Contextual Investigation Report

The
Metamorphosis
of Brutalism
from Architecture
to Digital Design
in the
Technological
Disruption Age
Author
Nguyen Do Minh Anh
BA Contemporary Creative Practice (CCP)
British University Vietnam (BUV)
Lecturer
Dr. Alex Gaja Ortega
Ha Noi, 5th May 2023
Contextual Investigation Report

Name: Nguyen Do Minh Anh hello

Student number: HAN20090227 :
Module: Industry Investigation
Assignment: Contextual Investigation
Lecturer: Alex Gaja Ortega Lecturer:
Word Count: 3938 words Word count:
Module

This research paper was conducted in the specialist area of Graphic Design as a result of the
three-year Bachelor of Art in Contemporary Creative Practice at the School of Creative
Industries in British University Vietnam . The responsibility for the ideas, deductions, and
outcomes presented in this study lies entirely with the author.
Contextual Investigation Report 3

Table of
Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction 6

1.1 Background and context 6

1.2 Research problem and significance 7
1.3 Research objectives & research questions 8
1.4 Theoretical framework & relevant concepts 9
1.4 Thesis statement 9

Chapter 2. Literature Review 10

2.1 History and evolution of Brutalism in Architecture 10

2.1.1 Origin 10
2.1.2 Philosophy & Characteristics 11
2.2 The Digital Disruption Age and its impact on Graphic design 12
2.3 Brutalism in graphic design and digital media 13
2.4 Reasons for its resurgence in the digital realm
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Chapter 3. Methodology 16

3.1 Research design and approach & Data collection methods

3.2 Sampling strategy and sample size

Chapter 4. Data analysis 19

4.1 Overview of survey responses

4.2 Survey results analysis

Chapter 5. Conclussion 23

Chapter 6. References 25

Chapter 7. Appendices 27
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Chapter 1.
Introduction
1.1 Background and context
The technological disruption age refers to the altering of existing technologies,
products, services caused by technological advancements. The concept was first introduced
in 1995 by Christensen and Bower, insinuating that these advancements will be a game-
changer that creates a new industry and disrupts the existing one (Bower & Christensen,
1995). This has tremendously impact the way we consume and interact with visual media,
which opened the door to the emergence of new forms of media and communication, one
significant example being the “new media” genre (Fidler, 1997). Later on, Manyika et al.
(2013) also how they are changing various aspects of life and business, followed by
Brynjolfsson and McAfee (2014) who discussed how technology is transforming work,
progress, and prosperity, in which they referred to the time period as "The second machine
age." It is undeniable that the technological disruption age along with its advancements. has
fundamentally changed our world, in one way or another.

One specific area where this transformation is particularly evident is in the world of
design, where technology has given rise to new approaches and styles that were previously
unimagined. In the context of Brutalism, technological disruption has led to the adoption of
Brutalist design principles in digital contexts (Crompton, 2018). The term “Brutalism”
originally refers to and is commonly known an architectural movement that emerged in the
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mid-20th century, characterized by rawness, simplicity, and an emphasis on the functional

aspects of architecture. In the digital realm, Brutalism has been adopted as a visual style that
prioritizes simplicity, authenticity, and a lack of hierarchy (Moran, 2017).

1.2 Research gap and significance

However, along with the aforementioned advancements and the developing impacts of
technology, the concept of “Digital Brutalism” has emerged far from the characteristics of its
earlier architectural movement, without rejecting its core philosophy of acting as a reaction to
the mainstream (Moran, 2017). Moran suggested that apart from the features inherited from
its precedent architectural movement, a small part of Brutalism can also be categorized as Anti
Design, which “has different goals and is expressed differently”. There has been multiple
articles and research done regarding the reappearance of Brutalism on Web design, most
representatives being the research on the emergence of Brutalism and Antidesign and how
they have impacted the history of web design by Brager (2019) and the investigation of
Brutalism as a web design trend by Ganci & Ribeiro (2017). Both of these papers described
Brutalism as a trend in web design that emphasizes “rawness, simplicity, and authenticity”.
This trend has been experiencing a notable increase in usage and popularity among web
designers and enthusiasts alike, regardless of its polarizing aesthetic qualities (Brage, 2019).
Eventhough web design is the branch where Brutalist design principles are mostly applied,
other aspects where indications of Brutalism appeared should not be left neglected.

