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Index of Applications
BIOLOGY AND LIFE SCIENCES Petroleum production, 292 MATHEMATICS AND GEOMETRY
Age distribution vector, 378, 391, 392, 395 Profit, from crops, 50 Adjoint of a matrix, 134, 135, 142, 146, 150
Age progression software, 180 Purchase of a product, 91 Collinear points in the xy-plane, 139, 143
Age transition matrix, 378, 391, 392, 395 Revenue Conic section(s), 226, 229
Agriculture, 37, 50 fast-food stand, 242 general equation, 141
Cosmetic surgery results simulation, 180 General Dynamics Corporation, 266, 276 rotation of axes, 221–224, 226, 229,
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 365 Google, Inc., 291 383–385, 392, 395
Galloping speeds of animals, 276 telecommunications company, 242 Constrained optimization, 389, 390, 392,
Genetics, 365 software publishers, 143 395
Health care expenditures, 146 Sales, 37 Contraction in R2, 337, 341, 342
Heart rhythm analysis, 255 concession area, 42 Coplanar points in space, 140, 143
Hemophilia A, 365 stocks, 92 Cramer’s Rule, 130, 136, 137, 142, 143, 146
Hereditary baldness, 365 Wal-Mart, 32 Cross product of two vectors, 277–280,
Nutrition, 11 Sales promotion, 106 288, 289, 294
Population Satellite television service, 85, 86, 147 Differential equation(s)
Software publishing, 143 linear, 218, 225, 226, 229
of deer, 37
second order, 164
of laboratory mice, 91
system of first order, 354, 380, 381,
of rabbits, 379 ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY 391, 392, 395, 396, 398
of sharks, 396
Aircraft design, 79 Expansion in R2, 337, 341, 342, 345
of small fish, 396
Circuit design, 322 Fibonacci sequence, 396
Population age and growth over time, 331
Computer graphics, 338 Fourier approximation(s), 285–287, 289, 292
Population genetics, 365
Computer monitors, 190 Geometry of linear transformations in R2,
Population growth, 378, 379, 391, 392, 336–338, 341, 342, 345
Control system, 314
395, 396, 398 Hessian matrix, 375
Controllability matrix, 314
Predator-prey relationship, 396 Jacobian, 145
Cryptography, 94–96, 102, 107
Red-green color blindness, 365 Lagrange multiplier, 34
Data encryption, 94
Reproduction rates of deer, 103 Laplace transform, 130
Decoding a message, 96, 102, 107
Sex-linked inheritance, 365 Least squares approximation(s), 281–284, 289
Digital signal processing, 172
Spread of a virus, 91, 93 linear, 282, 289, 292
Electrical network analysis, 30, 31, 34, 37,
Vitamin C content, 11 quadratic, 283, 289, 292
150
Wound healing simulation, 180 Linear programming, 47
Electronic equipment, 190
X-linked inheritance, 365 Magnification in R2, 341, 342
Encoding a message, 95, 102, 107
Encryption key, 94 Mathematical modeling, 273, 274, 276
BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS Parabola passing through three points, 150
Engineering and control, 130
Partial fraction decomposition, 34, 37
Airplane allocation, 91 Error checking
Polynomial curve fitting, 25–28, 32, 34, 37
Borrowing money, 23 digit, 200
Quadratic form(s), 382–388, 392, 395, 398
Demand, for a rechargeable power drill, 103 matrix, 200
Quadric surface, rotation of, 388, 392
Demand matrix, external, 98 Feed horn, 223
Reflection in R2, 336, 341, 342, 345, 346
Economic system, 97, 98 Global Positioning System, 16
Relative maxima and minima, 375
of a small community, 103 Google’s Page Rank algorithm, 86 Rotation
Finance, 23 Image morphing and warping, 180 in R2, 303, 343, 393, 397
Fundraising, 92 Information retrieval, 58 in R3, 339, 340, 342, 345
Gasoline sales, 105 Internet search engine, 58 Second Partials Test for relative extrema, 375
Industrial system, 102, 107 Ladder network, 322 Shear in R2, 337, 338, 341, 342, 345
Input-output matrix, 97 Locating lost vessels at sea, 16 Taylor polynomial of degree 1, 282
Leontief input-output model(s), 97, 98, 103 Movie special effects, 180 Three-point form of the equation of a plane,
Major League Baseball salaries, 107 Network analysis, 29–34, 37 141, 143, 146
Manufacturing Radar, 172 Translation in R2, 308, 343
labor and material costs, 105 Sampling, 172 Triple scalar product, 288
models and prices, 150 Satellite dish, 223 Two-point form of the equation of a line,
production levels, 51, 105 Smart phones, 190 139, 143, 146, 150
Net profit, Microsoft, 32 Televisions, 190 Unit circle, 253
Output matrix, 98 Wireless communications, 172 Wronskian, 219, 225, 226, 229
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PHYSICAL SCIENCES Newton’s Second Law of Motion, 164 Smokers and nonsmokers, 91
Acoustical noise levels, 28 Ohm’s Law, 322 Sports
Airplane speed, 11 Pendulum, 225 activities, 91
Area Planetary periods, 27, 274 Super Bowl I, 36
