Uj 2018 Pgev 0067

NATIONAL ISOLATION CENTRE JOS, PLATEAU STATE.
(EXPLORING PASSIVE DESIGN IN INFECTION CONTROL)
BY
MUSA, MANASSEH
B.SC. (HONS.) ARCHITECTURE
UJ/2018/PGEV/0067
A PROGRESS REPORT IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE, FACULTY OF

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES,
SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF

JOS, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR UPGRADING
FROM B.SC. TO M.SC. IN ARCHITECTURE OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF JOS.
APRIL 2022.
i
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this is the product of my own research efforts, undertaken under the
supervision of Arc. S. Bala and has not been presented elsewhere for the award of a degree or
certificate. All sources have been duly distinguished and appropriately acknowledged.
………………………………… ……………………………
Musa, Manasseh Date
UJ/2018/PGEV/0067
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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this project work was carried out and prepared by MUSA MANASSEH
(UJ/2018/PGEV/0067) and meets the requirements for the award of a Master of Science (M.Sc.)
in Architecture in the Department of Architecture, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.
…………………………………… ……………………………………
Arc. S. Bala (MNIA) Date
Project Supervisor
…………………………………… ……………………………………
Dr. (Arc) A. Umar, (MNIA) Date
Msc. II Coordinator
…………………………………… ……………………………………
Dr. R.S. Lekjep, (MNIA) Date
Head of Department Architecture
…………………………………… ……………………………………
Prof. Timothy O. Oyetunde (PhD) Date
Dean, School of Post Graduate Studies
…………………………………… ……………………………………
External Examiner Date

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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to God Almighty who has shown his mercy to me throughout the program.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor Arc. S. B. Salihu of the University of Jos Whose
wealth of experience and guidance made this research a success. I wish to thank my parent and
siblings for their moral and financial support. God in heaven shall reward all of you accordingly.
To the intelligent architects I have as partners and friends, thank you all for your love, support,
understanding and care. My appreciation also goes to all the lecturers of the Department of
Architecture, University of Jos for all the knowledge they impacted. Thank you so much.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i
CERTIFICATION .......................................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. x
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKROUNG TO THE STUDY ........................................................................................ 1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............................................................................... 3
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .............................................................................................. 4
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ................................................................... 4
1.5 JUSTIFICATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ................................................... 5
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................ 6
1.7 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS .................................................................. 6
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 8
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 8
2.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 8
2.1 Passive design .................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.1 Effect of current ventilation strategies on the risk of infection transmission. .............. 10
2.1.2 Isolation facilities and the ventilation of clinical care areas ......................................... 11
2.1.3 Ventilation and COVID-19 .......................................................................................... 11
2.1.4 Ventilation solution in the history of pandemics as related to COVID-19. ................. 12
2.1.5 Natural ventilation measures ........................................................................................ 14
2.1.6 Covid 19 and Sunlight .................................................................................................. 15
2.1.7 The choice of materials in infection control. ................................................................ 16
2.2 VIROLOGY AND MODE OF TRANSMISSION ............................................................. 18
2.2.1 Contact Transmissions .................................................................................................. 19
2.2.2 Airborne Transmission ................................................................................................. 20
2.2.3 Waterborne Transmission ............................................................................................. 21
2.2.4 Disease Transmission Cycle ......................................................................................... 22
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2.3 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR INFECTION PREVENTION AND

CONTROL (IPC) IN
2.3.1 Design for social distancing ......................................................................................... 24
2.3.2 Design to enhance natural ventilation .......................................................................... 25
2.3.3 Design to Enhance Daylight or Sunlight ...................................................................... 26
2.3.4 Design with adaptive finishing materials and construction methods ........................... 27
2.4. EPIDEMIOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 28
2.4.1 Ebola virus epidemiology in Nigeria ............................................................................ 29
2.4.2 Tuberculosis (TB) disease epidemiology in Nigeria .................................................... 30
2.4.3 Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID 19) ....................................................................... 30
2.4.4 Coronavirus Disease epidemiology in Nigeria ............................................................. 32
2.4.5 Confirmed Cases of COVID 19 in Nigeria .................................................................. 33
2.5 ISOLATION CENTER ....................................................................................................... 36
2.5.1 Functional Flow Diagram of a Covid-19 Isolation Center. .......................................... 36
2.5.2 Historical Development of Isolation Center. ................................................................ 37
2.5.3 Types of Isolation Rooms ............................................................................................. 40
2.5.4 Design Considerations in An Isolation/ Quarantine Facility. ....................................... 42
2.5.5 SPACES REQUIRED IN AN ISOLATION CENTER ............................................... 48
2.5.6 Risk Assessment of An Isolation/ Quarantine Facility ................................................. 51
2.5.7 GUIDANCE ON SETTING UP AN ISOLATION WARDS FOR THE
MANAGEMENT OF COVID-19 ......................................................................................... 52
2.5 BIOMEDICAL WASTE (BMW) MANAGEMENT ......................................................... 53
2.6.1 Organogram for Biomedical waste management ......................................................... 54
2.6.2 catteories of biomedical waste ...................................................................................... 55
2.6.3 Treatment and Disposal of BMW ................................................................................. 56
2.5.4 Cleanliness and Sanitation ............................................................................................ 56
2.6. Conceptual framework ....................................................................................................... 56
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 58
3.0 CASE STUDIES ..................................................................................................................... 58
3.1 DESIGN CASE STUDIES.................................................................................................. 58
3.2 CASE STUDY 1 ................................................................................................................. 59
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3.2.1 Background ................................................................................................................... 60

3.3 CASE STUDY TWO .......................................................................................................... 65
3.4 CASE STUDY THREE ...................................................................................................... 67
3.4.1 Background ................................................................................................................... 68
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 70
STUDY AREA ............................................................................................................................. 70
4.1 PLATEAU STATE BACKGROUND INFORMATION ................................................... 70
4.2 BOUNDARIES ................................................................................................................... 71
4.3 ETHNICITY........................................................................................................................ 71
4.4 OCCUPATION ................................................................................................................... 72
4.5 CLIMATE ........................................................................................................................... 72
4.6 GEOLOGY.......................................................................................................................... 72
4.7 Tourism .......................................................................................................................... 73
4.7.1 Wildlife Safari Park ................................................................................................ 73
4.7.2 The National Museum .................................................................................................. 73
4.7.3 The Museum of Traditional Nigerian Architecture ...................................................... 73
4.7.4 Assop Falls ................................................................................................................... 74
4.7.5 Kurra Falls .................................................................................................................... 74
4.7.6 Wase Rock .................................................................................................................... 74
4.7.7 Kerang Highlands ......................................................................................................... 74
4.7.8 Pandam Game Reserve ................................................................................................. 75
4.7.9 Kahwang Rock Formation ............................................................................................ 75
4.8 MICRO STUDY AREA...................................................................................................... 75
4.9 SITE SELECTION CRITERIA .......................................................................................... 75
4.9.1 Site A: ........................................................................................................................... 76
4.9.2 Site B: ........................................................................................................................... 77
4.9.3 Site C: ........................................................................................................................... 78
4.9.4 Result ............................................................................................................................ 79
4.9.5 Ranking ......................................................................................................................... 79
4.10 SITE ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................. 80
4.10.1 Geographical ............................................................................................................... 81
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4.10.2 Climate........................................................................................................................ 81
4.10.3 Geology ...................................................................................................................... 82
4.10.4 Vegetation ................................................................................................................... 83
4.10.5 Sun Light .................................................................................................................... 83
4.10.6 Dust ............................................................................................................................. 83
4.10.7 Topography................................................................................................................. 83
4.10.8 Hydrology ................................................................................................................... 84
4.11 SITE POTENTIAL ........................................................................................................... 84
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 85
THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING ............................................................................................ 85
5.1 ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................................................ 85
5.1.1 Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness................................................................................ 85
5.1.2 Flexibility and Expandability ....................................................................................... 86
5.1.3 Therapeutic Environment ............................................................................................. 86
5.1.4 Cleanliness and Sanitation ............................................................................................ 87
5.1.5 Accessibility ................................................................................................................. 87
5.1.6 Controlled Circulation .................................................................................................. 87
5.1.7 Aesthetics...................................................................................................................... 88
5.1.8 Building Materials ........................................................................................................ 88
5.1.9 Space Organization ....................................................................................................... 89
5.2 ISOLATION CENTER PLANNING.................................................................................. 89
5.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATION ............................................................................................. 89
5.3.1 Flooring ........................................................................................................................ 89
5.3.2 Walls and Ceilings ........................................................................................................ 89
5.3.3 Ramps, Stairs and Lifts ................................................................................................. 90
5.3.4 Indoor Air Quality. ....................................................................................................... 90
5.3.5 Natural and Artificial Lighting ..................................................................................... 90
5.3.6 Ventilation .................................................................................................................... 91
5.3.7 Flexibility...................................................................................................................... 91
CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................................. 92
DESIGN PROGRAMMING, PLANNING AND DESIGN ......................................................... 92
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6.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 92

6.1 BRIEF.................................................................................................................................. 92
6.2 FEASIBILITY STUDY AND VIABILITY STUDY .................................................... 92
6.3 LABOUR REQUIREMENT ............................................................................................... 93
6.4 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 93
6.5 ZONING......................................................................................................................... 94
6.5.1 Site Zoning ................................................................................................................... 95
6.6 CONCEPT FORMULATION ....................................................................................... 96
6.6.1 Design Concept............................................................................................................. 96
6.6.2 Aesthetic Concept ......................................................................................................... 97
6.6.3 Sustainable Concept ..................................................................................................... 97
6.6.4 Functional Concept ....................................................................................................... 97
6.7 DESIGN SYNTHESIS ........................................................................................................ 97
6.8. FUNCTIONAL FLOW ...................................................................................................... 98
6.9 SPARTIAL ANALYSIS ................................................................................................ 98
CHAPTER SEVEN .................................................................................................................... 101
DESIGN REPORT...................................................................................................................... 101
7.1 PRESENTATION DRAWINGS ...................................................................................... 101
7.2 DESIGN CONCEPT ......................................................................................................... 118
7.2.1 SITE LAYOUT ..................................................................................................... 118
7.1.2 THE PLAN ........................................................................................................... 118
7.1.3 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM.................................................................................... 119
7.1.4 FINISHES ............................................................................................................. 120
7.1.5 LIGHTING ........................................................................................................... 120
7.1.6 Aesthetical Concept .................................................................................................... 120
7.2 DESIGN ACHIEVEMENTS ....................................................................................... 120
7.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................. 121
7.4 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 122
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 123
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1; The impact of sunlight exposure in SARS-CoV-2 transmission, morbidity, mortality,
and recovery rate ........................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2; Disease transmission cycle ............................................................................................ 23
Figure 3; Suggested minimum Corridor width ............................................................................. 24
Figure 4; Functional Flow Diagram of a Covid-19 Isolation Center. ........................................... 36
Figure 5; Organogram for Biomedical waste management .......................................................... 54
Figure 6; Showing typical floor layout of the facility. ................................................................. 65
Figure 7; Showing floor plan of the facility. ................................................................................ 67
Figure 8; Showing Map of Nigeria highlighting plateau state...................................................... 70
Figure 9; site analysis ................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 10; climatic data. ............................................................................................................... 82
Figure 11; Functional Zoning ....................................................................................................... 94
Figure 12; site zoning. .................................................................................................................. 95
Figure 13; conceptual bubble ........................................................................................................ 98
Figure 14; Site Plan..................................................................................................................... 101
Figure 15; Ground floor Plan ...................................................................................................... 102
Figure 16; First floor Plan ........................................................................................................... 103
Figure 17; Second floor Plan ...................................................................................................... 104
Figure 18; Third floor Plan ......................................................................................................... 105
Figure 19; Roof Plan ................................................................................................................... 106
Figure 20; Section ZZ ................................................................................................................. 107
Figure 21; Section XX ................................................................................................................ 108
Figure 22; Section YY ................................................................................................................ 109
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LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1; Corona virus diagram ...................................................................................................... 31
Plate 2; Showing the perspective of 1 Bataan Mega Q................................................................. 59
Plate 3; Showing patients testing units. ........................................................................................ 60
Plate 4; Showing waiting area. ..................................................................................................... 61
Plate 5; Showing sample collection unit. ...................................................................................... 62
Plate 6; Showing vaccination room. ............................................................................................. 63
Plate 7; Showing design idea to construction. .............................................................................. 64
Plate 8; Showing landscape of the facility. ................................................................................... 64
Plate 9; Showing a three-dimensional view of the facility. .......................................................... 66
Plate 10; Showing an isolation ward in the facility. ..................................................................... 66
Plate 11; Showing the entrance to the facility. ............................................................................. 68
Plate 12; Showing the interior space of the isolation ward........................................................... 69
Plate 13; Showing the external landscape of the facility .............................................................. 69
Plate 14; Showing a google map of the site. ................................................................................. 77
Plate 17; Front elevation ............................................................................................................. 110
Plate 18; Rear elevation .............................................................................................................. 111
Plate 19; Right Elevation ............................................................................................................ 112
Plate 20; Left Elevation .............................................................................................................. 113
Plate 21; Perspective ................................................................................................................... 114
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1; Respiratory activities with their corresponding number of droplets and associated
velocities ....................................................................................................................................... 21
Table 2; The decay of droplet nuclei concentration for different ventilation rates and duration of
time in a room. .............................................................................................................................. 26
Table 3; Confirmed Cases of COVID 19 in Nigeria .................................................................... 33
Table 4; Catteories of biomedical waste ....................................................................................... 55
Table 5; Result .............................................................................................................................. 79
Table 6; Ranking ........................................................................................................................... 79
Table 7; Schedule of Accommodation.......................................................................................... 99
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKROUNG TO THE STUDY
Infection control is one of the greatest challenges in healthcare facilities as carriers of dangerous
pathogens are mostly found within the healthcare facilities. With the outbreak of infectious disease,
most people including healthcare workers contact diseases within the healthcare facilities.
According to Spaulding, an estimated 1.5 million infections occur annually in extended care
facilities in the United States (Cynthia Leibrock et all. 2011). Although there are several measures
of control and treatment of infectious diseases in hospitals which include the use of drugs and other
medical procedures like patient isolation. The healthcare facilities need a program for preventing
and control of infections, the program of infection control could focus on all elements of care,
including design and construction; environmental issues such cleaning, and waste disposal.
Preventing the transmission of communicable diseases from patients to health care workers or
from patient to other patients can be minimize through the facility’s design program. Passive
design approach in isolation facilities seek to provide infection control without the use of drugs
and other medical procedures.
Isolation is the act of separating a sick individual with a contagious disease from healthy
individuals without that contagious disease in order to protect the general public from exposure to
the disease (CDC 2020). The people who contacted or are suspected to have contacted an infectious
disease are isolated in an isolation facility (isolation center) in other to control the spread of the
infection. The Institute of Architects Bangladesh, defined Isolation center as an independent