It can be seen that the definition of “Digital Brutalism” is somewhat vague, and many
people mistake it for other design movements such as Minimalism or Anti-design, despite the
dissimilar visual attributes that characterize each of these two movements. Many researches
have gone in depth about the widely known aesthetic of Brutalism, yet few has been able to
also shine a light on the more obscure aspects of it. According to O’Brien, the rapid
proliferation of Brutalist design has led to ambiguity regarding its precise definition (2020). In
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addition to that, there is also a need to break down reasons why this “unadorned and
haphazard” style that Moran (2017) described became a favorable aesthetic.

1.3 Research objectives and research questions

With that being said, this study aims to follow the path not well-worn, focuses on
exploring the metamorphosis of Brutalism from the physical world of Architecture to the digital
platform of Graphic Design while covering every different visual presences of its resurgence,
as well as investigating reasons supporting this lack of visual hierarchy to become a favored
visual style. This research will work as a verbal capture of Brutalism’s multidisciplinary
transformation, contributing to a clearer image of a new concept perceived as “Digital
Brutalism”, as well as clarifying its nomenclature. To proceed with this study, key research
questions were formed:

1. How has the concept of Brutalism evolved from architecture to digital design in the
Age of Technological disruption?
2. What are the main characteristics of Brutalist graphic design in the digital realm and
how does it differ from its precedent architectural movement or other similar design
movements?
3. What are the reasons supporting this lack of visual hierarchy which has allowed it to
resurrect and evolve into a very distinctive graphic style?

1.4 Theoretical framework and relevant concepts

In order to answer the proposed research questions, the study will establish 3
theoretical frameworks as foundation for analyzing:
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The first framework is the concept of design movements and their evolution over time
in adaptation to their surrounding contexts. This provide insights on how the movements
emerge, develop, reject, transform and resurge in response to contemporary culture, society
and technology. By analyzing and comparing characteristics of Brutalism in both architecture
and digital design, as well as its relationship to other design movements, the framework will
aid in defining reasons for its resurgence in the digital realm.

The second framework is the concept of visual hierarchy and its role in design. The
framework will examine the fundamentals of design and user experience, how Brutalism
managed to reject all of that and how such rejection built an unique visual style. By digging
into this contrast, this framework will help reveal the message that it aimed to convey. Case
studies on adaptation of this aesthetic in digital design will be incorporated into Chapter 2 :
Literature Review.

The third framework lies in the discipline of Neuroeasthetics – the study of neural
mechanism underlying aesthetic experience and the perception of beauty (Chatterjee &
Vartanian, 2014). This framework is relevant to the exotic characteristics of Brutalism, in both
architectural and digital, as it helps to elucidate the ways in which this visual style may evoke
certain neural responses in viewers. According to Chatterjee & Vartanian, the “lack of
hierarchy” may tap into viewer’s sense of “novelty” and “surprise”, or evoke a sense of
“freedom” and “autonomy”, which consequently “activate the brain’s reward system. This
indicates that the “ugliness” of Brutalism is also unique in the way it affects viewers. By
relating to the concept of Neuroaesthetics, the study gain a deeper understanding of
Brutalism’s popularity through cognitive perspective.

1.5 Thesis statement

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By examining Brutalism’s history, characteristics, and relevant theoretical frameworks,

thus answering the research questions, the paper ultimately aims to contribute to a better
understanding and definition of this evolving style and its place in contemporary design.

Chapter 2.
Literature Review
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2.1 Brutalism in Architecture