of a parallelogram using cross product, Primary additive colors, 190 Television watching, 91
279, 280, 288, 294 RGB color model, 190 Test scores, 108
of a triangle Stiffness matrix, 64, 72
using cross product, 289 Temperature, 34
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
using determinants, 138, 142, 146, Torque, 277
Traffic flow, 28, 33 Canonical regression analysis, 304
150 Least squares regression
Astronomy, 27, 274 Undamped system, 164
Unit cell, 213 analysis, 99–101, 103, 107, 265, 271–276
Balancing a chemical equation, 4 cubic polynomial, 276
Beam deflection, 64, 72 end-centered monoclinic, 213
Vertical motion, 37 line, 100, 103, 107, 271, 274, 276, 296
Chemical quadratic polynomial, 273, 276
changing state, 91 Volume
of a parallelepiped, 288, 289, 292 Leslie matrix, 331, 378
mixture, 37 Markov chain, 85, 86, 92, 93, 106
reaction, 4 of a tetrahedron, 114, 140, 143
Water flow, 33 absorbing, 89, 90, 92, 93, 106
Comet landing, 141 Multiple regression analysis, 304
Computational fluid dynamics, 79 Wind energy consumption, 103
Work, 248 Multivariate statistics, 304
Crystallography, 213 State matrix, 85, 106, 147, 331
Degree of freedom, 164 Steady state probability vector, 386
Diffusion, 354 Stochastic matrices, 84–86, 91–93, 106, 331
SOCIAL SCIENCES AND
Dynamical systems, 396
Earthquake monitoring, 16 DEMOGRAPHICS
Electric and magnetic flux, 240 Caribbean Cruise, 106 MISCELLANEOUS
Flexibility matrix, 64, 72 Cellular phone subscribers, 107 Architecture, 388
Force Consumer preference model, 85, 86, 92, 147 Catedral Metropolitana Nossa Senhora
matrix, 72 Final grades, 105 Aparecida, 388
to pull an object up a ramp, 157 Grade distribution, 92 Chess tournament, 93
Geophysics, 172 Master’s degrees awarded, 276 Classified documents, 106
Grayscale, 190 Politics, voting apportionment, 51 Determining directions, 16
Hooke’s Law, 64 Population Dominoes, A2
Kepler’s First Law of Planetary Motion, 141 of consumers, 91 Flight crew scheduling, 47
Kirchhoff’s Laws, 30, 322 regions of the United States, 51 Sudoku, 120
Lattice of a crystal, 213 of smokers and nonsmokers, 91 Tips, 23
Mass-spring system, 164, 167 United States, 32 U.S. Postal Service, 200
Mean distance from the sun, 27, 274 world, 273 ZIP + 4 barcode, 200
Natural frequency, 164 Population migration, 106
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Elementary Linear Algebra
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Elementary Linear Algebra
8e
Ron Larson
The Pennsylvania State University
The Behrend College
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Elementary Linear Algebra © 2017, 2013, 2009 Cengage Learning
Eighth Edition
WCN: 02-200-203
Ron Larson
Product Director: Terry Boyle ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by
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Student Edition
ISBN: 978-1-305-65800-4
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ISBN: 978-1-305-95320-8
Cengage Learning
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Boston, MA 02210
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Contents
2 Matrices 39
2.1 Operations with Matrices 40
2.2 Properties of Matrix Operations 52
2.3 The Inverse of a Matrix 62
2.4 Elementary Matrices 74
2.5 Markov Chains 84
2.6 More Applications of Matrix Operations 94
Review Exercises 104
Project 1 Exploring Matrix Multiplication 108
Project 2 Nilpotent Matrices 108
3 Determinants 109
3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix 110
3.2 Determinants and Elementary Operations 118
3.3 Properties of Determinants 126
3.4 Applications of Determinants 134
Review Exercises 144
Project 1 Stochastic Matrices 147
Project 2 The Cayley-Hamilton Theorem 147
Cumulative Test for Chapters 1–3 149
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vi Contents
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Contents vii
Appendix A1
Mathematical Induction and Other Forms of Proofs
Technology Guide*
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Preface
Welcome to Elementary Linear Algebra, Eighth Edition. I am proud to present to you this new edition. As with
all editions, I have been able to incorporate many useful comments from you, our user. And while much has
changed in this revision, you will still find what you expect—a pedagogically sound, mathematically precise, and
comprehensive textbook. Additionally, I am pleased and excited to offer you something brand new— a companion
website at LarsonLinearAlgebra.com. My goal for every edition of this textbook is to provide students with the
tools that they need to master linear algebra. I hope you find that the changes in this edition, together with
LarsonLinearAlgebra.com, will help accomplish just that.