2
healthcare facility operating separately from other hospital resources which is specifically
equipped for the treatment of infectious diseases (IAB, 2020). There are various units in an
isolation center which include a specific entrance for the patient, triage area for separating
suspected and confirmed cases, a diagnostic facility, dedicated laboratory for carrying out tests, an
isolation patient treatment room(s) and other supporting facilities that help to ensure the patient
can be treated safely and securely.
Amidst the outbreak of Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Pandemic in 2020 all over the
world, healthcare facilities are struggling to accommodate patients who are suffering from the
pandemic as well as the medical professionals who treat them. Like many countries of the world,
Nigeria is in the verge of establishing a number of Isolation centers where confirm and suspected
cases of the infection will be confine for a time being to receive medical attention. The facility
where these sick individuals will be kept and manage should have the ability to aid their recovery
as well as curb the spread of the infection by adapting to passive design approach. Incorporating
passive design into building construction is certainly nothing new, with ancient civilizations
developing basic principles of architecture around the relationship between humans, the climate
and their environment. Passive design strategies are integrated into the architectural design of a
building through its orientation, form and exterior shell in order to optimize the use of natural
energy sources such as the sun, wind and light. Unfortunately, for most of this modern age, passive
design has not been incorporated or prioritized in the architectural design process which has
resulted in poorly performing building stock.
Could passive design once again become more commonplace in medical institutions as the
epidemic underlines the need for healthy, well-ventilated indoor environments to lessen or prevent
the transfer of pathogens? (DND 2020). There are many advantages to designing hospital buildings
3
with moveable windows (with the right amount of control), including improvements in occupant
thermal comfort, productivity, and general health and wellness.
Healthcare facilities are designed to enhance a hospital’s ability to provide high-quality care
and efficiency, yet the power of architecture to impact a patient’s recovery and the overall
effectiveness of the facility tends to be overlooked (Lou Podbelski 2017). As Covid-19 forced us
to consider the impact that indoor environments can have on an occupant’s health and safety, I
believe that this could be the awakening that the building architecture industry needs to implement
passive design approach in the healthcare setting. The issue lies in moving from research to
application in a manner so effective that it enhances the well-being of the patients and the efficacy
of the transition process in the patient’s recovery. The requirement for a physical structure to
handle proper treatment and management of infectious diseases using passive design approach to
improve patient recovery and prevent the spread of infection in the facility comes as a result of
this context.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
It is argued that there is a growing number in the outbreak of infectious disease in the world
and must recently the coronavirus pandemic. The pandemic swept the whole world that some
countries in Europe and Asia could not accommodate the growing number of patients on daily
basis. In Boston, pediatric wards are being consolidated to fit all the adults battling covid-19
(Brittany et al. 2020). Hospitals became overwhelmed with the covid-19 patients due to lack of
space to accommodate them and the general public developed fear of visiting hospitals for medical
help due to the fear of contacting COVID-19. A BBC sport update on 5, April 2020 reported that
sports stadiums across the world have been transform to emergency hospitals as the rise of
4
COVID-19 pandemic puts strain on hospitals. Healthcare facilities are struggling to accommodate
the patients who are suffering from the pandemic as well as the medical professionals who treat
them. The Onikan stadium in Lagos-Nigeria which was supposed to be a center of sporting
activities is instead opening as an isolation Centre for the treatment of COVID-19 cases.
Like many countries of the world, Nigeria is in a state of establishing a number of Isolation
facilities where confirm and suspected cases of the infection will be confine for a time being to
receive medical attention.
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
This study addresses the following research questions:
i. What are the basic standards and space requirements in an isolation center?
ii. What is the state of architecture in the existing isolation facilities in Nigeria and the
world at large?
iii. How can passive design elements be harmonized into the building fabric of an isolation
facility to enhances patient’s recovery?
iv. How can the facility design help in the control of nosocomial infections?
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The aim of this study is to explore passive design strategies and implement them in the
design of an isolation center to enhance efficiency in patient’s recovery and infection control.
The Objectives designed to achieve the aim of this study are outlined as follows:
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i. The design process should be clearly stated. From the drawing board to the selection
of the indoor and outdoor elements of design.
ii. To explore the state of architecture in the current isolation facilities in the Nigeria and
the world and deduce from their areas of strength and infer in the proposed design.
iii. To seek out ways of harmonizing sufficient day lighting, ventilation, and thermal
comfort to enhances recovery and infection control.
iv. To design appropriate circulation and effective zoning within the facility as well as the
use of appropriate materials to curb the spread of dangerous pathogens within the
facility.
1.5 JUSTIFICATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study is essential in the sense that it would not only contribute to knowledge and theory,
but will also contribute to good construction practice in isolation and other medical facilities in
Nigeria. This is because the study will attempt to find out how functional and satisfying the current
isolation facilities are toward achieving effectiveness in infection control and enhancing recovery.
The study will also recommend appropriate measures to be taken and implement in the design and
construction of isolation centers in Nigeria.
Furthermore, the study will assist the health agencies and the general public to become
aware of the current state of the isolation facilities in relation to the roles they play towards
patient’s recovery (efficiency of the facilities). This research will help to contribute to the existing
body of knowledge in passive design by inspiring new and creative thinking regarding the subject
matter and architectural design as a whole, to successfully integrate the built environment with
passive design elements such as natural ventilation, day lighting and thermal comfort in the
6
building. The proposed architectural design would be considered and portrayed as a ‘healing
sanctuary’.
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The proposed project will be a National Isolation Center that will comprise of relevant and
functional facilities to enable it effectively play its roles in infection control and enhance recovery
through passive design approach. The facility will include major functions such as regular bed
isolation ward for treatment of confirm cases and quarantine of suspected cases, Intensive care unit
(ICU) for treatment of critical cases, Pharmaceutical department for drugs storage and delivery,
laboratory for collection and testing of samples, Doctor's quarters for staff accommodation, indoor
and outdoor gardens, relaxation and other supporting facilities that will be backed up to ensure
the effectiveness of the design is not underachieved.
1.7 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS
Isolation Center: An isolation center can be defined as an independent healthcare facility
operating separately from other hospital resources, which is specifically equipped for the treatment
of infectious diseases (IAB, 2020).
Natural ventilation: Natural ventilation depends on natural forces (e.g. winds and thermal
buoyancy force due to indoor and outdoor air density differences) to drive outdoor air into a
building and distributes it within the building through purpose-built openings (IAB, 2020).
Passive design: Passive design is a design that works with the local climate to maintain a
comfortable temperature in the building. Good passive design should reduce or eliminate the need
7
for additional heating or cooling depending on your location and often relies on an active occupant
to work properly.
Pandemic: A pandemic is an epidemic occurring on a scale that crosses international boundaries,
usually affecting people on a worldwide scale. A disease or condition is not a pandemic merely
because it is widespread or kills many people; it must also be infectious. One living example of a
pandemic is covid-19.
Pathogens: A pathogen is defined as an organism causing disease to its host, with the severity of
the disease symptoms referred to as virulence. Pathogens are taxonomically widely diverse and
comprise viruses and bacteria as well as unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes.
Isolation: refers to separation of individuals who are ill and suspected or confirmed of an infectious
disease. All suspected cases detected in the containment/buffer zones (till a diagnosis is made),
will be hospitalized and kept in isolation in a designated facility till such time they are tested
negative. Persons testing positive of a dangerous pathogen will remain to be hospitalized till such
time when their samples are tested negative as per MoHFW’s discharge policy (NCDC Delhi,
2020).
Quarantine: is the separation and restriction of movement or activities of persons who are not ill
but who are believed to have been exposed to infection, for the purpose of preventing transmission
of diseases. Persons are usually quarantined in their homes, but they may also be quarantined in
community-based facilities. Quarantine can be applied to an individual or to a group of persons
who are exposed at a large public gathering or to persons believed exposed on a conveyance during
international travel (NCDC Delhi, 2020).

8
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Infection control is emerging as the biggest challenge to healthcare around the world. Patients are
admitted in hospitals on daily basis, some of the patients are carriers of infectious diseases which
the hospital might or might not know (Nurudeen Barau, 2020). Emerging infectious diseases have
recently posed a persistent danger to everyone's health and way of life. There have been a number
of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) throughout the past few decades that have surprised the
world community and refocused attention on the healthcare system. A few examples of such
illnesses are tuberculosis, SARS, Lassa fever, Ebola, and the emerging COVID-19. Several
measures have been taken in the fight against these diseases with the most of them being the
isolation of infected individuals from the general public. Isolation and Quarantine are important
mainstay of cluster containment. These measures help by breaking the chain of transmission of
dangerous pathogens in the community but could not stop the transmission of the infection within
the facility. Passive design approach to facilities like this is an effective and more economical way
to tame the spread of infection in the isolation facility.
2.1 Passive design
The local climate differs depending on your location, some places demand heating during the cold
season and cooling during the hot seasons also. Passive design depends solely on the local climate
to eliminate the need for additional heating or cooling by maintaining a comfortable temperature
within the building.

9
Examples of passive design include optimizing spatial planning and orientation to control solar
gains and maximize daylighting, manipulating the building form and fabric to facilitate natural
ventilation strategies and making effective use of thermal mass to help reduce peak internal
temperatures. Passive design includes the following:
➢ Passive cooling.
Passive cooling is a building design approach that focuses on heat gain control and heat
dissipation in a building in order to improve the indoor thermal comfort with low or no energy
consumption. (Leo Samuel, et al. 2013). This approach works either by preventing heat from
entering the interior (heat gain prevention) or by removing heat from the building (natural cooling)
Natural cooling utilizes on-site energy, available from the natural environment, combined with the
architectural design of building components (e.g. building envelope), rather than mechanical
systems to dissipate heat
➢ Passive heating.
A passive solar-heated home needs no solar panels to heat or cool it. Rather, the energy used to
heat and cool a house comes directly from the sun through skylights and windows. Some of that
energy is then stored in the building's walls and floors to be used at night and in cooler months.
➢ Passive ventilation (or natural ventilation).
Increasing the air movement rate in indoor spaces increases the cooling efficiency in hot and warm
seasons. Natural ventilation is one of the passive design strategies, which enhances indoor air
quality in hot and dry regions by providing fresh air (Sahar Zahiri and Hasim Altan 2016). Passive
ventilation is the process of supplying air to and removing air from an indoor space without
using mechanical systems. It refers to the flow of external air to an indoor space as a result
of pressure differences arising from natural forces. There are two types of
10
natural ventilation occurring in buildings: wind driven ventilation and buoyancy-driven
ventilation. Wind driven ventilation arises from the different pressures created by wind around a
building or structure, and openings being formed on the perimeter which then permit flow through
the building. Buoyancy-driven ventilation occurs as a result of the directional buoyancy force that
results from temperature differences between the interior and exterior (Linden, P. F. 1999).
2.1.1 Effect of current ventilation strategies on the risk of infection transmission.
Fresh air moving into a building’s interior dilutes the contaminated air inside the building. The
fresh air reduces the germ contents in the room as such reducing the risk of infection transmission
within the building. The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers, CIBSE, recently
provided guidance on using ventilation as a way of diluting airborne pathogens. It is stated that:
“there is good evidence that demonstrates room occupants are more at risk of catching an illness
in a poorly ventilated room than in a well-ventilated room.” Besides this, new evidence that has
been found shows high rates of infection in poorly ventilated spaces (C. Iddon et al. 2020).
Since SARS-CoV-2 has spread around the world at an unprecedented pace, infecting millions of
people, and further aerosol driven infections are highly likely to emerge, ventilation plays a key
role in efforts to limit the transmission rate of this and other diseases. (Tom Lipinski et al. 2020).
Infection control measures like public-awareness campaigns, airport screening and ‘stay-home-if-
you’re sick’ policies might not stop the spread of infections. Architects must take Strick measures
like re-design of Indoor Environments, especially aspects handling the buildings’ ventilation
systems in the control of infection transmission during the design stage of isolation facilities. When
doctors in Wuhan, China, where the new virus first emerged, studied 138 early cases, they
concluded that 41% of patients had most likely contracted the disease in the hospital (Q. Li, et al.
2020). Therefore, the hypothesis stating that infection through small particles plays a more
11
important role in the transmission along with the direct and indirect (fomites) routes can be used.
Thus, ventilation plays an important role in reducing the risk of transmission through dilution and
removal of the infected particles within the indoor environment (Tom Lipinski et al. 2020).
2.1.2 Isolation facilities and the ventilation of clinical care areas
Natural ventilation is probably acceptable by many patients in most clinical areas of acute hospital
facilities. The transmission of infection via air, however, is a concern in the context of especially
vulnerable patients such as severely neutropenic patients who are at risk of systemic and
pulmonary aspergillosis. In the UK, there are more multi-bed facilities for patients in hospital,
compared to in the USA, but even there where ambient temperatures can fluctuate more, and hence
ventilation is required for comfort purposes (Hilary Humphreys 2021). Natural ventilation can be
maximized through open doors, large windows and high ceilings, where comfort allows this.
before turning to assisted technology in the form of hybrid ventilation or the construction of
specified ventilation-controlled rooms, i.e. negative/positive or neutral pressure rooms
2.1.3 Ventilation and COVID-19
From personal experience, congested places that lack sufficient ventilation make people feel
uncomfortable and sometimes sick. It is noted that most viruses and pathogens settled after they
traveled a distance of about 6 feet on air, but this virus can travel farther to a distant host if
mechanical ventilation is used (Dietz, P.F. et al. 2020). Therefore, in the design of an isolation
facility, it is not just the rate of air supply that should be considered in terms of infection control
but the air distribution pathways through occupied spaces and the airflow dynamics, which include
air velocity, its turbulence, and its direction.
Keeping Indoor Environments virus-free plays a key part in reducing or slowing the transmission
of various airborne infections. Research has shown that the viruses that have been identified and
12
isolated can range in diameter size from 20 nm to as large as 500 nm. Aside from spherical virus
particles like SARS-CoV-2, whose diameters can measure to as long as 1,000 nm. (Benedette
cuffari 2021). Since viruses have an approximate diameter of 150 nm, they can be easily carried
by aerosol droplets in the air and linger afloat for many minutes and sometimes hours. An
inappropriate or inadequate ventilation strategy can dramatically increase the risk of the disease
transmission. Taking the above-mentioned publications into account, ventilation and comfort
strategies should be categorize by airflow characteristics and their potential impact on pathogen
spread through occupied spaces.
2.1.4 Ventilation solution in the history of pandemics as related to COVID-19.
The most common global health challenge that is comparable to covid-19 among other historical
pandemics is the Spanish flu of 1918 (Larry Anderson 2021). The pandemic breaks out Over one
hundred years ago and swept a global figure of between 50 million and 100 million people.
Although the world has suffered many pandemics in the years past but no one has been as deadly,
nor as far-reaching as the Spanish flu (Stephen Dowling 2020).
In 1744-1815 Before the outbreak of the Spanish flu, the English physician known as John Coakley
Lettsom introduce a practice known as the ‘open air method’ where he exposed children suffering
from tuberculosis to sea air and sunshine at the Royal Sea Bathing Hospital in Kent, England. And
in the late 1800s, George Bodington treated tuberculosis sanitoriums, which treated the lung
disease with a combination of fresh air, gentle exercise in the open, nutrition, and a minimum of
medicines (Stephen Dowling 2020). According to Bodington, the application of cold pure air to
the interior surface of the lungs is the most powerful sedative that can be applied, and does more
to promote the healing of cavities and ulcers of the lungs than any other means that can be
employed.
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When the influenza virus pandemic took hold in the United States in 1918, emergency hospitals
were started in schools, halls, and large private houses, and open-air hospitals were being “thrown
up” all over the country. In the harbor of East
Boston, 1200 out of 5100 merchant sailors onboard training ships had contracted influenza. The
seriously ill were too numerous for local hospitals to accommodate. The Massachusetts State
Guard responded by building the Camp Brooks Open Air Hospital at Corey Hill in Brookline, near
Boston. From the time the camp opened on September 9, 1918, until its closure a month later on
October 12, a total of 351 victims of the pandemic were admitted, one third of whom were
diagnosed with pneumonia. In total, 36 of the 351 sailors received at the hospital died.
The treatment at Camp Brooks Hospital took place outdoors, with “a maximum of sunshine and
of fresh air day and night.” The medical officer in charge, Major Thomas F. Harrington, had
studied the history of his patients and found that the worst cases of pneumonia came from the parts
of ships that were most badly ventilated. While in France I developed a great affection for the
tented hospitals. There is great movement of air, warmth and comfort; when a sunny day comes
the side of the tent may be lifted and the patient enjoys the advantage of open-air treatment.”
(Richard A. Hobday, PhD et al. 2009).
As a campaign to prevent the influenza, pneumonia, and tuberculosis during the Spanish flu, signs
were posted in buses advising people to keep their bedroom windows open. There was even a
national campaign known as the “Fresh Air Movement,” calling for people to be outside more, and
urging greater ventilation indoors (Stephen Dowling 2020).