2.1.1 Origin

Brutalism was first introduced as an architecture movement in the 1950s, during the
post World War II era, and rose to prominence in the 1960s as a response to the embellished
and decorative architectural styles that predominated in the previous decades (Banham,
1966, p.16 – p.17, Chapter 1). Amidst the appearance and its rose to fame, Reyner Banham's
book "The New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic?", published in 1966, was the first academic
research on Brutalism, setting the formation basis for others to come, and was influential in
shaping the discourse around Brutalism in the architectural community. In his book, Banhan
discussed how the birth of Brutalism was related to the works of Swiss-French architecture Le
Corbusier, based on his use of “Béton brut” (raw concrete). He was both Brutalism's primary
forerunner, substantial influence, as well as the person behind some of its most iconic
buildings (Brutalist Architecture Movement Overview, n.d.). Nevertheless, the emergence of
this style was unintentional, and even Le Corbusier, its proclaimed progenitor, was not
inclined towards its nomenclature. Despite the iconic status of his works, he was “outraged”
when they are classified “Brutalism”, saying that: “ 'béton brut' was born at the Unité
d'habitation, Marseille, where there were eighty contractors and such a massacre of
concrete that there was no way of imagining how to construct useful relationships through
rendering. I had decided: leave everything 'brut' [raw/unfinished]. I called it 'béton brut.' The
English immediately jumped on the bandwagon and dubbed me 'Brutal'." (Brutalist
Architecture Movement Overview, n.d.). Frampton (1992) later on suggests that the term
"Brutalism" was coined by the British architects Alison and Peter Smithson, who were inspired
by Le Corbusier's works, not Le Corbusier himself (p.312, Chapter 19). It can be seen that this
movement was controversial upon genesis.
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This aligns with Banhan’s argument in 1966 that the movement is not entirely
associated with a specific person or group (p.14). Instead, he traced the origins of Brutalism to
a broader cultural shift in the early 20th century, characterized by a rejection of
ornamentation and a desire for simplicity and honesty in design (p.14). Banham noted that
architects in different parts of the world arrived at similar Brutalist forms and techniques
independently, suggesting that the movement was a product of the times rather than the work
of a specific individual or group (p.15).

Fundamentally, Brutalism surfaced during the aftermath of World War II in opposition

to pre-war modernism's "refinement" and"decorative excess" aesthetic of Art Deco and the
International Style (Frampton, 1992, p.311).

2.1.2 Philosophy & Characteristics

Brutalism's emphasis on authenticity in materials and construction along with its

rejection of ornamentation and decorative excess were not just stylistic choices, but rather,
were informed by a deeper philosophical outlook on architecture. Mould (2018) argues that
brutalist buildings are not just physical objects, but also political ones, as they can represent
power, dominance, and control in the urban landscape (p.3). During the first stage of
existence (1950s to early 1960s), Brutalists structures were recognized for their unpainted
“massive exposed concrete walls” (Frampton, 1992, p.312). They beared “blocky, fortress-like
forms” and were built not to seamlessly intergrate with the environment (Banham, 1966).
Unité d'Habitation by Le Corbusier in 1956 (figure 1) was considered “the first example of
Brutalism in urban planning”. (Brutalist Architecture Movement Overview, n.d.).
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Figure 1. Unité d'Habitation, Briey-en-Forêt, France, 1956 by Le Corbusier (Mazo, photographer). Extracted from
Le Corbusier, Oeuvre complète, volume 6, 1952-1957
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The characteristics of Brutalism have been the subject of extensive research by scholars in the
field of architecture. Consensus among these scholars regarding the defining features of
Brutalist buildings has resulted in a clearly defined visual identity for the style, speaking only in
terms of architecture. In essence, Brutalism was considered “a reaction to a mannered
asymmetrical formalism that was though picturesque”, with the mentioned “formalism” here
being decorative elements of Art Deco (figure 2) and International Style structures (Macarthur,
2000, p.259).
dsk“formalism” here being decorative elements of Art Deco (figure 2) and International Style

structures (Macarthur, 2000, p.259).

Figure 2. Chrysler Building Spire, New York, USA, 1930, designed by William Van Alen, constructed by Walter
Chrystler (Photo by James Maher, 2010)

Odd as it may sound, but Brutalism’s edgy, raw and “unapologetic” characteristics are what
made it iconic. And in common sights of formally decorative and conventional structures,
Brutalism’s exotic beauty is undeniably captivating (fig. 3, fig.4, fig. 5, fig. 6)
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Figure 3. Telecommunication Centre and Central Post Office, Skopje, Macedonia, 1989, by Janko Konstantinov
(Photo by Martyn Jandula/Shutterstock)

Figure 4. Habitat 67, Montreal, France, 1967, by Moshe Safdie (Photo by meuniered/Shutterstock)
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Figure 5. Geisel Library, San Diego, CA, 1970, by William Pereira (Photo by Ryan Kelehar/Shutterstock)

Figure 6. Monument to the Battle of Sutjeska, Tjentište, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1965-71, designed by Miodrag
Živković, (Photo: Valentin Jeck, commissioned by The Museum of Modern Art, New York, 2017)
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2.2 The Digital Disruption Age and its impact on

Graphic design

According to Brynjolfsson & McAfee, the “digital disruption age” is a relatively recent
phenomenom that began in the late 20th century with the advent of Internet and the World
Wide Web (WWW) (2014). Advancements in technology, both hardwares and softwares, had
simplified and expedited the design process and media manipulation for designers. (Kumar,
2021). Gaining accessbility to these advancements has resulted in increasing experimental
and creative values of their works. Over time, designers are constantly presented with an
expanding toolkit of digital resources that push their limits and set forth endless possibilities
for creation. From Artificial Intelligence (AI), Augmented Reality (AR) to Virtual Reality (VR) and
beyond, these emerging technologies represents the latest waves of advancements (How Is
Technology Affecting Design?, 2017).

