration: Once the system is appropriately sized, the next step is
to select the specific components and configure the system accordingly. This includes choosing PV
panels, inverters, batteries (if required), mounting structures, and electrical wiring based on their
compatibility, reliability, and performance characteristics. The system components need to be
properly configured to ensure efficient electricity generation, conversion, and distribution within
the PV system.

Each of these steps is crucial in designing a PV system that meets the desired energy goals,
considering site-specific conditions, load requirements, and component selection. It ensures the
system's optimal performance, reliability, and long-term sustainability.

QUESTION 8

Sure, here are the definitions of these terms in relation to illumination:

a) Light: Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye. It is the
energy that is emitted by a light source and travels in waves, which can be seen as different colors.
Light is necessary for human vision and is a fundamental component of illumination systems.

b) Luminous Flux: Luminous flux is a measure of the amount of visible light that is emitted by a
light source. It is measured in lumens (lm) and indicates the total amount of light energy that is
emitted in all directions. Luminous flux describes the brightness of the light source, regardless of
the direction in which the light is emitted.

c) Luminous Intensity: Luminous intensity is a measure of the amount of light that is emitted by a
light source in a specific direction. It is measured in candelas (cd) and describes the brightness of
the light source in a given direction. Luminous intensity is an important parameter for directional
lighting, such as in spotlights or streetlights.

d) Illuminance: Illuminance is a measure of the amount of visible light that falls on a surface. It is
measured in lux (lx) and describes the brightness of the surface. Illuminance depends on the
distance between the light source and the surface, the angle of incidence, and the properties of
the surface. Illuminance is an important factor to consider for applications such as lighting design,
photometry, and vision science.

e) Glare: Glare is a visual sensation caused by a high luminance or bright source of light in the field
of view. It can reduce visual comfort, visibility, and performance, especially in situations where the
contrast between the source of light and the surrounding environment is high. Glare is often
categorized as disabling (which interferes with visual performance) or discomforting (which causes
visual discomfort). It can be minimized through proper lighting design, such as by using shielding,
diffusers, or appropriate light sources.