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2.1.5 Natural ventilation measures
From ancient times, natural ventilation has been in use before the emergence of mechanical
ventilation system. Comparing the two forms of ventilation systems, the most economical way to
provide ventilation is through natural air forces by taking advantage of atmospheric pressure
difference such as wind pressure moving air sideways or making use of the buoyancy of warmer
air moving upwards.
Even though Natural Ventilation methods, including operable windows that are either manual or
automatic, are one of the simplest methods of providing ventilation they frequently suffered the
most from drawbacks such as bad design and implementation. Main design issues included
calculating full window area as an opening, which in reality is often less than 1/10th of the window,
locating windows in the wrong area or at the wrong height. As much as varied height cross
ventilation can be effective, a row of short windows at mid height will generate almost no air
movement (Tom Lipinski, et al. 2020).
In a recent study by the University of Oregon observed that Natural Ventilation with a plentiful
supply of fresh air dilutes and removes contaminated air much more effectively than fan driven,
recirculated air movement, significantly reducing the risk of infection (L. Dietz et al. 2020).
However, ventilation design that requires the stale air to move across the entire floor plan, or
through common areas such as hallways and staircases before being exhausted from the building,
is understandably more likely to spread infection than when the stale air is exhausted at the source,
directly to the outside. Considering the research conducted so far, if designed and implemented
appropriately, natural ventilation measures, can provide an adequate displacement ventilation
solution, significantly reducing the risk of infection.

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2.1.6 Covid 19 and Sunlight
The ability of infectious particles containing SARS-CoV-2 to persist on different environmental
surfaces has contributed to the rapid spread of COVID-19. Therefore, the strategies used to reduce
viral diffusion in public environments can help control the ongoing pandemic. Although the
evidence suggests possible germicidal properties for UVC, UVB, UVA, visible light, and infrared
radiation, available data on UVC are the most robust. The depth of UVC penetration is the lowest
among all the wavebands but can deliver adequate virucidal doses in a short duration. However,
the successful decontamination using other wavebands requires higher dosages and longer
administration times. Human CoVs, including the recently emerged SARS-CoV-2, are inherently
sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) radiation (C.S. Heilingloh et al. 2020).
Sunlight contains a spectrum of UVA, UVB, and UVC, with wave lengths ranging 320–400 nm,
260–320 nm, and 200–260 nm, respectively. Among these, UVC can inactivate CoV, while the
synthesis of vitamin D is closely related to UVB radiation exposure (C.S. Heilingloh et al. 2020).
However, both UVA and UVB have poor virucidal activity. Sunlight that reaches the earth’s
surface contains only UVA and UVB since UVC is absorbed by atmospheric ozone (Fig. below).
In contrast, Herman et al. (2020) reported that UVB in sunlight can inactivate both SARS-CoV
and SARS-CoV-2 present on surfaces as well as in the air. However, inactivation times depend on
the latitude, season, and hour of the day (J. Herman, et al. 2020). The relationship between sunlight
exposure and the COVID-19 recovery rate was evaluated in Jakarta, Indonesia, by Asyary and
Veruswati (2020). Their findings showed that a higher duration of sunlight exposure was found to
be associated with an increase in the recovery rate among patients, indicating the potential of
sunlight exposure for accelerating recovery (A. Asyary, M. Veruswati, 2020). Direct exposure of
skin to sunlight promotes the production of vitamin D, a vital component that regulates the immune
16
system (J. Mercola, W.B. Grant, C.L. Wagner, 2020). Vitamin D can lower the risk of respiratory
tract infections such as COVID-19 through a multitude of cellular interactions that involves
reduction in the production of inflammatory cytokines, maintaining endothelial integrity, and
increasing ACE2 concentrations.
Figure 1; The impact of sunlight exposure in SARS-CoV-2 transmission, morbidity, mortality, and
recovery rate
Source: (Annals of Medicine and Surgery 2021)
2.1.7 The choice of materials in infection control.
The choice of building materials plays a major role in infection control in a hospital or any medical
facility. Some materials support the lifespan of germs and bacterial while others inhibit their
lifespan. It is now left for architects to take cognizant of the materials especially finishing materials
to be used during the design stage of the building.

17
An antimicrobial surface contains an antimicrobial agent that inhibits the ability of
Microorganisms to grow on the surface of a material. Such surfaces are becoming more widely
investigated for possible use in various settings including clinics, industry, and even the home. The
most common and most important use of antimicrobial coatings has been in the healthcare setting
for sterilization of medical devices to prevent hospital associated infections, which have accounted
for almost 100,000 deaths in the United States (Onaizi, S.A.; Leong, S.S.J. 2011).
Antimicrobial surfaces are functionalized in a variety of different processes. A coating may be
applied to a surface that has a chemical compound which is toxic to microorganism. In alternative,
it is possible to functionalize a surface by adsorbing a polymer or polypeptide and/or by changing
its micro and nanostructure (Chen, C. et al. 2020).
An innovation in antimicrobial surfaces is the discovery that copper and its alloys (brasses,
bronzes, cupronickel, copper-nickel-zinc, and others) are natural antimicrobial materials that have
intrinsic properties to destroy a wide range of microorganisms. An abundance of peer reviewed
antimicrobial efficacy studies has been published regarding copper’s efficacy to destroy E.
coliO157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus, Clostridium
difficile, influenza A virus, adenovirus, and fungi. Elevated copper levels inside a cell causes
oxidative stress and the generation of hydrogen peroxide. Under these conditions, copper par
ticipates in the so-called Fenton-type reaction, a chemical reaction causing oxidative damage to
cells. (Zhao, L. et al. 2009).
On how long can this virus survive outside the human body, some studies on SARS and MERS
found they can survive on metal, glass and plastic for as long as nine days, and some can even
hang around for up to 28 days in low temperatures. A virologist, Neeltjevan Doremalen at the US
18
National Institutes of Health (NIH) and her colleagues conducted a test on how long SARS-COV-
2 can last on different surfaces. Their study shows that the virus could survive longer on cardboard
(up to 24 hours) and up to 2-3 days on plastic and stainless-steel surfaces (Richard Gray 2020)
while Larrouy Maumus however, did find that copper surfaces tended to kill the virus in about two
hours (Christine Ro 2020). The surfaces we always come in contact with like door knobs, lift
buttons, handrails, chairs, table tops and over-bed tables can be coated with copper which is both
antiviral and antibacterial that is able to kill over 99.9% of bacteria within two hours to reduce
contamination and the resulting spread of microbes (Christine Ro 2020). In healthcare
applications, the US environmental protection agency (EPA) approved antimicrobial copper
products include bedrails, handrails, over-bed tables, sinks, faucets, door knobs, toilet hardware,
intravenous poles, computer keyboards, etc. By simply changing the texture of the surfaces we
use, or coating them with substances that kill bacteria and viruses more quickly, some scientists
hope it may be possible to defeat infectious organisms before they even get into our bodies.
2.2 VIROLOGY AND MODE OF TRANSMISSION
Virology is the scientific study of viruses submicroscopic, parasitic organisms of genetic material
contained in a protein coat and virus-like agents. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses:
their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit host cells for
reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they
cause, the techniques to isolate and curtail them, and their use in research and therapy (Wikipedia
2020).
Pathogen transmission can occur through different routes: direct contact, indirect contact, droplet
borne or airborne (Tran VAN KHAI 2016). Thus, to understand measures to take in curbing
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infections from an architectural perspective, the modes of infection transmission need to be
examined.
2.2.1 Contact Transmissions
Contact is the most common mode of transmission of infection in hospitals which may be
subdivided into direct contact, indirect contact and contact with droplets.
➢ Direct contact: Direct contact refers to person-to-person spread of microorganisms
through physical contact between the infectious agent including the contaminated hands or
gloves of health care worker with the skin or mucous membranes of the recipient. The
installation of handwashing basins in hospitals is one of the ways to prevent transmission
by the contact route. (Tran VAN KHAI 2016).
➢ Indirect contact: Indirect contact occurs when a susceptible person comes in contact with
a contaminated object. Examples include door knobs, keyboards, fabrics where patients
have open wounds, invasive devices contacted. Specific detailing design for easy cleaning,
disinfection, and sterilization of hospital objects are essential to prevent nosocomial
infection acquired from contaminated items and equipment. (Tran VAN KHAI 2016).
➢ Contact with droplet transmission: A person with a droplet-spread released infected
secretions that spread through the air to the oral or nasal mucous membranes of a person
nearby. Microbes in droplet nuclei (mucus droplets) can travel up to about 1 meter. The
droplets don’t remain suspended in the air but settle on surfaces. Surfaces of materials of
architectural elements such as partitions must be solid and smooth enough to be able to
prevent the suspension of droplets (Tran VAN KHAI 2016).

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2.2.2 Airborne Transmission
Viruses are not just air borne except they are able to be transmitted through the route, for this to
occur, certain conditions must be met: the virus must be able to survive on its own, it must be able
to withstand external conditions, and be transported to a new host (Tom Lipinski et al. 2020). The
small particles of infectious droplets that evaporate through coughing, sneezing, breathing, or
talking bring the occurrence of airborne transmission in a susceptible host. These droplets are small
enough to remain airborne for long periods of time (up to several hours), until they are inhaled by
or land on the uninfected person. (Tom Lipinski, et all. 2020).
A variety of airborne infections in susceptible hosts can serve as a source for airborne healthcare–
associated infections resulting from exposure to clinically significant microorganisms released into
the air when environmental reservoirs (i.e., soil, water, dust, and decaying organic matter) are
disturbed and brought indoors into a healthcare facility by people, air currents, and water (Tran
VAN KHAI 2016).
➢ Distant travel by aerosols in airborne transmission
Most people who are infected by respiratory type of infections usually contact it through the
inhalation of aerosols. Most aerosols are greater than 5nm in diameter and it is believed that such
particles >5nm cannot travel a distant further tan 1m from a person discharging them either through
coughing, sneezing, or talking (Hilary Humphreys 2021). Although the CDC says inhalation of air
carrying very small fine droplets and aerosols particles that contains infections is at a greater risk
within a distance of three-six feet of an infectious source (CDC 2021). However, particles<5nm
(i.e. aerosols) will remain in the air for longer and can travel further from the source patient to
distances greater than six feet. The phenomena that can lead to this occurrence is when an
21
infectious person exhaling virus indoors for an extended period of time (greater than 15 minutes)
leading to virus concentration within the air space. The factors that increase the risk of sars-cov-2
infections under these circumstances include: enclosed spaces with inadequate ventilation,
increased exhalation, and prolong exposure (CDC 2021). A design that gives proper attention to
adequate social distancing and ventilation stand a greater chance of averting the transmission of
such aerosols.
➢ Respiratory activities with their corresponding number of droplets and associated
velocities.
Table 1; Respiratory activities with their corresponding number of droplets and associated
velocities
Respiratory activity No. of droplets Velocities (m/s)
Sneeze 10,000 20
Cough 100-1000 20
Talk 50 <5
Source: (Tom Lipinski et al. 2020).
2.2.3 Waterborne Transmission
When a hospital environment is not well-kept form contaminated water stagnation it become a
reservoir for bacteria incubation within the hospital. Another source of infectious microorganisms
in the hospital can be water supply from a contaminated source or through corroded distribution
pipelines and storage tanks. Examples of common waterborne pathogens bacteria found in potable
water include Legionella pneu-mophila, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Aeromonas spp.,
Acinetobacter spp., Enterobacter spp., Flavobacterium spp. Which are amongst new
22
environmental bacteria’s pathogens surviving in water distribution systems (Tran VAN KHAI
2016).
2.2.4 Disease Transmission Cycle
Microorganisms live everywhere in our environment. Humans normally carry them on their skin
and in the upper respiratory, intestinal and genital tracts. In addition, microorganisms live in
animals, plants, soil, air and water. Some microorganisms, however, are more pathogenic than
others, that is, they are more likely to cause disease. All humans are susceptible to bacterial
infections and also to most viral agents. The dose of organisms necessary to produce infection in
a susceptible host varies with the location. When organisms come in contact with bare skin,
infection risk is quite low, and all of us touch materials that contain some organisms every day.
When the organisms come in contact with mucous membranes or nonintact skin, infection risk
increases. Infection risk increases greatly when organisms come in contact with normally sterile
body sites, and the introduction of only a few organisms may produce disease. For bacteria, viruses
and other infectious agents to successfully survive and spread, certain factors or conditions must
exist. The essential factors in the transmission of disease-producing microorganisms from person
to person are illustrated and defined in the Figure below.

23
Figure 2; Disease transmission cycle
Source: (Linda Tietjen et al. 2003).
2.3 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR INFECTION PREVENTION AND
CONTROL (IPC) IN HEALTH-CARE FACILITIES
The goal of every design should be the first knowledge that guide the entire design process, when
the architect’s goal in a design is to control infection, the building itself will aid in the inhibition
of infectious diseases. An experiment like this was first conducted by Florence nightingale as
reported by (Udomiaye E. et al. 2020) when she launched the hospital ward model, stated that
natural daylight and cross ventilation are significant components to disinfect and lessen the
infection occurrence in hospitals.

24
The following are some design strategies to employ in isolation centers for infection control and
prevention.
2.3.1 Design for social distancing
The CDC guidelines require that a social distance of about 1-2m soul be maintain as it is believed
that inhalation of air carrying very small fine droplets and aerosols particles that contains infections
is at a greater risk within a distance of 1-2m of an infectious source (CDC 2021). Adequate space
should be provided in waiting areas, corridors, hallways, stair and entrance lobby to support social
distancing of at least 1-2m apart. This will not only reduce contact transmission but will create
safe distancing since current research reveals that aerosol droplets travel only short distances of
1000 mm to 2000 mm before settling on surfaces (Udomiaye E. et al. 2020). It is traditional in
hospital design the corridors and lobbies are design to accommodate only wheelchairs, crouches,
trolleys, and beds but in terms of infection control, such spaces should be design wide enough for
social or safe distancing.
Figure 3; Suggested minimum Corridor width
Source: (Udomiaye E. et al. 2020)