In an article on car styling, Huyn & Lee stated that through “product appearance
similarity”, “styling strategy “ and “computational design synthesis”, it is possible to uncover
combinations that surpass those discovered by human designers (2018). Despite disciplinary
differences, this notion may also be applicable to the field of Graphic design. In graphic
design, by integrating aesthetics or movements, following or breaking principles, using “styling
strategy” within the framework of new technologies can also lead to the discovery of unique
design combinations that challenge conventional boundaries, as well as expanding the
potential of design exploration.
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2.3 Brutalism in Graphic design and digital media

2.3.1. Origin
The appearance of Brutalism in the digital realm is relatively new, and only dates back
to recent years. It is hard to pinpoint the exact year or person associated to this appearance,
since it is, similar to its architectural root, a reaction towards “the perceived uniformity of web
design” (Moran, 2017). However, in her research on Brutalism specifically in web design,
Brage linked the resurgence of this movement to a project called “Brutalist Websites” (fig.7)
founded in 2014 by Pascal Deville, a Swiss web developer (2018). Brage mentioned that the
style debuted during the early 2010s when a small number of designers decided to adopt a
“raw” and “stripped-down” aesthetic that broke away from the slick and polished look of the
mainstream websites (p.8). O’Brien (2018) and Sheshounova (2023) are also in favor of the
notion, both refering to Deville’s project as “one of the brightest examples of brutalist designs”.
The “Brutalist Websites” project is, as simple as its name, a currated archive of website
phenomenoms categorized Brutalism. The platform soon gained attention in the industry and
therefore, helped popularize the Brutalist aesthetic to a broader community, hence
contributed in forming what is now known as “Digital Brutalism”.

Figure 7.
Monument to the
Brutalist Websites,
2014, Pascal
Deville
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2.3.2. Philosophy & Characteristics

Pascal Deville himself described what was featured on his archive as “ruggedness and
lack of concern to look comfortable or easy (2014). Moran also described Brutalism as “bare-
bones” (2017). Similar to its architectural precursor, the term “reaction” was mentioned
multiple times by different scholars in relation to Brutalism. Given that a reaction inherently
requires a stimulus, it can be inferred that the subject of reaction here are “the lightness,
optimism, and frivolity” of the majority of websites available. (Deville, 2014). Similar to how
Brutalist buildings refuse to blend in with their surroundings, Brutalist websites seeks to differ
itself from the remaining conventional sites. (FAKHRI, 2020)

The core philosophy of Brutalism is that designers want to escape the “stale, cookie-
cutter, premade-template sites that dominate the web”, and make the web “true to itself”,
“honest” and “not contrived” (Moran, 2017). But with Digital Brutalism, different designers may
have difference approaches, hence creating multiple visual directions that may root from the
core philosophy but have different expression and approaches (Moran, 2017). O’Brien called
this as Brutalism’s “split personality” (2020). He claimed that the philosophy has “splintered”,
and that Brutalism has created itself a new identity in the digital realm. When searching and
browsing what is categorized Brutalism online, you might get different indications from
different sources (O’Brien, 2020). He categorized Digital Brutalism into 2 types:

Type 1: L’INTERNET BRUT

Similar to Moran’s description (2017), this type of Brutalism features “naked HTML
site” (fig. 8), bearing more similarities with its architectural roots.Its honest quality is what also
causes some confusion between itself and Minimalism.
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Figure 8. NN Website, 2000

Type 2: L’INTERNET FOU

O’Brien believes that this is the “split personality” of Brutalism, which was born
on its way transforming into the digital realm. What differs it from Type 1 is that the focus has
now shifted onto being more “brutal”. Again, this “brutalness” is somewhat clashing towards
Anti-design as well. This observation was recorded by O’Brien in 2020, while in 2017, Moran
was still in favor of the fact that this style of Brutalism was classified as “Anti-design”. It can be
seen that over the course of three years, Digital Brutalism has undergone various
transformations that have paved the way for further changes in the future. Supporting
Contextual Investigation Report 20

O’Brien’s notion, a recent article by Readymag (2023) also gave detailed visual examples of
the Brutalism phenomenom (fig. 9, fig.10). They called it the “new ugly”, explaining its visual
evolution and how it adapted in contemporary context.