true or False? In Exercises 85 and 86, determine 94. Use the result of Exercise 93 to find W⊥ when W is the
whether each statement is true or false. If a statement span of (1, 2, 3) in V = R3.
is true, give a reason or cite an appropriate statement 95. guided Proof Let 〈u, v〉 be the Euclidean inner
from the text. If a statement is false, provide an example product on Rn. Use the fact that 〈u, v〉 = uTv to prove
that shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite an that for any n × n matrix A,
appropriate statement from the text.
(a) 〈ATAu, v〉 = 〈u, Av〉
85. (a) The dot product is the only inner product that can be
and
defined in Rn.
(b) 〈ATAu, u〉 = Au2.
(b) A nonzero vector in an inner product can have a
norm of zero. Getting Started: To prove (a) and (b), make use of both
86. (a) The norm of the vector u is the angle between u and
the positive x-axis.
the properties of transposes (Theorem 2.6) and the
properties of the dot product (Theorem 5.3). REVISED Exercise Sets
(b) The angle θ between a vector v and the projection
of u onto v is obtuse when the scalar a < 0 and
(i) To prove part (a), make repeated use of the property
〈u, v〉 = uTv and Property 4 of Theorem 2.6. The exercise sets have been carefully and extensively
acute when a > 0, where av = projvu. (ii) To prove part (b), make use of the property
〈u, v〉 = uTv, Property 4 of Theorem 2.6, and examined to ensure they are rigorous, relevant, and
87. Let u = (4, 2) and v = (2, −2) be vectors in R2 with Property 4 of Theorem 5.3.
the inner product 〈u, v〉 = u1v1 + 2u2v2. cover all the topics necessary to understand the
(a) Show that u and v are orthogonal.
(b) Sketch u and v. Are they orthogonal in the Euclidean
96. CAPSTONE
(a) Explain how to determine whether a function
fundamentals of linear algebra. The exercises are
sense?
88. Proof Prove that
defines an inner product.
(b) Let u and v be vectors in an inner product space V,
ordered and titled so you can see the connections
u + v2 + u − v2 = 2u2 + 2v2
for any vectors u and v in an inner product space V.
such that v ≠ 0. Explain how to find the orthogonal
projection of u onto v.
between examples and exercises. Many new skill-
89. Proof Prove that the function is an inner product on Rn.
〈u, v〉 = c1u1v1 + c2u2v2 + . . . + cnunvn, ci > 0
building, challenging, and application exercises have
Finding Inner Product Weights In Exercises 97–100,
90. Proof Let u and v be nonzero vectors in an inner
product space V. Prove that u − projvu is orthogonal
find c1 and c2 for the inner product of R2, been added. As in earlier editions, the following
〈u, v〉 = c1u1v1 + c2u2v2
to v.
91. Proof Prove Property 2 of Theorem 5.7: If u, v,
such that the graph represents a unit circle as shown. pedagogically-proven types of exercises are included.
97. y 98. y
and w are vectors in an inner product space V, then
• True or False Exercises
3 4
〈u + v, w〉 = 〈u, w〉 + 〈v, w〉.