25
2.3.2 Design to enhance natural ventilation
Natural ventilation is the movement of air through natural forces (e.g. winds and thermal buoyancy
force due to indoor and outdoor air density differences) to drive outdoor air through purpose-built,
openings of a building. The purpose-built openings include windows, doors, solar chimneys, etc.
climate, building design, building orientation are important determinants of the effectiveness of
natural ventilation in a building (James A. et al. 2009). Ventilation is very critical in mitigating
nosocomial and other infectious diseases. Recent studies have shown that an appropriate
ventilation rate can effectively decrease the cross-infection risk of airborne infections in healthcare
facilities and public spaces. Natural ventilation can provide a higher ventilation rate than power-
driven ventilation in an energy-efficient manner. A study of isolation wards in a Chinese hospital
revealed that those with a high percentage of openable openings were found to be better in
preventing the plague of SARS among health workers than other available design (Udomiaye E.
et al. 2020). Ventilation rate requirement-ACH by CDC is 12ACH, the implication is that when
the ventilation rate (ACH –Air Change per Hour) increases, the infection risk would be
significantly reduced. The decay of droplet nuclei concentration is significantly influenced by
ventilation rate. The design approach (open-end corridor and courtyard) increases ventilation rate
(ACH- air change per hour) thereby reducing the risk of infection significantly (Udomiaye E. et
al. 2020).
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Table 2; The decay of droplet nuclei concentration for different ventilation rates and duration of
time in a room.
Time (min) Ventilation rate (%)
6 ACH 12 ACH 18 ACH 24 ACH
0 100 100 100 100
5 60.7 36.8 22.37 13.5
10 36.8 13.5 5.0 1.8
15 22.3 5.00 1.1 0.3
20 13.5 1.8 0.3 0.03
25 8.2 0.7 0.06 0.00
30 5.0 0.3 0.01 0
40 1.8 0.03 0 0
50 0. 7 0 0 0
60 0.3 0 0 0
Source: Udomiaye E. et al. 2020
2.3.3 Design to Enhance Daylight or Sunlight
There is proof that fenestrations and daylight in buildings can affect how airborne diseases
propagate. Evidently, before the development of antibiotics, sunshine and ventilation were seen as
important preventative strategies against infectious infections. In addition, diffuse sunlight seen
near windows in buildings may well kill bacteria in five to seven days, according to Solly, who
noted that direct sunlight through glass may well kill bacteria bacillus in a few minutes or hours
depending on the thickness of the layer of bacteria exposed (Udomiaye E. et al. 2020). Ultraviolet
rays type B (UVB) in sunlight can inactivate both SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 present on
surfaces as well as in the air (J. Herman, et al. 2020). The relationship between sunlight exposure
27
and the COVID-19 recovery rate was evaluated in Jakarta, Indonesia, by Asyary and Veruswati
(2020). Their findings showed that a higher duration of sunlight exposure was found to be
associated with an increase in the recovery rate among patients, indicating the potential of sunlight
exposure for accelerating recovery (A. Asyary, M. Veruswati, 2020). Direct exposure of skin to
sunlight promotes the production of vitamin D, a vital component that regulates the immune
system (J. Mercola, W.B. Grant, C.L. Wagner, 2020).
Daylighting is a good germicidal factor and can inhibit infection and acts as the principal natural
viricide in the environment (Udomiaye E. et al. 2020). It simply follows that as part of infection
prevention and control, there should be adequate openings that will allow daylight into hospital
wards, rooms, offices corridors, and stairwell. Designing buildings with better exposure to sunlight
and outdoor air may inhibit the survival and transmission of infections in isolation facilities.
2.3.4 Design with adaptive finishing materials and construction methods
Recent studies on coronavirus(covid-19) suggest that the virus behaves differently and possesses
different life span with different material surfaces. A study by Doremalen et al. 2020, shows that
coronavirus is steadier on plastic and steel(upto3days) than on spongy fabrics like cotton, leather,
even cardboard (<24 h), while the same strain of the virus only survives for four (4) hours on
copper surfaces. Thus, architects must rethink the material selection process, material specification
writing and treatment of surfaces. An earlier study by Nightingale revealed that the plaster used in
construction, which has many tiny voids, was believed to be the breeding zone and spread of
pathogenic elements. Based on the above findings, the study proposes the following;
i. Specify Copper-infused or plated materials for frequently touched surfaces such as
staircase handrails, balcony rails, bed rails.

28
ii. Design and situate sinks to enhance ease of cleaning and to prevent waste spilling to
sensitive care areas.
iii. Plaster with a mixture of de-coagulant in cement screed or high solidity and smoothness.
iv. Apply POP screed after plastering with cement to enhance smoothness and eliminate tiny
voids on the wall surface or use covering materials such as special paints, used of textured
paints with fine sand should be discouraged.
v. Entrance doors and curtains to hospitals and public spaces with high traffic should be
designed with sensors to enhance automatic opening and closing. This will drastically
reduce contact with the doorknob and hence prevent transmission.
vi. Multiple entrances into public spaces should be minimized, this is to enable effective
monitoring of compliance to CDC rules.
vii. Sinks with motion sensors also to eliminate some possibilities of transmission. Controls
and equipment should be specified with a smaller number of flat surfaces where particles
can land as well as negligible crevices and crannies where debris can gather.
viii. Reducing the number of horizontal surfaces such as ledges can help reduce the
spread of infection.
ix. Design of the outdoor spaces (landscaping) should be made to reduce the spread of the
infections as well as increase recovery of patients.
2.4. EPIDEMIOLOGY
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in
specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems (CDC
2016). Epidemiology is the method used to find the causes of health outcomes and diseases in
29
populations. In epidemiology, the patient is the community and individuals are viewed
collectively. By definition, epidemiology is the study (scientific, systematic, and data-driven) of
the distribution (frequency, pattern) and determinants (causes, risk factors) of health-related states
and events (not just diseases) in specified populations (neighborhood, school, city, state, country,
global). It is also the application of this study to the control of health problems (CDC 2012).
It is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by
identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Epidemiologists help with
study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of
results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped
develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic
research in the biological sciences (Porta, Miquel 2014)
2.4.1 Ebola virus epidemiology in Nigeria
The 2014 outbreak of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in Nigeria was one branch of the major West
African epidemic that spanned from 2013 to 2016. As of 13 March 2016, a total of 28,639 EVD
cases and 11,316 deaths have been reported in 10 countries. The majority of EVD burden has
occurred in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea, with exported cases responsible for additional
transmissions in the United States, Mali, and Nigeria, and diagnosed cases with no transmissions
in the United Kingdom, Italy, Senegal, and Spain (WHO 2016).
The Nigeria EVD outbreak began on 20 July 2014, when a traveler from Liberia (the index case
patient), who was infected with Ebola Virus (EBOV), arrived by commercial aircraft to Murtala
Muhammed International Airport in Lagos. The traveler’s movement was quickly restricted,
patient samples were confirmed EBOV positive by independent polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
30
tests within days, and intensive contact tracing was conducted. The Nigeria EVD outbreak ended
on 20 October 2014, when the country was declared Ebola free by the World Health Organization.
During that period, 20 individuals are reported to have been infected, of whom 8 died (Onikepe et
al. 2016).
2.4.2 Tuberculosis (TB) disease epidemiology in Nigeria
Tuberculosis is a major public health problem in Nigeria with the country ranked 6th among the 30
high TB burden country globally, and first in Africa. Nigeria is also among the 14 countries that
are in all the three WHO Global high-burden country lists for TB, TB/HIV and MDR-TB with an
estimated incident rate of 219 per 100,000 population and mortality rate (excludes HIV+) of
64/100,000. Nigeria is among the eight countries that accounted for two thirds of the global TB
burden, with the country accounting for 4% of the total global burden.
In 2019, the number of health facilities that reported at least one presumptive increased by 37%
from 7,022 health facilities in 2018 to 9,628 in 2019. The health facility reporting rate
increase from 73% (7022 of the 9,625 health facilities reported) in 2018 to 78% (9,628 out of
12,279 health facilities reported) in 2019. In 2019, 4,475 health facilities reported at least one TB
cases (FMHDPH 2020).
2.4.3 Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID 19)
Coronaviruses are a family of viruses that can cause respiratory illness in humans. They are called
“corona” because of crown-like spikes on the surface of the virus. Severe acute respiratory
syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) and the common cold are examples
of coronaviruses that cause illness in humans (Cleveland Clinic 2020).

31
Plate 1; Corona virus diagram
Source: Cleveland Clinic 2020.
COVID-19 enters your body through your mouth, nose or eyes (directly from the airborne droplets
or from transfer of the virus from your hands to your face). The virus travels to the back of your
nasal passages and mucous. COVID-19 is likely spread:
• The virus travels in respiratory droplets released into the air when an infected person
coughs, sneezes, talks, sings or breathes near you (within 6 feet). You may be infected if
you inhale these droplets.
• You can also get COVID-19 from close contact (touching, shaking hands) with an infected
person and then touching your face.
• It’ s considered possible to get COVID-19 after touching a contaminated surface and then
touching your eyes, mouth, or nose before washing your hands.

32
2.4.4 Coronavirus Disease epidemiology in Nigeria
The Federal Ministry of Health has confirmed a coronavirus disease (COVID-19) case in Lagos
State, Nigeria. The case, which was confirmed on the 27th of February 2020, is the first case to be
reported in Nigeria since the beginning of the outbreak in China in January 2020. The case is an
Italian citizen who works in Nigeria and returned from Milan, Italy to Lagos, Nigeria on the 25th
of February 2020. He was confirmed by the Virology Laboratory of the Lagos University Teaching
Hospital, part of the Laboratory Network of the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control. The patient
was clinically stable, with no serious symptoms, and was managed at the Infectious Disease
Hospital in Yaba, Lagos. The Government of Nigeria, through the Federal Ministry of Health has
been strengthening measures to ensure an outbreak in Nigeria is controlled and contained quickly.
The multi-sectoral Coronavirus Preparedness Group led by the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control
(NCDC) has immediately activated its national Emergency Operations Centre and worked closely
with Lagos State Health authorities to respond to that case and implement firm control measures.
Nigeria have been beefing up her preparedness capabilities since the first confirmation of cases in
China and used all the resources made available by the government to respond to that case and
other ones. (Dr Osagie Ehanire 2020)

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2.4.5 Confirmed Cases of COVID 19 in Nigeria
Table 3; Confirmed Cases of COVID 19 in Nigeria
States No. of Cases (Lab No. of Cases (on No. No. of
Affected Confirmed) admission) Discharged Deaths
Lagos 97,721 16,886 80,066 769
FCT 27,873 2,419 25,213 241
Rivers 16,254 509 15,591 154
Kaduna 11,100 59 10,955 86
Plateau 10,223 73 10,076 74
Oyo 10,167 636 9,335 196
Edo 7,617 65 7,238 314
Ogun 5,780 63 5,635 82
Delta 5,258 343 4,805 110
Ondo 5,108 380 4,628 100
Kano 4,894 175 4,592 127
Akwa Ibom 4,625 87 4,494 44

34
Kwara 4,518 541 3,913 64
Osun 3,192 91 3,009 92
Gombe 3,063 175 2,825 63
Enugu 2,952 13 2,910 29
Anambra 2,743 46 2,678 19
Nasarawa 2,691 307 2,345 39
Katsina 2,399 23 2,339 37
Imo 2,362 75 2,230 57
Abia 2,146 15 2,097 34
Benue 2,129 340 1,764 25
Ebonyi 2,064 28 2,004 32
Ekiti 1,972 62 1,882 28
Bauchi 1,922 22 1,876 24
Borno 1,606 22 1,540 44

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Taraba 1,350 83 1,235 32
Bayelsa 1,305 30 1,247 28
Adamawa 1,157 27 1,098 32
Niger 1,137 119 998 20
Sokoto 811 1 782 28
Cross River 770 16 729 25
Jigawa 660 32 610 18
Yobe 502 3 490 9
Kebbi 478 8 454 16
Zamfara 375 0 366 9
Kogi 5 0 3 2
Source: Nigeria center for disease control (NCDC) January 17th, 2022.
36
2.5 ISOLATION CENTER
An isolation center is a separate facility from other hospital resources were people with an
infectious disease are kept and are treated separately from other patients. In the isolation center,
suspected and laboratory confirm cases of COVID 19 are kept separately. The lab confirm patients
will be giving treatment while the suspected persons will be kept for a time being to monitor their
conditions by the healthcare personals.
2.5.1 Functional Flow Diagram of a Covid-19 Isolation Center.
Figure 4; Functional Flow Diagram of a Covid-19 Isolation Center.
(source: IAB, 2020).

37
2.5.2 Historical Development of Isolation Center.
As early as 1877, the first published recommendations on hospital isolation precautions surfaced.
They were in the form of a hospital handbook for nurses that recommended placing patients with
infectious diseases in separate facilities. These became known as infectious disease hospitals. Not
a plague hospital, meningitis hospital, and a tuberculosis hospital, rather a hospital where all
infectious patients would be housed together. This is an original picture of one of several cottages
built at a hospital to serve as infectious disease wards. This concept didn’t work, because there
was no physical separation between the types of diseases. For example, a tuberculosis patient
would be placed in a ward with other types of infected patients. This resulted in nosocomial
transmission of infectious diseases. A nosocomial infection is contracted because of an infection
or toxin that exists in a certain location, such as a hospital. (Graham Rodgers 2017).
Personnel in infectious disease hospitals began to focus efforts towards reducing nosocomial
transmission. One way to do this was to set aside a floor or award for patients with similar diseases.
In other words, patients with like infectious conditions were placed together; not just patients with
any infectious disease.
In 1910, a cubicle system of isolation started. Here they placed a patient in multi-bed wards and
hospital personnel used separate gowns, washed their hands and disinfected patient objects after
use. This was known as “barrier nursing” and provided, for general hospitals, an alternative to
placing patients in infectious disease hospitals. Reports will mention that when barrier nursing was
used, cases of Ebola transmission between HCW’s and patients remarkably decreased. Then we
come to the 1950s and we have hospitals for infectious disease beginning to close and instead
patients were seen in outpatient and general hospitals, with the exception of TB hospitals. TB
38
hospitals stayed around a little longer until the mid-60s. By the late 60s, patients with infectious
diseases were housed in wards in the general hospital, either in a specifically designed single
patient isolation room or in regular single or multiple patient rooms.
Then the CDC came along and in 1970, published their Isolation Techniques for Use in Hospitals.
These guidelines were designed to apply from the smallest community hospital to the largest
teaching hospital and to assist hospitals with general isolation precautions. CDC first started out
with 7 categories: Strict, (which required all types of personal protective equipment whenever you
go in the room); Respiratory (which required wearing a mask); Protective Isolation (designed to
protect people with an immune suppressed status and you would have sterile gowns, sterile gloves,
sterile sheets, etc.); enteric precautions (for those diseases transmitted by the fecal-oral route);
Wound and Skin Precautions (for large draining wounds that couldn’t be contained with a
dressing); Discharge Precautions (not precautions against going home, but precautions for a
smaller wound that could be contained using a dressing); and Blood Precautions (designed for
Hepatitis B infection because at that time HIV was not in the picture). The precautions
recommended for each category were determined almost entirely by the epidemiologic features of
the diseases grouped in each category, primarily their routes of transmission.
The advantages of this first series of isolation precaution categories from the CDC were several.
They were considered a small number of categories. It was considered a simple system and they
had a different color-coded sign with printed instructions for each of these categories. So, you
would know, based on the color of the sign, which isolation precaution the patient was in. You
could put smaller stickers on the chart when you were going to another department for a procedure.
39
There were disadvantages of this system of isolation. It was not possible for every single disease
in the category to be transmitted exactly the same way. Some required fewer/more precautions
than in the designated category. As a result, some diseases were over isolated. So, this system
wasn’t as efficient as it could be. By the mid-70s, 93% of hospitals in the U.S. had adopted this
system. However, no studies were done to demonstrate their efficacy to prevent the spread of
infection or the costs, and as you know, this is a big determinant. These categories were going
along until the 80s when hospitals then started to have endemic and epidemic nosocomial infection
problems. They had the emergence of multi-resistant pathogens and these multi-resistant
pathogens really required a different type of isolation precaution than any other existing category.
So, it made it hard to fit them in the previously developed categories. So, the needs at that time
were to have an isolation precaution that specifically targeted special units, like neonatal intensive
care (where the patients did not have mature immune systems), burn units (where patients had
compromised immune systems), and intensive care units (where nosocomial ventilator associated
pneumonia is one of the highest risks of infection). They also needed categories to avoid over
isolation and they were learning new things about epidemiology and transmission, because
infection control was a relatively new field. This led to the 2nd wave, the 1983 CDC “Guideline
for Isolation Precautions in Hospitals”. This set of precautions put an emphasis on decision making
of the “users”, such as healthcare workers (HCWs). These new proposed isolation/precautions
systems required several decisions on the part of HCWs. The people who had to place the patients
in precautions had to decide, based on their age and mental status, whether they needed a private
room or not. Personnel had to decide whether they had to wear a mask, a gown, or gloves based
on exposure likelihood from a particular type of infectious material, whether it be sputum, wound
drainage, etc. Then, you had a choice. You could use “category-specific isolation” or “disease-
40
specific isolation” system. The first of the two types of isolation systems that were given as a
choice was the category-specific system.
Since 1970, when CDC first introduced the disease-specific category system of isolation
precautions, many different policies and practices to prevent the spread of infections in hospitals
have been recommended (Linda T. and Debora B. 2003). Traditionally, barrier precautions (e.g.,
hand hygiene and gloves) have been used to reduce the risk of transmission of nosocomial
infections to and from hospitalized patients. The emergence of bloodborne diseases such as AIDS
and hepatitis C (HCV) in the 1980s, coupled with the resurgence of tuberculosis, first led to the
introduction of Universal Precautions (UP) in 1985 and subsequently the Body Substance
Isolation, and the OSHA Blood borne Pathogens Standard. In the disease-specific system, the
epidemiology of each infectious disease was considered individually by practicing only those
precautions (e.g., private room, mask, gown and gloves) needed to interrupt transmission of the
infection.
2.5.3 Types of Isolation Rooms
➢ Single rooms
Patients Suspected of infectious diseases must not be in the same ward as those confirmed of the
cases. Suspected cases should preferably be admitted in well-ventilated single rooms. Where this
is not possible, they may be admitted in wards with a separating barrier between each bed or a
space of at least 1 m (3 ft) from the edge of one bed to the other (Africa CDC, 2020). Rooms
should have en-suite bathroom and toilet. Natural ventilation is recommended, however, where air
conditioners are used for patient comfort, the exhaust should be towards spaces away from human
41
flow. Where negative pressure systems are not available, natural ventilation is acceptable or an
air-conditioned single room with an exhaust to the outside away from areas of human traffic. Avoid
air recirculation. Air conditioner filters must be changed regularly according to manufacturer’s
recommendation. There should be a well-ventilated room close to the ward with adequate space
for staff to don and doff without overcrowding. (Africa CDC, 2020).
➢ Open wards
Patients that are confirmed positive for infectious diseases can be admitted into the same ward if
single rooms are not available. Wards may be the long dormitory type ward but should be divided
into bays. They may be in tents or community buildings, e.g. hotels, town halls or schools. The
requirements for mild, moderate, severe and critical cases are similar except in the area of
ventilation and distance between patients (Africa CDC, 2020). For all wards, there should be/have
adequate provision for uninterrupted safe water, sanitation and hygiene facilities, as well as
electricity and communication, at least one toilet for every 20 patients, an adequate waste disposal
system which is color-coded, in wards for mild/moderate cases, 60 l/s per patient airflow for
natural ventilation, beds at least 1 m apart edge-to-edge between patients, severe/critical wards
with beds separated by at least 2 m edge-to edge (Africa CDC, 2020).
➢ Sampling room
This is where infectious disease laboratory samples are taken, sampling may be carried out in the
triage area if there is adequate space. Well ventilated individual cubicles with natural ventilation
or hybrid ventilation with a HEPA filter for the exhaust air is recommended. Each cubicle should
42
be clearly labelled and must be cleaned and disinfected after each patient to avoid disease
transmission (Africa CDC, 2020).
2.5.4 Design Considerations in An Isolation/ Quarantine Facility.
According to Zulfiqar AR (2018) There is no architecture design specially in the field of healthcare
architecture which is 100% error free but we can achieve a healing environment in hospital project
by minimizing these design errors if due care can be provided. That is possible with fundaments
of hospital design which include the following:
1. Circulation and Infection Control
An isolation center is a complex system of interrelated functions requiring constant movement of
people and goods. Much of this circulation should be controlled following the steps below to
control nosocomial infection within the facility.
• Outflow of trash, recyclables and soiled materials should be separated form movement of
food and clean supplies and both should be separated from routes of patients
• Out patients visiting diagnostic and vaccination areas should not travel through inpatient
functional areas nor encounter severely ill inpatients
• Typical outpatient routes should be simple and clearly defined.
• Visitors should have a simple and direct route to each patient nursing unit without
penetrating other functional areas.
• Transfer of cadavers to and from the morgue should be out of the sight of patients and
visitors.
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Transmission of infectious agents within a healthcare setting requires three elements; a source (or
reservoir) of infectious agents, a susceptible host; with a portal of entry receptive to the agent, and
a mode of transmission for the agent (J.D. Siegel and Emily Rhinehart et al. 2007). As such, the
design of am isolation center must take measures that curtail the spread of the disease to other
people in and around the facility.
Sources of infectious agents. Infectious agents transmitted during healthcare derive primarily from
human sources but inanimate environmental sources also are implicated in transmission. Human
reservoirs include patients, healthcare personnel, and household members and other visitors. Such
source individuals may have active infections, may be in the asymptomatic and/or incubation
period of an infectious disease, or may be transiently or chronically colonized with pathogenic
microorganisms, particularly in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. The endogenous flora
of patients (e.g., bacteria residing in the respiratory or gastrointestinal tract) also are the source of
HAIs.
Susceptible hosts. Infection is the result of a complex interrelationship between a potential host
and an infectious agent. Most of the factors that influence infection and the occurrence and severity
of disease are related to the host. However, characteristics of the host-agent interaction as it relates
to pathogenicity, virulence and antigenicity are also important, as are the infectious dose,
mechanisms of disease production and route of exposure. There is a spectrum of possible outcomes
following exposure to an infectious agent.