Figure 9. ReadyMag. (2023). Optical Selection Website. In Web Brutalism: The Rough Edge of Digital Design.

Figure 10. ReadyMag. (2023). KULTRAB Website. In Web Brutalism: The Rough Edge of Digital Design.
Contextual Investigation Report 21

2.4. Reasons for its resurgence in the digital realm

Kelleher (2018) discussed an exotic point of view in her article: Ugliness is Underrated:
Indefense of Ugly Paintings. The article suggested 3 main reasons behind this favor of
“ugliness” and the impact it has on our brain:

Firstly, the human brain has a natural inclination towards novelty and surprise. Brutalist
designs, with their rough edges, raw textures, and lack of visual hierarchy, can provide a jarring
and unexpected visual experience that captures our attention and stands out from more
traditional and predictable designs. This novelty-seeking behavior is rooted in the brain's
reward system, which releases dopamine in response to novel stimuli. (Kelleher, 2018)

Secondly, Brutalism's lack of visual hierarchy can create a sense of egalitarianism and
authenticity, which can be appealing to many people. In a world where slick, polished designs
are ubiquitous, Brutalist designs can offer a refreshing counterpoint by embracing
imperfection and rawness. This can create a sense of honesty and authenticity, which can be
emotionally compelling. (Kelleher, 2018)

Finally, Brutalism's raw and unadorned aesthetic can tap into our evolutionary
preferences for natural environments. The brain has evolved over millions of years to find
natural environments, such as forests and rivers, aesthetically pleasing. Brutalism's rough,
unpolished textures and materials can evoke a similar sense of raw, natural beauty, which can
be appealing to many people. (Kelleher, 2018)
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Chapter 3.
Methodology
3.1. Research design & Data collection method
Apart from the case studies incorporated in Chapter 2: Literature Review, to achieve
the research objectives and answer the research questions outlined in section 1.3, the study
will also use survey to allow for triangulation of data.

3.2. Sampling strategy and sample size

For this study, participants were selected through convenience sampling. The survey
was distributed to the researcher's followers on Instagram who were likely to be both art
practioners and non-art practitioners. The sample size was determined based on the available
number of respondents within the target population.
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Chapter 4.
Data Analysis
4.1. Overview of survey responses
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4.2. Survey results analysis

• Among the 56,41% art practitioners, 57,26% of them had formal education in the fields
of art and design, while 42,74% of them don't

• More than half of the participants were art practitioners, and among them, more than
half had formal education in art and design.
Contextual Investigation Report 29

• Half of the participants had heard of Brutalism, and the majority of the half were Art
practitoners proving its popularity in the creative industry. However most of them are
not familiar with its principles and characteristics.

• A significant percentage has never heard of Brutalism, proving a lack of awareness.

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In summary, the aforementioned observations imply that Digital Brutalism is a niche

style in the broader design community. However, based on the amount of interest shown by
participants, we can see a potential for further development and application in digital contexts.
Moreover, the results emphasizes the importance of education and awareness-raising
regarding the nomenclature and principles of design.
Contextual Investigation Report 35

Chapter 5.
Conclussion
In conclusion, the era of technological disruption has brought about significant changes to the world of
design. This transformation has led to the emergence of new forms and styles that were
previously unimaginable, significantly being the main subject of this essay – Brutalism. The concept of
Brutalism in the digital realm has expanded further than expected, without rejecting its core philosopy
of acting as a reaction to the mainstream. The essay has not been able to investigate its full story, but
will work as a formation basis for further development in the future.
Contextual Investigation Report 36

Chapter 6.
Reference List
1. Banham, R. (1966). The New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic? New York: Reinhold
Publishing Corporation.