2
92. Proof Prove Property 3 of Theorem 5.7: If u and v ||u|| = 1 ||u|| = 1
1
Proofs
are vectors in an inner product space V and c is any real
number, then 〈u, cv〉 = c〈u, v〉. −3 − 2 2 3
x
−3 −1 1 3
x
•
93. guided Proof Let W be a subspace of the inner −2
y 100.
−4
y
• Guided Proofs
Writing Exercises
5 6
is a subspace of V.
Getting Started: To prove that W⊥ is a subspace of ||u|| = 1
4
||u|| = 1
•
V, you must show that W⊥ is nonempty and that the 1
ix
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
x Preface
Trusted Features
Data Encryption (p. 94)
®
For the past several years, an independent website—
CalcChat.com—has provided free solutions to all
odd-numbered problems in the text. Thousands of
students have visited the site for practice and help Beam Deflection (p. 64)
theoreM 2.7 Uniqueness of an inverse Matrix Presented in clear and mathematically precise
If A is an invertible matrix, then its inverse is unique. The inverse of A is
denoted by A−1. language, all theorems, definitions, and properties
proof are highlighted for emphasis and easy reference.
If A is invertible, then it has at least one inverse B such that
AB = I = BA.
Assume that A has another inverse C such that Proofs in Outline Form
AC = I = CA.
In addition to proofs in the exercises, some
Demonstrate that B and C are equal, as shown on the next page.
proofs are presented in outline form. This omits
the need for burdensome calculations.
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
[ ]
1 0 . . . 0 c11 c12 . . . c1n
0 1 . . . 0 c21 c22 . . . c2n
.
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 0 . . . 1 cn1 cn2 . . . cnn
3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix By 113
the lemma following Theorem 4.20, however, the right-hand side of this matrix
is Q = P−1, which implies that the matrix has the form [I P−1], which proves the Preface xi
theorem.
Theorem 3.1 expansion by Cofactors
2.
[of
B′ aBmatrix
]. of order 4 [I3 P−1]. S = {v , v , v } =
1
,
1
,0 , − , {(
√2 √2 2√2
,
2 2 1
, ,− , )( ) (3 )}
Technology Guide at CengageBrain.com.
1 2 3
√2 √2 6 6 3 3 3
Make a conjecture
[ ] [ ]
Find the determinant of 1 0 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 −1 4 2
about the necessity of SOlutiOn
0 −1 3 0 1 0 0 1 0 3 −7 −3
[ ]
1 −2 3 0 using Gauss-Jordan First show that the three vectors are mutually orthogonal.
1 2 −5 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 −2 −1
−1 1 0 2 elimination to obtain 1 1
A= . v1 ∙ v2 = −that
From this, you can conclude + +transition
0=0
0 2 0 3
the transition matrix 6 the
6 matrix from B to B′ is
P −1 when the change 2 2
[ ]
3 4 0 −2 −1 v14∙ v3 =2 − +0=0
of basis is from a z
∣ ∣
determinant of the resulting matrix. So, S is an orthonormal set. The three vectors do not lie in the same plane (see Figure
called a lattice. The simplest repeating unit in a lattice is a
software programs can 3
−1 1 2
Figure 5.11
applied5.11), so you know that they span R . By Theorem 4.12, they form a (nonstandard)
unitbasis
orthonormal cell.for
Crystallographers
R3. can use bases and coordinate
find the determinant of
matrices in R3 to designate the locations of atoms in a
a square matrix. If you use C13 = (−1) 1+3
0 2 3 Delete 1st row and 3rd column.
unit cell. For example, the figure below shows the unit
a graphing utility, then you may −2
∣ ∣
3 4 an Orthonormal
cell known as end-centered Basis for P3
monoclinic.
see something similar to the
screen below for Example 4. −1 1 2 In P3 , with the inner product
The Technology guide at = 0 2 3 Simplify. 〈 p, q〉 = a0b0 + a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
CengageBrain.com can help 3 4 −2
you use technology to find a the standard basis B = { 1, x, x2, x3 } is orthonormal. The verification of this is left as an
exercise. (See Exercise 17.)
determinant. Expanding by cofactors in the second row yields
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
A
1 2 −1 2 −1 1 One possible coordinate matrix for the top end-centered
Time-frequency analysis of irregular physiological signals,
[[1 -2 3 0 ] C13 = (0)(−1)2+1 + (2)(−1)2+2 + (3)(−1)2+3 linear is [xas
(blue) atom such = [12 12 1]cardiac
]B′ beat-to-beat
T
.