44
2. Sustainability and Comfort.
Isolation centers are large public buildings that have a significant impact on the community. They
are heavy users of energy and water and produce large amounts of waste. Because isolation centers
place such demands on community resources, they are natural candidates for sustainable design so
as to achieve the user comfort.
Comfort involves more than relief from pain, it comes from pleasant memories, hours spent in the
garden, the sound of a crackling fire, soothing music, appealing fragrance, and a loving touch.
Hospice provides these final pleasures; the design of an isolation center strives to evoke pleasant
emotional responses.
These spaces should also accommodate the well-being of the users. Isolating the individual should
not make them feel like prisoners but you cannot send them to the community. Therefore, the space
designed for this function should be well thought through to achieve the two contradictory
statements. IC should be adequately located with adequate internal / room micro climate and
building/ space layout. When they are poorly designed they may cause more harm than good
because they may lead to infection of even the medical workers (G. Nakibaala 2016).
Nature is comforting to many, and access to the outdoors is important. A garden provides a
comfortable place to visit and produces flowers to adorn the patients’ rooms. Even short exposures
to nature, as short as three to five minutes, evoke psychological/emotional changes, reducing
stress. Bring the natural elements of light, water, and fire indoors through the use of skylights,
fireplaces, and fountains (Cynthia Leibrock, Debra D. Harris, 2011).

45
It should preferably be placed in the outskirt of the urban/ city area away from the people’s reach
(crowded and populated area)
It should be well protected and secured (preferably by security personnel) and should have a
hospital facility attached to it or have a better approachability to a tertiary hospital facility in case
of patients having other medical complications. The facility should have sufficient Parking space
including ambulances and easy access for delivery of food/medical/other supplies (NCDC Delhi
2020).
In addition, they should be designed so as to be easy to use by any patients with temporary or
permanent handicaps by ensuring grades are flat enough to allow easy movement and sidewalls
and corridors are wide enough for two wheelchairs to pass easily. the entrance areas are designed
to accommodate patients with slower adaptation rates to dark and light, marking glass walls and
doors to make their presence obvious.
3. Basic infrastructure/functional requirements:
• Rooms/Dormitory separated from one another may be preferable with in-house capacity of 5-10
beds/room
• Each bed to be separated 1-2 meters (minimum 1 meter) apart from all sides.
• Lighting, well-ventilation, heating, electricity, ceiling fan
• Potable water to be available
• Functional telephone system for providing communications.
• Support services- food, snacks, recreation areas including television

46
• Laundry services
• Sanitation services/Cleaning and House keeping
• Properly covered bins as per BMW may be placed
4. Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness:
An efficient isolation center should:
• Promote staff efficiency by minimizing distance of necessary travel between frequently
used spaces.
• Include all needed spaces, but no redundant ones. This requires careful pre-design
programming
• Make efficient use of space by locating support spaces so that they may be shared by
adjacent functional areas, and by making prudent use of multi-purpose spaces.
• Group or combine functional areas with similar system requirements
5. Flexibility and Expandability
Since medical needs and modes of treatment will continue to change, isolation centers should:
• Use genetic room sizes and plans as much possible, rather than highly specific ones.
• Be served by modular, easily accessed, and easily modified mechanical and electrical
systems.
• Be open-ended, with well-planned directions for future expansion; for instances
positioning “soft spaces” such as administrative departments, adjacent to “hard spaces”
such as clinical laboratories.

47
6. Aesthetics
Aesthetics is closely related to creating a therapeutic environment (homelike, attractive). It is
important in enhancing the facility’s public. A better environment also contributes to better staff
morale and patient care. Aesthetics considerations include:
• Increased use of natural light, natural materials, and textures.
• Attention to proportions, color, scale and detail
• Bright, open, generously scaled public spaces
• Homelike and intimate scale in patient rooms, day consultation rooms, and offices
7. Securing Entry and Exit points
In order to prevent and control infection in the facility, strategic points in the facility needs to be
identified including:
• The Control room where a person entering inside quarantined building to get proper
awareness and training on infection control measures,
• A well informed and trained security to check (main entrance gate of the area) and a guard
(24*7) with registers for ins and outs and a designated nursing officer for checking proper
PPE wear (main entrance gate in the building)
• The international biohazard warning symbol and sign to be displayed on the doors of the
rooms where suspects are kept, biomedical waste (BMW) management areas, samples of
higher risk groups are handled
• Only authorized & trained persons or those designated in work areas to permitted to enter
the isolation/ quarantine areas;
• Doors to keep closed at all times preferably under observation of a guard.

48
There should be double door entry was managed with only one door to be open at a single time.
(NCDC Delhi 2020).
2.5.5 SPACES REQUIRED IN AN ISOLATION CENTER
Regardless of whether an existing healthcare facility is being adapted for use in caring for severely
affected COVID-19 patients, or a temporary facility is being established externally, certain
designated areas should be included in the facility design. These designated areas do not have to
be co-located with the isolation center but should be close enough to ensure efficient and secure
workflow (Africa CDC July, 2020).
For a basic and effective running of an isolation center, the following designated spaces must be
in a good working condition:
1. Triaging area should be/have:
● The first point of patient contacts before entry into the facility;
● In a well-ventilated room, designated space or can be outside of the building;
● A staff area and patient area;
● At least 1 m between healthcare worker and patient. A plexiglass barrier can be placed between
the patient and HCW;
● A thermometer or “no-touch” electronic temperature measuring device;
● PPE (e.g. medical masks);

49
● Hand hygiene facilities such as alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) or/and handwashing station
with running water and soap;
● Equipment for disinfection of surfaces
● Clear and readable signage to direct patients to triage area and to holding bay.
2. Patient waiting area should be a well-ventilated room or can be a designated area in an open
space. Patients may also be given individual cubicles. If patients are together in one area there
must be at least 1 m between each person. Facilities can consider marking the areas using colored
tapes, chalk or paint. The place should be disinfected after each patient.
3. Isolation/holding bay is a temporary area that must be close to the screening area for a person
suspected of having COVID-19 to wait if they require transfer to another facility.
4. Reception should be close to the entrance. The receptionist must have clear view of the entrance
and will assist to direct patients to the holding bay. The receptionist works closely with the triage
staff to ensure proper patient flow.
5. Staff entrance is the first IPC administrative control because that is where temperature screening
and hand hygiene of staff occurs.
● It also prevents unauthorized entry ensuring the separation of staff from patients.
● It should be spacious and well ventilated.

50
6. Changing rooms should be/have:
● Separated into male and female areas;
● Large enough to avoid overcrowding and should be well ventilated;
● Separated by a door;
● Preferably have a higher pressure than the corridor or be separated by an anteroom that is at
higher pressure or have good natural ventilation;
● Adjacent to the isolation ward;
● Adequate shelving for clean PPE;
● Facilities for hand hygiene and waste disposal.
7. Isolation wards for confirmed and suspected cases should be in a segregated area not frequented
by outsiders/visitors. If possible, access to isolation ward should be through dedicated lift/guarded
stairs. It should not be co-located with post-surgical wards, labour wards, neonatal units and wards
with vulnerable patients. Entry and exit doors should be separate and clearly marked. There should
be clear signages on the door indicating that the space is an isolation area (Africa CDC. 2020).
8. Cleaning services in clean and dirty zones is a designated and dedicated space in each ward
(isolation zone) and in the staff (clean zone) area. This area is used for dilution of disinfectants,
storage and reprocessing of reusable cleaning equipment and supplies. It should have good lighting
and be well-ventilated with adequate water supply, energy and waste management system. It must
have hand hygiene facilities

51
9. Discharge area is for patients who are preparing to be discharged home. There should be a wide
window on both sides to ensure adequate natural ventilation. Handwashing points must be
available at the entrance and exit (Africa CDC. 2020).
for the discharge of quarantine and isolated patients from the facility at the end of 14 days of
incubation period provided samples are negative on resampling. Instructions should be provided
to self-monitor their health at their home (home quarantine) for next 14 days and immediately
report to their District Surveillance officer (DSO), in case of development of symptoms suggestive
of COVID-19 (NCDC, Delhi 2020).
2.5.6 Risk Assessment of An Isolation/ Quarantine Facility
The risk level refers to how likely it is that someone in the isolation center/ quarantine camp will
become infected with corona virus as a result of movements and activities performed in the facility
(NCDC, Delhi 2020). Risk assessment includes identification of the biohazard risk precaution
levels, along with its associated activities. The risk level refers to how likely it is that someone in
the isolation center will become infected with corona virus as a result of procedures performed in
the isolation center. The risk areas are segregated and labeled as:
➢ Low risk areas: Areas having less direct contact with evacuee suspects such as control
room in the isolation center, nursing station and of kitchen areas where food is prepared.
➢ Moderate risk areas: Moderate risk areas are where infectious aerosols are generated
from. Areas where the suspects were inhabiting in their bed linen, pillows and nearby
clothes; low concentration of infectious particles. Contaminated surface near the isolation/
quarantine zones.
52
➢ High risk areas: Areas where direct dealing with the suspects are as under Medical
examination room, sample collection areas (high concentration of infectious particles while
coughing, sneezing, gag reflex during nasopharyngeal & oropharyngeal sample collection).
Toilet and bathroom areas, dining areas, areas of bio-waste collections, segregation and
disposal (NCDC, Delhi 2020).
2.5.7 GUIDANCE ON SETTING UP AN ISOLATION WARDS FOR THE
MANAGEMENT OF COVID-19 PATIENTS.
SARS-COV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, is primarily transmitted through droplets and
contact routes. However, certain procedures performed in health care settings produce aerosols
that may render the virus airborne and capable of spreading over much longer distances. These
include nebulizer treatments, suctioning of respiratory secretions, and endotracheal intubation.
In addition to providing the needed advanced patient care services, healthcare facilities and
treatment centers supporting critically ill patients must:
• have floor space that is adequate to separate patient beds;
• adequately separate COVID-19 patients from other non-infected patients;
• manage the flow of personnel and other patients to avoid unnecessary contact with
COVID-19 patients;
• provide adequate space for healthcare staff to don and doff protective equipment;
• provide for appropriate handling of respiratory air from the treatment area;
• properly handle and dispose of potentially infected medical waste;

53
• have appropriate plumbing with sufficient clean water for handwashing and
wastewater disposal; and
• provide adequate pest and rodent control.
The ideal treatment center, as recommended by the WHO, incorporates all these requirements in
a single purpose-built complex (Africa CDC July, 2020).
2.5 BIOMEDICAL WASTE (BMW) MANAGEMENT
Bio-medical waste" means any waste, which is generated during the surveillance, monitoring,
diagnosis, treatment or immunization of quarantined personnel in health Quarantine facility. The
Bio-medical Waste Management rules are applicable to all persons who generate, collect, receive,
store, transport, treat, dispose, or handle bio medical waste in any form at the quarantine facility.
Management of Hospital/Healthcare/Biomedical waste at the quarantine facility is of utmost
concern having global implications and immediate attention. It is documented that even the general
waste generated from Quarantine facility is a potential health hazard to the health care workers,
public, flora and fauna of the area.
To ensure that biomedical waste management in the facility takes place as per standard guidelines,
separate yellow, red /black bags, foot operating dustbins needs to be kept at each floor and outside
the facility. It is to strictly ensured that Doffing takes place in the designated area with all the PPE
kit including mask, gloves is properly placed in yellow bags. All the health care workers collecting
the possible infectious material such as food items, PPE kits from yellow bags should also wear
PPE and following the infection protection control (IPC) measures. Designated place to be
54
earmarked outside the building for collection of yellow and black bags. It should be collected at
least twice daily by biomedical waste management vehicle/any other local established practice.
Site of collection of biomedical waste should be regularly disinfected with freshly prepared 1%
hypochlorite solution. All officials concerned with the administration and all other health care
workers including medical, paramedical, nursing officers, other paramedical staff and waste
handlers, attendants & Sanitation attendants need to be well oriented to the requirements of
handling and management of general and BMW generated at the facility. Steps in the management
of BMW include generation, accumulation, handling, storage, treatment, transport and disposal as
mentioned in the Standard Operative Procedures (SOP) needs to be followed. Continuous training,
monitoring & supervision to monitor the implementation to be done on daily basis to manage
compliance related issues. All the generated waste from Isolation facility to be treated as isolation
waste and its disinfection /treatment was strictly monitored by specialists in the health authorities
(NCDC, Delhi 2020).
2.6.1 Organogram for Biomedical waste management
Figure 5; Organogram for Biomedical waste management
(NCDC, Delhi 2020).