2. Bower, & Christensen. (1995, January 1). Disruptive Technologies: Catching

the Wave. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved May 1, 2023, from
https://hbr.org/1995/01/disruptive-technologies-catching-the-wave

3. Brage, E. (2019). The rise of Brutalism and Antidesign : And their implications
on web design history.

4. Brynjolfsson, E., & McAfee, A. (2014). The Second Machine Age: Work,
Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies. W. W. Norton &
Company

5. Chang, Yu-Shan & Chien, Yu-Hung & Lin, Hung-Chang & Chen, Mavis &
Hsieh, Hui-Hsien. (2016). Effects of 3D CAD applications on the design
creativity of students with different representational abilities. Computers in
Human Behavior. 65. 107-113. 10.1016/j.chb.2016.08.024.

6. Chatterjee, & Vartanian. (2014, July 1). Neuroaesthetics - PubMed. PubMed.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2014.03.003
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7. Deville, P. (2014). Brutalist Websites. Retrieved May 5, 2023, from

https://brutalistwebsites.com.

8. Fondation Le Corbusier. (n.d.). Unité d'Habitation, Marseille (France), 1952

[Photograph]. Morpheus: The Digital Library.
http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/corbuweb/morpheus.aspx?sysId=13
&IrisObjectId=5228&sysLanguage=en-
en&itemPos=56&itemCount=78&sysParentId=64&sysParentName=ho
me

9. Ganci, A., & Ribeiro, B. (2017, March 1). On Web Brutalism and Contemporary
Web Design. On Web Brutalism and Contemporary Web Design.
https://doi.org/10.3998/dialectic.14932326.0001.107

10. How is Technology affecting Design? (2017, March 6). Love That Design.
Retrieved May 4, 2023, from
https://www.lovethatdesign.com/article/technology-affecting-design/

11. Hyun, & Lee. (2018). Balancing homogeneity and heterogeneity in design
exploration by synthesizing novel design alternatives based on genetic
algorithm and strategic styling decision. Advanced Engineering Informatics,
38, 113–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aei.2018.06.005

12. Jandula, Martyn. "Telecommunication Centre and Central Post Office by Janko
Konstantinov. 1989, Skopje, Macedonia." Photograph. My Modern Met, 16 Mar.
2021, https://mymodernmet.com/brutalist-architecture/.

13. Kumar. (2021, May 8). How Technology Can Ease Your Design Work.
StartupTalky. Retrieved May 4, 2023, from
https://startuptalky.com/technology-ease-design-work/

14. Macarthur, John. (2000). Brutalism, ugliness and the picturesque object.
Contextual Investigation Report 38

15. Maher, James. "Chrysler Building." James Maher Photography, 2019,

https://jamesmaherphotography.com/new-york-historical-
articles/chrysler-building/.

16. Manyika, J., Chui, M., Brown, B., Bughin, J., Dobbs, R., Roxburgh, C., & Byers, A.
H. (2013). Disruptive technologies: Advances that will transform life, business,
and the global economy. McKinsey Global Institute.

17. McQuivey, J. (2013, February 26). Digital Disruption: Unleashing the Next
Wave of Innovation.

18. McQuivey, J. (2013, February 26). Digital Disruption: Unleashing the Next
Wave of Innovation.

19. Moran. (2017, November 5). Brutalism and Antidesign. Nielsen Norman Group.
Retrieved May 4, 2023, from https://www.nngroup.com/articles/brutalism-
antidesign/

20. Mould, O. (2018). Brutalism Redux: Relational Monumentality and the Urban
Politics of Brutalist Architecture. Antipode, 50(4), 1149-1168.
https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12306

21. O’Brien. (2020, January 8). The Split Personality Of Brutalist Web
Development — Smashing Magazine. Smashing Magazine. Retrieved May 5,
2023, from https://www.smashingmagazine.com/2020/01/split-personality-
brutalist-web-development/

22. Sheshounova. (2023, April 18). Designers define web Brutalism and explain its
rise. Readymag Blog. Retrieved May 5, 2023, from
https://blog.readymag.com/web-brutalism/
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23. Živković, M. (1965-71). Monument to the Battle of Sutjeska, Tjentište, Bosnia

and Herzegovina [Photograph by V. Jeck]. (2017). The Museum of Modern Art,
New York.Retrieved from https://www.archdaily.com/887548/moma-to-
explore-spomenik-monuments-with-toward-a-concrete-utopia-
architecture-in-yugoslavia-1948-nil-
1980/5a66531bf197cc69010001a1-moma-to-explore-spomenik-
monuments-with-toward-a-concrete-utopia-architecture-in-
yugoslavia-1948-nil-1980-image