[-1 1 0 2 ] 4 −2 3 −2 3 4 rhythm variations (also known
algeBra as heart rate variability or HRV), canBrazhnykov
[0 2 0 3 ] be difficult. This is
Andriy/Shutterstock.com
[3 4 0 -2]] = 0 + 2(1)(−4) + 3(−1)(−7) applied because the structure of a signal can include multiple
det A periodic, nonperiodic, and pseudo-periodic components.
= 13. Researchers have proposed and validated a simplified HRV
39
analysis method called orthonormal-basis partitioning and
You obtain time-frequency representation (OPTR). This method can
detect both abrupt and slow changes in the HRV signal’s
∣A∣ = 3(13) 9781305658004_0407.indd 213
structure, divide a nonstationary HRV signal into segments
8/18/15 11:58 AM
= 39. that are “less nonstationary,” and determine patterns in the
HRV. The researchers found that although it had poor time
resolution with signals that changed gradually, the OPTR
method accurately represented multicomponent and abrupt
changes in both real-life and simulated HRV signals.
(Source: Orthonormal-Basis Partitioning and Time-Frequency
Representation of Cardiac Rhythm Dynamics, Aysin, Benhur, et al,
IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 52, no. 5)
108 Chapter 2 Matrices Sebastian Kaulitzki/Shutterstock.com
2
9781305658004_0301.indd 113
Projects
8/18/15 2:14 PM
2 Nilpotent Matrices
Capstone Exercises
Let A be a nonzero square matrix. Is it possible that a positive integer k exists such
that Ak = O? For example, find A3 for the matrix
The Capstone is a conceptual problem that synthesizes
key topics to check students’ understanding of the
[ ]
0 1 2
A= 0 0 1 .
0 0 0 section concepts. I recommend it.
A square matrix A is nilpotent of index k when A ≠ O, A2 ≠ O, . . . , Ak−1 ≠ O,
but Ak = O. In this project you will explore nilpotent matrices.
1. The matrix in the example above is nilpotent. What is its index?
2. Use a software program or a graphing utility to determine which matrices below
are nilpotent and find their indices.
Chapter Projects
(a)
0
0 [ 1
0 ] (b)
0
1[ 1
0 ] (c)
0
1
0
0 [ ] Two per chapter, these offer the opportunity for group
activities or more extensive homework assignments,
[ ] [ ]
0 0 1 0 0 0
[ ]
1 0
(d) (e) 0 0 0 (f) 1 0 0
1 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 and are focused on theoretical concepts or applications.
3. Find 3 × 3 nilpotent matrices of indices 2 and 3.
4. Find 4 × 4 nilpotent matrices of indices 2, 3, and 4. Many encourage the use of technology.
5. Find a nilpotent matrix of index 5.
6. Are nilpotent matrices invertible? Prove your answer.
7. When A is nilpotent, what can you say about AT? Prove your answer.
8. Show that if A is nilpotent, then I − A is invertible.
Supri Suharjoto/Shutterstock.com
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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Instructor Resources
Media
Instructor’s Solutions Manual
The Instructor’s Solutions Manual provides worked-out solutions for all even-numbered
exercises in the text.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero (ISBN: 978-1-305-65806-6)
is a flexible, online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank
content, create multiple test versions in an instant, and deliver tests from your LMS,
your classroom, or wherever you want. This is available online at cengage.com/login.
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xii
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Student Resources
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Cumulative Test problems.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the many people who have helped me during various stages
of writing this new edition. In particular, I appreciate the feedback from the dozens
of instructors who took part in a detailed survey about how they teach linear algebra.
I also appreciate the efforts of the following colleagues who have provided valuable
suggestions throughout the life of this text:
xiv
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1 Systems of Linear
Equations
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations
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2 Chapter 1 Systems of Linear Equations
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1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 3
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4 Chapter 1 Systems of Linear Equations
DI S C O VERY
1. Graph the two lines
3x − y = 1
2x − y = 0
3x − y = 1 3x − y = 1
and
3x − y = 0 6x − 2y = 2.