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2.6.2 Catteories of biomedical waste
Bio-medical waste has been classified in to 4 major categories to improve the segregation of waste
at the source itself:
Table 4; Catteories of biomedical waste
Categories Type of Bags Type of Waste Treatment/Disposal
Non-chlorinated Donned off PPE, PPE with spill, Incineration or Plasma pyrolysis
plastic, Gloves, Shoe covers, Head, or deep burial*
autoclavable Covers, Disposable bed sheets.
bags
YELLOW
Non-chlorinated 1. Eye protection goggles Autoclaving/microwaving
plastic, 2. recyclable materials like pens /hydroclaving and then sent for
autoclavable 3. plastic water bottles used by recycling not be sent to landfill
bags quarantine people 4. Bed sheets

RED
Puncture, leak, 1. sharp waste including metals Auto or Dry Heat Sterilization
tamper proof followed by shredding or
containers mutilation or encapsulation
WHITE
Cardboard Glassware/tube light/CFL Disinfection or autoclaving,
boxes with blue bulbs/LED used in quarantine microwaving, hydroclaving and
coloured facility then sent for recycling
marking
BLUE
(NCDC, Delhi 2020).

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2.6.3 Treatment and Disposal of BMW
1. Quarantine facility does not have an onsite setup for BMW treatment facilities there it should
be taken to their designated BMW facility and treatment/disposal must be done as per BMW
regulations approved in their contract.
2. No untreated bio-medical waste shall be kept stored beyond a period of 48 hours.
3. All the waste (even the general waste) generated from the quarantine facility must be treated as
Biomedical waste.
2.5.4 Cleanliness and Sanitation
isolation centers must be easy to clean and maintain. This is facilitated by appropriate, durable
finishes for each functional space and careful detailing of such features as doorframes, casework,
and finish transitions to avoid dirt-catching and hard-to-clean crevices and joints. Cleanliness in
an isolation center make a good indoor environmental quality.
2.6. Conceptual framework
The introduction of adequate and sufficient ventilation through the use of wide and opposite
openings in the building dilute the concentration of contaminated indoor air by replacing it with
fresh and clean outdoor air. Top openings will be introduced to serve as air vents where warm
indoor air rises and escape into the atmosphere (Tom Lipinski, et al. 2020) as the fresh air enters
the building through the provided building fenestrations.
The building orientation will bring in sunlight by making the longer and openable axis face the
eastern and western solar path. Research has shown that a little exposure to the sun’s UVA and
UVB kills viruses and germs (C.S. Heilingloh et al. 2020). The introduction of sunlight into the
57
building will help eliminate virus droplets on surfaces as well as reduce the chances of viral spread
through contact transmission.
The choice of materials will also play a significant role in reducing infection within the facility.
As research suggested, materials made of steel, cardboard, and plastic serves as a good surviving
ground for viruses and germs (Onaizi, S.A.; Leong, S.S.J. 2011) but materials or items made or
coated with copper serves as inhibiting rounds for viruses and germs (Chen, C. et al. 2020).
Therefore, copper made or coated materials and finishes will be prioritized in the materials
specifications. Regular contacted surfaces like bedrails, bedtables, handrails, doorknobs, elevator
buttons, floor and wall finish etc. will be made or coated with copper or any of its alloys since
viruses only survive for a little time on them.
Social distancing is a proven way of curbing the spread of viruses among people (CDC 2021). The
CDC guidelines requires that a social distance of 1-2m be maintain from person to person in any
gathering since virus release from an infected person either through coughing, sneezing, or talking
travel not farter tan 1m under normal condition before it is pull down by gravitational force
(Udomiaye E. et al. 2020). The design of the facility will make provision for wide spaces that will
ensure sufficient social distancing.

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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 CASE STUDIES
3.1 DESIGN CASE STUDIES
A case study is a process of researching into a project and documenting it through writings,
sketches, diagrams, and photos. To understand the various aspects of designing and constructing
a building one must consider learning from other people’s mistakes and successes (Modam Shahid
2015).
A case study gives an understanding of a detail analysis of the design philosophy of an architect
in order to understand the pros and cons of the design that may affect the proposed design as well.
It is not automatic that we will like everything in the design but the whole design cannot go
unnoticed. The good aspects of the design can be adopted into the proposed design and the bad
aspect of the design can be an area that need improvement in the proposed design (Sai Kumar
2018).
The main purpose of a case study is to research and understand the design philosophy employed
by an architect wile designing a building. It can be the starting point of any project or serve as a
link or reference that will be use to explain the project with ease. The building chosen for a case
study must not be a true representation of the intended design but the aim should be to learn from
its perfections as well as from its mistakes too while adding our creativity (Modam Shahid 2015).
Case study in the context of this research is a comparative study of the passive design approach to
the design of an isolation center. Emphasis will be made on general design of the center and some
specific passive design strategies improvised in the centers. Five case studies were chosen for the
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assessment i.e. three international and two local Case studies will be discussed. The following
center will be discussed;
a. 1 Bataan Mega Q.
b. ITBP Quarantine Center.
c. Plateau Hospital Isolation Ward
3.2 CASE STUDY 1
Name: 1 Bataan Mega Q, Bataan, Philippines.
Location: Municipal of Oroni, Bataan, Philippines.
Architect: Henry Mayuga
Category: Quarantine and Isolation Center
Year of Construction: 2021
Services: Treatment of infected patients, quarantine of suspected patients, sample collection and
screening, and vaccination of laboratory confirm negative patients.
units: reception area, triage area, kitchen, parking lot, waste disposal system, 300 isolation rooms.
planning area: 4-storey building on 3-hectares of land.
Plate 2; Showing the perspective of 1 Bataan Mega Q.

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Source; Ernie Esconde 2020
3.2.1 Background
The facility is a four-story central processing and quarantine facility for Covid-19. it was
inaugurated in simple ceremonies at the sprawling 1Bataan Command Center compound adjacent
to the Roman Highway in Balanga City, Bataan on Friday (Dec. 18, 2020). To be known as
1Bataan Mega Q. The facility is a 300-bed processing and quarantine facility with an Isolation
Center where those tested positive of the virus with mild and asymptomatic cases can stay for 10–
14 days. The Governor of Bataan state, Albert Garcia said the building will be known as 1Bataan
Mega Q. that will process our province mates, overseas Filipino workers, and locally stranded
individuals who returned home in Mega Q to make sure they are not positive for Covid-19 before
they are endorse to their mayors and municipal health officers and before finally returning home
(Ernie Esconde 2020).
Plate 3; Showing patients testing units.

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Plate 4; Showing waiting area.

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Plate 5; Showing sample collection unit.

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Plate 6; Showing vaccination room.

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Plate 7; Showing design idea to construction.
Plate 8; Showing landscape of the facility.

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3.3 CASE STUDY TWO
Name: ITBP Quarantine Center.
Location: Chhawla, New Delhi, India.
Category: Quarantine and Isolation Center
Services: treatment of infected patients, quarantine of suspected cases, sample collection /
screening, and vaccination
units: reception area, triage area, canteen, indoor recreational area, waste disposal system, 500
beds isolation wards.
Figure 6; Showing typical floor layout of the facility.
Source; AIB, 2020.

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Plate 9; Showing a three-dimensional view of the facility.
Plate 10; Showing an isolation ward in the facility.

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3.4 CASE STUDY THREE
Name: Plateau Hospital Isolation Ward
Location: Plateau specialist hospital Jos, plateau state, Nigeria.
Category: Isolation Center
Services: Treatment of infected patients (critical cases only)
units: isolation wards (male and female), patients relatives’ room, nurse station.
Client: UBA foundation.
Year of construction: 2020.
Figure 7; Showing floor plan of the facility.
Source; researcher’s field survey, 2021.

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3.4.1 Background
The facility is a two wards isolation center each having ten bed spaces for male and female patients.
It was established in the year 2020 by the United Bank for Africa (UBA foundation) during the
global outbreak of corona virus disease (Covid-19). The facility was provided only for isolation of
critical covid-19 cases with and attached space for patients’ relatives.
Plate 11; Showing the entrance to the facility.

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Plate 12; Showing the interior space of the isolation ward.
Plate 13; Showing the external landscape of the facility

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CHAPTER FOUR
STUDY AREA
4.1 PLATEAU STATE BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Plateau State was created out of the then Benue-Plateau State on February 3, 1976 by the Murtala
Mohammed Regime. Its capital is Jos. Jos the original name of ‘Gwosh’ was wrongly pronounced
as ‘Jos’ by the Hausa who settled on the site and turned it into a trading centre. Plateau State gets
its name from the Jos Plateau, a mountainous area in the north of the state with captivating rock
formations. Bare rocks are scattered across the grasslands, which cover the plateau. The altitude
ranges from around 1,200 meters (about 4000 feet) to a peak of 1,829 metres above sea level in
the Shere Hills range near Jos. Plateau State has led to a reduced incidence of some tropical
diseases such as malaria. The Jos Plateau, makes it the source of many rivers in northern Nigeria
including the Kaduna, Gongola, Hadejia and Yobe rivers.
Figure 8; Showing Map of Nigeria highlighting plateau state
Source; (Wikipedia 2019)

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4.2 BOUNDARIES
It is located in North Central Nigeria, Plateau State occupies 30,913 square kilometers. Plateau
State shares borders with Bauchi State to the North, Kaduna state to west, Nassarawa and Benue
state to the South and Taraba State to the East. Plateau State is located between latitude 80°24’N
and longitude 80°32′ and 100°38′ east
4.3 ETHNICITY
Plateau State is also divided into chiefdoms and emirates, each encompassing ethnic groups who
share common affinities. Leaders of the chiefdoms are elected by the people from amongst several
contestants who may not be related to any past chiefdom leaders, while succession to the position
of an emir is hereditary.
Plateau State has over forty ethno-linguistic groups but no single group large enough to claim
majority position. Some of the indigenous tribes in the State include: Afizere, Amo, Anaguta,
Angas, Aten, Berom, Bogghom, Buji, Challa, Chip, Fier, Gashish, Goemai, Irigwe, Jarawa, Jukun,
Kwagalak, Kwalla, Meryang, Miango, Miship, Montol, Mushere, Mupum, Mwaghavul, Ngas,
Piapung, Pyem, Ron-Kulere, Rukuba, Taletc, Taroh, Youm. Each ethnic group has its own distinct
language, but as with the rest of the country, English is the official language in Plateau State
although Hausa has gained acceptability as a medium of communication.

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4.4 OCCUPATION
These people groups are predominantly farmers and have similar cultural and traditional ways of
life. People from other parts of country have come to settle in Plateau State and generally coexist
peacefully with the indigenes. These include the Hausa, Fulani, Igbo, Yoruba, Ijaw, and Bini.
4.5 CLIMATE
Though situated in the tropical zone, a higher altitude means that Plateau State has a near temperate
climate with an average temperature of between 13 and 22 °C. Harmattan winds cause the coldest
weather between December and February. The warmest temperatures usually occur in the dry
season months of March and April. The mean annual rainfall varies between 131.75 cm (52 in) in
the southern part to 146 cm (57 in) on the Plateau. The highest rainfall is recorded during the wet
season months of July and August. The Jos Plateau, makes it the source of many rivers in northern
Nigeria including the Kaduna, Gongola, Hadejia and Yobe rivers
4.6 GEOLOGY
The Jos Plateau is thought to be an area of younger granite which was intruded through an area of
older granite rock, making up the surrounding states. These "younger" granites are thought to be
about 160 million years old. This creates the unusual scenery of the Jos Plateau. There are
numerous hillocks with gentle slopes emerging from the ground like mushrooms scattered with
huge boulders. Also, volcanic activity 50 million years ago created numerous volcanoes and vast
basaltic plateaus formed from lava flows. This also produces regions of mainly narrow and deep
valleys and pediments (surfaces made smooth by erosion) from the middle of rounded hills with
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sheer rock faces (Encyclopedia Britannica 2020). The phases of volcanic activities involved in the
formation of Plateau State have made it one of the mineral rich states in the country.
4.7 Tourism
4.7.1 Wildlife Safari Park
Sits in the middle of 8 km2 (3.09 sq. miles) of unspoiled savanna bush, about 4 km (2 mi) from
Jos. It offers a wide variety of wild animals within easy viewing. These include Buffalos, Lions,
baboons, derby elands, Rock pythons, crocodiles, chimpanzees, and Marabou storks. It was once
home to the rare pygmy hippopotamus, which had been successfully bred in the 'hippo pool’. The
park also boasts great, panoramic views of Jos city.
4.7.2 The National Museum
The national museum In Jos was founded in 1952, and is recognized as one of the best in the
country. It is renowned for its archeology and The Pottery Hall has an exceptional collection of
finely crafted pottery from all over Nigeria. The museum boasts some fine specimens of Nok
terracotta heads and artifacts dating from between 500 BC to 200 AD.
4.7.3 The Museum of Traditional Nigerian Architecture
The museum is adjacent, with life-size replicas of a variety of buildings, from the walls of Kano
and to a Tiv village. In addition, articles of interest from colonial times relating to the railway and
tin mining can be found on display.

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4.7.4 Assop Falls
Assop Falls Is perhaps, the most notable of Nigeria's many waterfalls. Located at the edge of the
Jos Plateau, about 40 miles (64 km) from Jos city, on the road to Abuja, this is a tourist stop for
picnicking, swimming and enjoying the scenery. Assop Falls is also used as a filming location for
local soap operas and advertisements.
4.7.5 Kurra Falls
is an area some 77 kilometers southeast of Jos. It is the location of the state's first hydroelectric
power station. It is a beautiful area of rocks hills, and lakes, ideal for boating, camping, and rock
climbing. There is tourist accommodation available.
4.7.6 Wase Rock
The wase rock is a striking dome-shaped inselberg which juts out of the ground to a height of 450
meters. It is located about 216 kilometers southeast of Jos near Wase town. It is one of the only
five breeding places for the white pelican in Africa. Because of this, the government now protects
about 321 acres (1.30 km2) of land around the rock as a bird sanctuary and for wildlife
development.
4.7.7 Kerang Highlands
The Kerang highlands are located about 88 kilometres from Jos. These volcanic hills are the source
of natural mountain springs, which supply the spring water company (SWAN).
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4.7.8 Pandam Game Reserve
is a wildlife sanctuary. It is a protected region of natural habitat and is home to hippopotami,
crocodiles, and snakes of all types. Local park rangers track local game on foot and guide people
to the best viewing areas. This area is still virtually unspoiled by human contact. It offers sports
fishing facilities and tourist accommodation is available.
4.7.9 Kahwang Rock Formation
is a set of basalt rocks, located in Bangai village of Bachi District in Riyom Local Government of
the state, the Kahwang rocks have received tourists from different parts of the state, the country at
large and on occasions, from outside Nigeria, who visit the site to see for themselves the wonders
of nature. This site is however, still awaiting the attention of the Plateau State Tourism Corporation
to meet modern standards and to serve as another source of revenue generation to the state.
4.8 MICRO STUDY AREA.
Jos South is a Local Government Area in Plateau State, Nigeria. It houses the Governor’s office
in Rayfield and can thus be described as the de facto capital of plateau state. Its headquarters is
located in Bukuru town on 9°48′00″N 8°52′00″E. It has an area of 510 km² and a population of
306,716 at the 2006 census. It is the second most populated Local Government Area in the state
after Jos-North.
4.9 SITE SELECTION CRITERIA
The site investigation is one of the most important tasks which must be carried out in other to
choose the most suitable site for the design of the isolation centre. The investigation is preceded
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by the initial site selection process which took into consideration the criteria that the most suitable
site most satisfy. Three sites where selected and analyst based on the site selection criteria listed
below.
• Topography: it helps to understand the detailed map of the surface features of land. It
includes the mountains, hills, creeks, and other bumps and lumps on a particular hunk of
earth. A favorable site for the proposed project should be relatively flat to encourage
visibility and ease of movement.
• Accessibility: this is an access road which enables traffic to reach to the site. It’s either a
high way or a minor road.
• Proximity to service: the site must be in close proximity to a tertiary hospital with an ICU
for the treatment of complicated issues.
• Infrastructure: the availability of social services like electricity, water, and social
amenities are advantage to the proposed project.
• Location: proximity of the site to city centre is an advantage.
• Views: interesting view of nature like trees rocks and water body are good for therapeutic
purposes hence, site with such attribute will be good for siting the proposed project.
• Security: the site should be in a secured environment where safety is ensured.
4.9.1 Site A:
The site is located at Lamingo adjacent the Jos University Teaching Hospital JUTH. There are
zero residential settlements around the site which made suitable for siting the project.
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Plate 14; Showing a google map of the site.
source: googgle earth 2022.
4.9.2 Site B:
The site is located at maraban jama’a, the major roundout that connect the city centre to the other
part of the state. There are settlement around the site.

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source: google earth.
4.9.3 Site C:
the site is located along lamingo road. It is about 4km away from the city centre.
source: google earth.

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4.9.4 Result
Table 5; Result
S/N CRITERIA SITE A SITE B SITE C
1 Accessibility
2 Topography
3 Proximity to service
4 Infrastructure
5 Zoning
6 Location (city outskirt)
7 Views
8 Security
4.9.5 Ranking
Table 6; Ranking
SITE A 8
SITE B 6
SITE C 5
From the ranking on the table above, site A appears to be the most suitable hence, it will be used
for the proposed design.

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4.10 SITE ANALYSIS
A site analysis is a study of the site, it takes into consideration natural and man-made components
present above and beneath the site, as well as climatic conditions present in and around the site. For
a comprehensive site study of macro and micro site analysis is carried out. The macro site analysis
takes into consideration environmental factors effecting a larger area than the site, such as a region,
state or zone. For this study, the entire Jos Capital city is considered. A micro site analysis takes into
consideration environmental factors affecting a specific site or data.
Figure 9; site analysis
Source: (Authors work, 2023)

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4.10.1 Geographical
Jos is situated almost at the geographical center of Nigeria and about 179 kilometers (111 miles)
from Abuja, the nation's capital, Jos is linked by road, rail and air to the rest of the country. at an
altitude of 1,217 m (3,993 ft) above sea level.
4.10.2 Climate
Though situated in the tropical zone, a higher altitude means that Plateau State has a near temperate
climate with an average temperature of between 18 and 22°C. Harmattan winds cause the coldest
weather between December and February. The warmest temperatures usually occur in the dry
season months of March and April. The mean annual rainfall varies from 131.75 cm (52 in) in the
southern part to 146 cm (57 in) on the Plateau. The highest rainfall is recorded during the wet
season months of July and August. The average lower temperatures Plateau State has led to a
reduced incidence of some tropical diseases such as malaria. The Jos Plateau, makes it the source
of many rivers in northern Nigeria including the Kaduna, Gongola, Hadejia and Yobe rivers. Jos
receives about 1,400 millimetres (55 inches) of rainfall annually, the precipitation arising from
both convectional and orographic sources, owing to the location of the city on the Jos Plateau.
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Jos has a Tropical savanna climate,
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Figure 10; climatic data.
4.10.3 Geology
The Jos Plateau is thought to be an area of younger granite which was intruded through an area of
older granite rock, making up the surrounding states. These "younger" granites are thought to be
about 160 million years old. This creates the unusual scenery of the Jos Plateau. There are
numerous hillocks with gentle slopes emerging from the ground like mushrooms scattered with
huge boulders. Also, volcanic activity 50 million years ago created numerous volcanoes and vast
basaltic plateaus created from lava flows. This also produces regions of mainly narrow and deep
valleys and pediments (surfaces made smooth by erosion) from the middle of rounded hills with
sheer rock faces. The phases of volcanic activities involved in the formation of Plateau State have
made it one of the mineral rich states in the country. Tin is still mined and processed on the plateau.
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4.10.4 Vegetation
The area now designated the Jos Capital falls within the Savannah zone vegetation of the West
Africa Sub-region. Patches of rain forest, however, occur in the Gwash plains, especially in the
gullied terrain to the South and the rugged South-Eastern Parts of the city. These areas of the Jos
form one of the surviving northern most occurrences of the mature forest vegetation in Nigeria.
However, the rain forest patches constituted only 7.4 percent (592km) of the vegetation
cover. Riparian vegetation includes both wood lands and rain forest of varying structure and floristic
composition.
4.10.5 Sun Light
The impact of the solar radiation is less due to the presence of trees and shrubs on the site. The trees
and shrubs absorb the heat, cast shadows and consequently provide shades for human comfort.
Reflection of sun rays as a result of smooth surfaces is absent, heat absorption and radiation by large
paving such as roads and car parks are absent on site.
4.10.6 Dust
The virgin nature of the site, with trees and shrubs tend to reduce the effect of the dust over the site.
However, during the dry season, dust is raised from the predominant sandy soil over the site. It is
intended that adequate landscape is carried out with an intention to reduce the effect of dust.
4.10.7 Topography
The site tends to slope gently toward the east. There are rocks showing on the surface of the site,
trees and shrubs constitute majority of the over site components.

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4.10.8 Hydrology
The depth of the water table underneath the site is within reasonable reachable limits to provide
water, which shall be tapped through boreholes to service the facility.
4.11 SITE POTENTIAL
The site potential reveals various features in and around the site, which can be used or incorporated
into the design.
• Vehicular access into the site is directly from the university of Jos teaching hospital
• The top soil present on the soil supports plan life while the migmatite, granite, gneiss and
biotite, which underline the site is suitable for construction.
• The site consists of gentle gradients upwards; this factor is advantageous as it will help in
projecting the monumentality of the edifice.
• The topography of the site allows for good drainage. This is due to the fact that the site slopes
gradually into a depression located on the tapering end of the site.

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CHAPTER FIVE
THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING
Two particular space planning and functional issues require special mention: the flexibility of
functional spaces, and accessibility for those people requiring isolation. These issues apply to
isolation services provided within community settings and acute general hospitals. As well as
accessibility into and around any healthcare premises, consideration should be given to a lot of
varying factors which will be discussed in this chapter
5.1 ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
5.1.1 Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness
An efficient layout of an isolation center should:
• Promote staff efficiency by minimizing distance of necessary travel between frequently
used spaces.
• Allow easy visual supervision of patients by limited staff
• Include all needed spaces, but no redundant ones. This requires careful pre-design
programming
• Provide an efficient logistics system, which might include elevators, pneumatic tubes, box
conveyors, manual or automated carts, and gravity or pneumatic chutes, for the efficient
handling of food and clean supplies and the removal of waste, recyclables, and soiled
material.
• Make efficient use of space by locating support spaces so that they may be shared by
adjacent functional areas, and by making prudent use of multi-purpose spaces.

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• Consolidate outpatient functions for more efficient operation- on first floor, if possible –
for direct access by outpatients.
• Group or combine functional areas with similar system requirements
5.1.2 Flexibility and Expandability
Since medical needs and modes of treatment will continue to change, isolation centers should:
• Follow modular concepts of space planning and layout
• Use genertric room sizes and plans as much possible, rather than highly specific ones.
• Be served by modular, easily accessed, and easily modified mechanical and electrical
systems.
• Be open-ended, with well-planned directions for future expansion; for instances
positioning “soft spaces” such as administrative departments, adjacent to “hard spaces”
such as clinical laboratories.
5.1.3 Therapeutic Environment
Patients in isolation center are often fearful and confused and these feelings may impede recovery.
Every effort should be made to make the facility stay as unthreatening, comfortable, and stress-
free as possible. The interior designer plays a major role in this effort to create a therapeutic
environment. nd abusiveness some important aspects of creating a therapeutic interior are:
• Using familiar and culturally relevant materials wherever consistent with sanitation and
other function needs.
• Using cheerful and varied colours and textures, keeping in mind that some colours are in
appropriate and can interfere with recovery.
• Admitting ample natural light wherever feasible and using colour-corrected lighting in
interior spaces which closely approximates natural daylight.

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• Providing views of the outdoors from every patient bed and elsewhere wherever possible;
photo murals of nature sense are helpful where outdoor views are not available.
5.1.4 Cleanliness and Sanitation
Isolation centers must be easy to clean and maintain. This is facilitated by:
• Appropriate, durable finishes for each functional space
• Careful detailing of such features as doorframes, casework, and finish transitions to avoid
dirt-catching and hard-to-clean crevices and joints.
• Adequate and appropriately located housekeeping spaces.
• Special materials, finishes, and details for spaces which are to be kept sterile, such as
integral cove base.
• Indoor environmental quality.
5.1.5 Accessibility
All areas, both inside and out should
• Comply with the minimum requirements for the disabled
• Ensuring grades are flat enough to allow easy movement and sidewalls and corridors are
wide enough for two wheelchairs to pass easily.
• Ensuring entrance areas are designed to accommodate patients with slower adaptation rates
to dark and light, marking glass walls and doors to make their presence obvious.
5.1.6 Controlled Circulation
An isolation is a complex system of interrelated functions requiring constant movement of
people and goods. Much of this circulation should be controlled.
• Out patients visiting diagnostic and treatment areas should not travel through inpatient
functional areas nor encounter severely ill inpatients

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• Typical outpatient routes should be simple and clearly defined.
• Outflow of trash, recyclables and soiled materials should be separated form movement of
food and clean supplies and both should be separated from routes of patients and visitors
• Transfer of cadavers to and from the morgue should be out of the sight of patients and
visitors.
5.1.7 Aesthetics
Aesthetics is closely related to creating a therapeutic environment (homelike, attractive). It
is important in enhancing the facilities’ image and is thus an important marketing tool. A better
environment also contributes to better staff morale and patient care. Aesthetics considerations
include:
• Increased use of natural light, natural materials, and textures.
• Attention to proportions, color, scale and detail
• Bright, open, generously scaled public spaces
• Homelike and intimate scale in patient rooms, day consultation rooms, and offices
• Compatibility of exterior design with its physical surroundings
5.1.8 Building Materials
The materials to be employed in the construction of the proposed Isolation Center should be
adequately suited to the optimal control of infection within the building itself. Deliberate
consideration will be given to the choice of materials for the walls, floors, and ceiling finish. This
is in a bid to control the spread of infection within the facility during every activity that is to take
place. Very stable structural forms will also be employed as well as technological principles to
enhance environmental aesthetics.

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5.1.9 Space Organization
Space allocation broadly covers the themes of Circulation and Zoning. There is a great need for
the functional flow between spaces as determined by the strength of their relationship to effectively
blend into each other or intertwine as the case may be and the zoning of functions both on the site
and in the context of the spaces in the Architectural design is very important in the design of an
Isolation center. And a health care design in the larger picture.
5.2 ISOLATION CENTER PLANNING
According to Zulfiqar AR (2018) There is no architecture design specially in the field of healthcare
architecture which is 100% error free but we can achieve a healing environment in healthcare
facilities by minimizing these design errors if due care can be provided. That is possible with
fundaments of healthcare design.
5.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATION
5.3.1 Flooring
Flooring also plays a very important role to control nosocomial infection and helps in finding
routes. Architects and engineers should make an appropriate choice for floor materials, texture,
color and setting pattern that helps to create a healing environment for the users. Flooring should
be assumed a crucial platform creating a quality of care.
5.3.2 Walls and Ceilings
Wall areas should be joint less and cleaned, corner of wall should be protected from any physical
damage by trolleys and stretchers. Acoustical treatment must be provided in ceiling and walls for
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peaceful indoor environment and the wall surfaces should be coated with antiviral substances such
as copper.
5.3.3 Ramps, Stairs and Lifts
Ramps - The gradient of ramp must be between 1:12 to 1:20 with minimum width 1.6metres.
Stairs - Standard size of riser and tread should be 150 mm and 300 mm respectively with fair
material treatment.
5.3.4 Indoor Air Quality.
An isolation center is deemed to be a place where air quality plays a vital role in recovering of the
patients and also have a direct relationship to the occupant's health and productivity as well as to
energy conservation, building material and specification and HVAC system design, therefore
better and suitable Indoor Air Quality (AIQ) monitoring methods and mitigation measures should
be applied for a safe and contamination free environment.
5.3.5 Natural and Artificial Lighting
Sunlight enhances colour and shape, and helps to make a room bright and cheerful. Wherever
possible, spaces to be occupied by patients, visitors or staff should have natural daylight with an
outside view. Bay windows that allow seating in comfort may be suitable. Consideration should
be given, however, to the need for privacy. The harmful effects of solar glare and heat gain can be
dealt with by architectural detailing of window shape and depth of reveals, as well as by installing
external and internal blinds and curtains. Treatment to the glass such as coatings may also reduce
the effects of overheating and glare. Artificial lighting, as well as providing levels of illumination
to suit particular activities, can make an important contribution to interior design.