3. What basic types of solution sets are possible for a system of two
linear equations in two variables?
See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com for an interactive version of this type of exercise.
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1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 5
solution
his system has exactly one solution, x = 1 and y = 2. One way to obtain
a. T
the solution is to add the two equations to give 2x = 2, which implies x = 1
and so y = 2. The graph of this system is two intersecting lines, as shown in
Figure 1.1(a).
b. T
his system has infinitely many solutions because the second equation is the result
of multiplying both sides of the first equation by 2. A parametric representation of
the solution set is
x = 3 − t, y = t, t is any real number.
The graph of this system is two coincident lines, as shown in Figure 1.1(b).
c. T
his system has no solution because the sum of two numbers cannot be 3 and 1
simultaneously. The graph of this system is two parallel lines, as shown in
Figure 1.1(c).
y y y
4 3 3
3 2
2
2 1
1
1 x
−1 1 2 3
x x −1
−1 1 2 3 1 2 3
Example 4 illustrates the three basic types of solution sets that are possible for a
system of linear equations. This result is stated here without proof. (The proof is
provided later in Theorem 2.5.)
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6 Chapter 1 Systems of Linear Equations
The term back-substitution implies that you work backwards. For instance,
in Example 5, the second equation gives you the value of y. Then you substitute
that value into the first equation to solve for x. Example 6 further demonstrates this
procedure.
solution
From Equation 3, you know the value of z. To solve for y, substitute z = 2 into
Equation 2 to obtain
y + 3(2) = 5 Substitute 2 for z.
y = −1. Solve for y.
Two systems of linear equations are equivalent when they have the same solution
set. To solve a system that is not in row-echelon form, first rewrite it as an equivalent
system that is in row-echelon form using the operations listed on the next page.
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1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 7
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8 Chapter 1 Systems of Linear Equations
An Inconsistent System
solution
x1 − 3x2 + x3 = 1 Adding −2 times the first
5x2 − 4x3 = 0 equation to the second equation
produces a new second equation.
x1 + 2x2 − 3x3 = −1
x1 − 3x2 + x3 = 1 Adding −1 times the first
5x2 − 4x3 = 0 equation to the third equation
5x2 − 4x3 = −2 produces a new third equation.
(Another way of describing this operation is to say that you subtracted the first
equation from the third equation to produce a new third equation.)
x1 − 3x2 + x3 = 1 Subtracting the second equation
5x2 − 4x3 = 0 from the third equation produces
0 = −2 a new third equation.
The statement 0 = −2 is false, so this system has no solution. Moreover, this system
is equivalent to the original system, so the original system also has no solution.
x1 x2
2x1 − x2 − 2x3 = 2
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1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 9
This section ends with an example of a system of linear equations that has infinitely
many solutions. You can represent the solution set for such a system in parametric
form, as you did in Examples 2 and 3.
SoLutIon
Begin by rewriting the system in row-echelon form, as shown below.
x1 − 3x3 = −1 Interchange the first
x2 − x3 = 0 two equations.
−x1 + 3x2 = 1
x1 − 3x3 = −1 Adding the first equation to the
x2 − x3 = 0 third equation produces a new
3x2 − 3x3 = 0 third equation.
The third equation is unnecessary, so omit it to obtain the system shown below.
x1 − 3x3 = −1
x2 − x3 = 0
To represent the solutions, choose x3 to be the free variable and represent it by the
parameter t. Because x2 = x3 and x1 = 3x3 − 1, you can describe the solution set as
x1 = 3t − 1, x2 = t, x3 = t, t is any real number.
D ISCO VERY
1. Graph the two lines represented by the system of equations.
x − 2y = 1
−2x + 3y = −3
x − 2y = 1
−1y = −1
x − 2y = 1
rEmarK y=1
You are asked to repeat this
x=3
graphical analysis for other
y=1
systems in Exercises 91
and 92. Graph the system of equations you obtain at each step of this
process. What do you observe about the lines?
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10 Chapter 1 Systems of Linear Equations
Linear Equations In Exercises 1–6, determine whether Graphical Analysis In Exercises 31–36, complete parts
the equation is linear in the variables x and y. (a)–(e) for the system of equations.
1. 2x − 3y = 4 2. 3x − 4xy = 0 (a) Use a graphing utility to graph the system.