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5.3.6 Ventilation
Natural ventilation is preferred unless there are internal spaces or clinical reasons that call for
mechanical ventilation or comfort-cooling systems. Refurbishment for natural ventilation.
Mechanical ventilation and comfort-cooling systems are expensive in terms of capital and running
costs; planning solutions should be sought which take maximum advantage of natural ventilation.
Mechanical ventilation costs can be minimized by ensuring that, wherever practical, core areas are
reserved for rooms whose function requires mechanical ventilation irrespective of whether their
location is internal or peripheral, for example sanitary facilities.
5.3.7 Flexibility
The design of the building must allow for maximum flexibility of use, which has to be considered
both in the short term to cater for current requirements, and in the long term, as needs will change
with time. For short-term change, moveable walls or partitions to divide spaces may have some
applications. Design solutions that give flexibility through planning and space organization as well
as the provision of a range of different sized spaces are to be preferred. For longer term change,
designs that can easily accommodate internal reorganization through appropriate, initial structural
design and by allowing space for future extension are desirable. Flexible Spaces that can serve
different functions are required because of the nature of wide range of activities that takes place in
the facility. For example, the cafeteria can also be used as a group discussion room with different
sitting arrangements.
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CHAPTER SIX
DESIGN PROGRAMMING, PLANNING AND DESIGN
6.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter comprises of the report of the architectural design process of the proposed Isolation
center.
6.1 BRIEF
Nigeria and other nations at large was hit with the outbreak of covid-19 in the year 2020
with the number of reported cases of the virus outnumbering the available medical facilities to
manage the infected persons even in developed nations. Therefore, bringing about the pertinent need
for the government to provide such facilities where cases of this nature can be managed effectively.
The National Isolation Center is to be located within the capital city of Jos, Plateau State. The
primary objective towards the development of the Isolation Center is focused on creating a
comfortable environment for the treatment, management and research of infectious diseases and also
on enhancing the recovery of patients through passive design approach. This will in turn change the
pattern and prevalence of infectious diseases in Nigeria positively. It will be regarded as a
government parasternal for it will be owned by the Federal Government of Nigeria.
6.2 FEASIBILITY STUDY AND VIABILITY STUDY
The feasibility and viability study on the establishment of an Isolation center seeks to
understand if the project can be realized. This project can be realized with the fact that the Federal
Government of Nigeria, who is the possible client of this project, has committed itself by stating
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that an Isolation Center has been proposed to be established in each state of the fedration to provide
necessary support and treatment for patients with infectious diseases. With the backing of the federal
government of Nigeria, who is the possible client, the project is bound to be realized, having all
information and resources needed made available.
6.3 LABOUR REQUIREMENT
Labour requirements will be divided into specialized and non-specialized labour both during
construction stages and the maintenance and running of the facility. Some of the labour will be
imported from advanced countries because of high standard of technology to be implemented in the
course of development and installations which are not available in the country. This will however
generate opportunities such as;
• Employment benefits for the residents of both direct employment and/or indirect employment
by ancillary services such as catering services, accommodation and transportation.
• Implementation of high standard of technology, to show advancement in the country with the
growth computer era
• Generates revenue for the country with the influx of foreigners and citizens into the region.
• Global recognition of the country in terms of health.
6.4 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
Functional analysis explores various functions of the design and seeks to emerge them
together in a harmonious workable whole.
• Establishes a sound functional basis for the design solution.
• Guides the designer from getting too detailed about the appearance of the design.
94
• Encourages the designer to go beyond preconceived ideas.
• Allows the designer to explore alternatives design ideas.
6.5 ZONING
A definite and harmonious design of the various functions of an Isolation center based on their use
and users is pertinent to a good design development. A typical health care facility premises includes
the following zones;
• Public zone
• Staff zone
• Clinical zone
Figure 11; Functional Zoning
Clear routes for users should be outlined district from staff use having circulation for the movement
users interested in the support facilities.

95
Another factor influencing the design of functional spaces is noise transfer. As a measure to
combat this, noise tolerant spaces are used to buffer quite spaces from noisy spaces. Security and
supervision in the premises will be necessary, therefore restrictions towards staff protection and the
safeguard of equipment against theft and vandalism has to put in place.
6.5.1 Site Zoning
The site is zoned according to noise producing, noise tolerant and quite functional spaces.
• Noise producing functional space: parking, support facilities
• Noise tolerant functional space: reception, general circulation
• Quite functional space: administration, diagnostic and treatment areas and the wards.
Figure 12; site zoning.

96
6.6 CONCEPT FORMULATION
Early sketching processes lead to an initiating idea of the symbolism in architectural expression.
The isolation center is to provide a safe, leading environment protecting the disease diagnosed
people from outside world, giving them an oasis, where they can meet and relax and get a break
from tough reality they live in.
This should be expressed in the architecture of the building and the initiating idea revolves around a
concept of embracement, where a building embraces or wraps itself around its users.
The initial sketching of an architecture with the embracing expression, develops further into idea of
wrapping facade structure embracing and protecting an initial building core.
The concept of passive design can be achieved by providing various elements in the building like;
• Good day lighting
• Efficient airflow
• Wide working spaces
• open floor plan and flowing spaces
• Personal and social spaces for interaction.
6.6.1 Design Concept
The design of an isolation center is the most complex of building types. The design is
tailored aggregate of geometrical regular shapes that evolves spaces. A large core central courtyard
system will help in optimum ventilation and promote social interactive spaces within the building.
This concept depicts the dynamism by the forms employed on plan and on elevation. The
design concept takes into consideration from the basic functional units which the design comprises
of and tries to enhance their efficiency by the use of the forms employed
97
6.6.2 Aesthetic Concept
This is based on the balance achieved in the overall conceptualization process, the massing and
arrangement of forms. The idea portrayed can then be interpreted as combination of pure geometric
form structure and materials in a beautiful composition.
6.6.3 Sustainable Concept
The use of large central courtyard within the facility facilitate free and natural movement of air
around reducing dependence on renewable energy. This is supported by adjourning courtyards
between different units which also facilitate natural lighting. These are aimed at minimizing the
dependence on electrical and mechanical energy.
6.6.4 Functional Concept
The main entrance allows visitors/patients to access on arrival to the isolation center. The
emergency entrance gives total clearance for easy access.
6.7 DESIGN SYNTHESIS
The summary of the goals of this project is to design a facility that meets the needs of patients and
their care giver and the same time provide a conducive environment to aid in infection control and
healing process where various unit of specialization work in harmony to provide quality health
care. The goals where set forth to;
1. To create a humane environment for patients and staff as well as visitors.
2. Harmonize technical and functional requirements into a design that brings delight and
ventilation to those who use the building and those who pass by it.
3. Provide a functional design that ensures efficiency and safety

98
6.8. FUNCTIONAL FLOW
Figure 13; conceptual bubble
6.9 SPARTIAL ANALYSIS
The basic spaces provided in the health care facility to be analyzed are;
• Administrative Offices
• Wards
• Pharmacy
• Laboratory
• Radiology Department
• Radiotherapy Department
• Board room.
99
Table 7; Schedule of Accommodation
Department Area (m2) Total Area/ Dept.

OUTPATIENT (O.P.D)
- waiting Area 146
- Entrance Lobby 180
- Consultation room 120
-Pharmacy 74
- Registry 70 940
-laboratory 89
- Store 35
- Nursing station 36
-vaccination room 85
- Seminar room 40
- Recovery rooms 105
- x- ray room 90
- Toilet 12
- Record station. 40 1182
EMERGENCY UNIT
- Consultation 48
200
100
- Resuscitation 105
- waiting 60
- waiting 60
- toilets 15
- Pathology 105
CT-scan 89
Radiology 74
- Change room 24
CENTRAL STORE 150 150
CENTRAL KITHEN 100 100
RAMP ROOM
WARDS
- toilets 75
Doctors Stations 100
- Toilets 15 3210
LAUNDRY
- waiting 100
- admin 90
Source; Researcher’s work, 2023

101
CHAPTER SEVEN
DESIGN REPORT
This concluding chapter shows how the cumulative effort of the studies and deductions from the
beginning of this research has led to the proffering of an Architectural solution to the problem of
infection control through passive design approaches in the provision of a facility that will cater for
the rising needs of an Isolation center in Plateau State. It will also express the contribution this has
made to knowledge as well as recommendations that will aid further research in this area.
7.1 PRESENTATION DRAWINGS
Figure 14; Site Plan
Source: (Author’s work, 2023)

102
Figure 15; Ground floor Plan

103
Figure 16; First floor Plan

104
Figure 17; Second floor Plan

105
Figure 18; Third floor Plan

106
Figure 19; Roof Plan

107
Figure 20; Section ZZ

108
Figure 21; Section XX

109
Figure 22; Section YY

110
Plate 17; Front elevation

111
Plate 18; Rear elevation

112
Plate 19; Right Elevation

113
Plate 20; Left Elevation

114
Plate 21; Perspective

115

116

117

118
7.2 DESIGN CONCEPT
The design of medical facilities is the most complex of building types. This design
comprises of a wide range of services and functional units. These include diagnostic and treatment
functions, such as clinical laboratories, imaging services, emergency rooms, and pharmacy. It
includes the fundamental inpatient care or bed-related function and outpatient related functions.
The concept of this design is an expression of passive design approach through the
provision of sufficient ventilation, admission of natural daylighting, provision of wide spaces to
maintain social distancing and the choice of finishing materials the aid in infection control in the
facility.
7.2.1 SITE LAYOUT
The layout of the site was done considering the environmental impact of the project on the
surrounding built environment. The effect of increased traffic and noise were major criteria
considered in the planning of the site, with provisions made to counteract them, car parking is
located near the acess road to counteract the traffic noise from passing vehicles. Also, dense
landscaping along the road side is done and large lawns provided to buffer noise. The car park is
located near the entrance to the building on the south area of the site. The clinical areas and
supportive facilities are located on the north area of the site. The administrative area is located on
the south – eastern area of the site.
7.1.2 THE PLAN
The plan of the design is divided into five distinct sections:
• The Entrance and nurse station
• The Administrative and Research Functions
• The Bed-Related and Supportive Functions

119
• Diagnostics
• Emergency
The main entrance into the building is on the ground floor with a ramp and steps. A warm
welcoming water body at drop off is to give the patients a sense of relieve. An ample space at the
entrance foyer that house nurse station, wheelchair store, record room and general waiting.
However, functions that require quick and easy access are placed on the ground floor while others
are place on the other floors.
The large courtyard is while landscaped with seating to allow circulation, air flow and as well
allow patients meditate and as well meet with loved the windows of the building are made large to
give a clear view of the of the outside natural environment.
7.1.3 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
The structural system employed in this project is the frame structure comprise of network
of load bearing columns and beams serving as the structural frame work of the building. The
beams resist both compressive and tensile forces and transmit loads from floors, roof and walls
to the columns. The columns are required to resist mainly compressive forces and transfer the
beam loads and self-weight of beams and columns to the foundation and finally to the supporting
soil.
The main roof construction employed in this project is the structural steel lattice beam roof
construction. The uniform depth lattice beam is cranked to from a symmetrical heap roof with
slopes from 50 to 100 to horizontal. The beams are generally fabricated hollow rectangular section
steel sections that are cut and welded together with bolted site connections at the mid span and
can span with the range of 12m to 15m without support.

120
7.1.4 FINISHES
The walls ceiling and floors must be shielded with lead sheeting in the radiology and
radiotherapy departments. The thickness of which depends on the type of equipment to be used.
This is to achieve structural shielding from radiation in the building.
Floors and walls of the surgical department and laboratories should be smooth throughout
and easily washed hence the use of tiles.
7.1.5 LIGHTING
The entire scheme embodies the extensive use natural day light as the major means of
illumination. These include the use of wide span of glazed walls, court yards, and atriums. Wide
opening are also provided to allow for maximum day lighting. The need for artificial light was also
considered.
7.1.6 Aesthetical Concept
Shading on the façade was considered to reduce solar heat and glare, and to enhance the
user’s comfort, in the view of providing efficient day-lighting in the building shading devices were
employed around the building to prevent direct sunlight from entering the build especially at noon.
Fins, which are vertical shading devices, were erected around the perimeter of the building, having
blinds as horizontal shading devices fixed between fins to reduce sunlight penetration. This gives
the building a rich and appealing view.
7.2 DESIGN ACHIEVEMENTS
• Both rationalism and empiricism was successfully incorporated and reflected in plan and
elevation, through massiveness and hierarchy of spaces. This has helped in representing
the function of the school.

121
• Properly defined routes for both pedestrian and vehicular movements was achieved to day
lighting in this design, hence free and provide clear visibility was also attained to minimize
energy consumption and enhance security.
• Hierarchy of circulation spaces (the use of well-defined circulation paths) was used in
defining movement patterns within the building so as to eliminate chaotic scenes and
confusion midst the users through a well-defined flow in and out of the building.
• Zoning and planning of activities, considering noise within and around the building.
• The use of vertical shading devices to sunlight penetration and glare but also allows
efficient daylight into the building.
7.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Having studied the problems associated with design with of health care facilities by the
analysis of the existing ones through case studies, it is the recommendation of this thesis report
that for a scheme like this to be feasible, there has to be enhanced government and private sector
participation and commitment. This is to ensure improved utilization and maintenance of the
building in the long run.
It is also recommended that codes and regulations towards the design of health care
facilities should be reviewed. The present designs of health care facilities are of fallen standards
and design considerations toward s the wellbeing of users was over-looked. There is a need to
establish health care facilities of impeccable standards that will elevate the health sector of the
country and curb any growing, threatening health issues.
Daylighting is definitely beneficial in health care facilities for access to daylight and
outside views has been shown to improve resistance to infections, timely complete recovery of
122
patients and the efficiency of staff. Therefore, it is recommended that, in every design of a health
care facility, it is imperative to consider having efficient daylight in the building.
7.4 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, due to constraints towards tackling ‘Infectious diseases’, for instance,
inadequate medical services pertaining the treatment of this diseases, substantial funding towards
health initiatives, amongst others is imperative to establish a National Isolation Center towards the
enlightenment, treatment and research pertaining the cure for various types of cancer. This will
change the pattern and prevalence of Infectious diseases in Nigeria positively.
Furthermore, the need for proper and efficient daylighting in health care facilities is very
important and, in every design, it should be deeply considered. This will be beneficial, for patient
have timely complete recovery and staff are efficient at their duties in a healing environment where
efficient daylight is provided.
The design encourages the use of simple primary forms in architecture to define circulation flow
within the building and employs various techniques to enhance daylight in creating environment a
major role in giving a building its desired identity while still attaining enhanced natural daylight
functionality and other standard requirement in this project.

123
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NATIONAL ISOLATION CENTRE JOS, PLATEAU STATE.

(EXPLORING PASSIVE DESIGN IN INFECTION CONTROL)

B.SC. (HONS.) ARCHITECTURE

A PROGRESS REPORT IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE, FACULTY OF

SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF

Musa, Manasseh Date

in Architecture in the Department of Architecture, University of Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.

Arc. S. Bala (MNIA) Date

Dr. (Arc) A. Umar, (MNIA) Date

Dr. R.S. Lekjep, (MNIA) Date

Head of Department Architecture

Prof. Timothy O. Oyetunde (PhD) Date

Dean, School of Post Graduate Studies

External Examiner Date

2.3 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR INFECTION PREVENTION AND

3.2.1 Background ................................................................................................................... 60

6.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 92

1.1 BACKROUNG TO THE STUDY

and other medical procedures.

infection. The Institute of Architects Bangladesh, defined Isolation center as an independent

can be treated safely and securely.

resulted in poorly performing building stock.

thermal comfort, productivity, and general health and wellness.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

receive medical attention.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This study addresses the following research questions:

facility to enhances patient’s recovery?

1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

of the indoor and outdoor elements of design.

comfort to enhances recovery and infection control.

1.5 JUSTIFICATION/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

construction of isolation centers in Nigeria.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

the effectiveness of the design is not underachieved.

1.7 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Isolation Center: An isolation center can be defined as an independent healthcare facility

of infectious diseases (IAB, 2020).

Pandemic: A pandemic is an epidemic occurring on a scale that crosses international boundaries,

comprise viruses and bacteria as well as unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes.

community-based facilities. Quarantine can be applied to an individual or to a group of persons

international travel (NCDC Delhi, 2020).

to tame the spread of infection in the isolation facility.

2.1 Passive design

within the building.

temperatures. Passive design includes the following:

systems to dissipate heat

➢ Passive ventilation (or natural ventilation).

natural ventilation occurring in buildings: wind driven ventilation and buoyancy-driven

2.1.1 Effect of current ventilation strategies on the risk of infection transmission.

2.1.2 Isolation facilities and the ventilation of clinical care areas

specified ventilation-controlled rooms, i.e. negative/positive or neutral pressure rooms

2.1.3 Ventilation and COVID-19

air velocity, its turbulence, and its direction.

spread through occupied spaces.

2.1.4 Ventilation solution in the history of pandemics as related to COVID-19.

nor as far-reaching as the Spanish flu (Stephen Dowling 2020).

up” all over the country. In the harbor of East

(Richard A. Hobday, PhD et al. 2009).

urging greater ventilation indoors (Stephen Dowling 2020).

2.1.5 Natural ventilation measures

air moving upwards.

movement (Tom Lipinski, et al. 2020).