3 2 (b) Use the graph to determine whether the system is
3. + − 1 = 0 4. x 2 + y2 = 4
y x consistent or inconsistent.
5. 2 sin x − y = 14 6. (cos 3)x + y = −16 (c) If the system is consistent, approximate the solution.
(d) Solve the system algebraically.
Parametric Representation In Exercises 7–10, find (e) Compare the solution in part (d) with the
a parametric representation of the solution set of the approximation in part (c). What can you conclude?
linear equation.
7. 2x − 4y = 0 8. 3x − 12 y = 9 31. −3x − y = 3 32. 4x − 5y = 3
6x + 2y = 1 −8x + 10y = 14
9. x + y + z = 1
33. 2x − 8y = 3 34. 9x − 4y = 5
10. 12x1 + 24x2 − 36x3 = 12 1 1 1
2x + y = 0 2x + 3 y = 0
Graphical Analysis In Exercises 11–24, graph the 35. 4x − 8y = 9 36. −14.7x + 2.1y = 1.05
system of linear equations. Solve the system and
0.8x − 1.6y = 1.8 44.1x − 6.3y = −3.15
interpret your answer.
11. 2x + y = 4 12. x + 3y = 2 System of Linear Equations In Exercises 37–56, solve
x−y=2 −x + 2y = 3 the system of linear equations.
14. 1 1
− 3y = 1 37. x1 − x2 = 0 38. 3x + 2y = 2
13. −x + y = 1 2x
3x1 − 2x2 = −1 6x + 4y = 14
3x − 3y = 4 −2x + 43 y = −4
39. 3u + v = 240 40. x1 − 2x2 = 0
15. 3x − 5y = 7 16. −x + 3y = 17
u + 3v = 240 6x1 + 2x2 = 0
2x + y = 9 4x + 3y = 7
17. 2x − y = 5 18. x − 5y = 21 41. 9x − 3y = −1 42. 23x1 + 16x2 = 0
1 2 1
5x − y = 11 6x + 5y = 21 5x + 5y = − 3 4x1 + x2 = 0
x+3 y−1 x−1 y+2 x−2 y−1
19. + = 1 20. + =4 43. + = 2
4 3 2 3 4 3
2x − y = 12 x − 2y = 5 x − 3y = 20
21. 0.05x − 0.03y = 0.07 22. 0.2x − 0.5y = −27.8 x1 + 4 x2 + 1
44. + = 1
0.07x + 0.02y = 0.16 0.3x − 0.4y = 68.7 3 2
3x1 − x2 = −2
x y 2x y 2
23. + =1 24. + = 45. 0.02x1 − 0.05x2 = −0.19
4 6 3 6 3
x−y=3 4x + y = 4 0.03x1 + 0.04x2 = 0.52
46. 0.05x1 − 0.03x2 = 0.21
Back-Substitution In Exercises 25–30, use back- 0.07x1 + 0.02x2 = 0.17
substitution to solve the system.
47. x − y − z = 0
25. x1 − x2 = 2 26. 2x1 − 4x2 = 6
x + 2y − z = 6
x2 = 3 3x2 = 9
2x −z=5
27. −x + y − z = 0 28. x − y = 5 48. x + y + z = 2
2y + z = 3 3y + z = 11 −x + 3y + 2z = 8
1
2z = 0 4z = 8 4x + y =4
29. 5x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 0 30. x1 + x2 + x3 = 0 49. 3x1 − 2x2 + 4x3 = 1
2x1 + x2 =0 x2 =0 x1 + x2 − 2x3 = 3
2x1 − 3x2 + 6x3 = 8
The symbol indicates an exercise in which you are instructed to use a
graphing utility or software program.
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Es entstand eine lange Pause. Sophie starrte nachdenklich in
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Bis zum späten Abend saßen Mutter und Tochter beim
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jeden Augenblick kommen konnte, und wollte ein Zusammentreffen
mit ihm vermeiden ...
Die Sophie hatte einen hochroten Kopf, als sie heimkam und in
die kleine Stube ihrer Pflegemutter trat. Die Ennemoserin brauchte
nicht lange zu fragen. Die Sophie erzählte ganz von selber über ihre
Begegnung mit der Benedikta.
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keine Arbeit. Und Schneid’ hatte sie für zehn. Wenn ihr einer zu
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