DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYBRID SOLAR

DRYER FOR
DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS

Dissertation submitted to
Shri Ramdeobaba College of Engineering &
Management, Nagpur in partial fulfillment of
requirement for the award of
degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In

Mechanical Engineering
By

Mr. PURVESH RODE

Mr. SANGEET KHULE
Mr. SANNIDHYA SHEGAONKAR

Guide
Dr. SANDEEP S. JOSHI

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Shri Ramdeobaba College of Engineering & Management,
Nagpur 440013

(An Autonomous Institute affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj Nagpur University

Nagpur)

December 2021
 SHRI RAMDEOBABA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
MANAGEMENT, NAGPUR
(An Autonomous Institute affiliated to Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj
Nagpur University Nagpur)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Thesis on “Design And Development of

Hybrid Solar Dryer For Domestic Applications” is a bonafide work of
Purvesh Rode, Sangeet Khule, Sannidhya Shegaonkar submitted to
the Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, in partial
fulfillment of the award of a Degree of Bachelor of Technology, in
Mechanical Engineering. It has been carried out at the Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Shri Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and
Management, Nagpur, during the academic year 2021-2022.

Date :15/12/2021
Place: RCOEM, Nagpur

Dr. S. S. Joshi Dr. K. N. Agrawal

Project Guide H.O.D.
Department of Mechanical Department of Mechanical
Engineering Engineering

ii
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis titled “Design And Development Of

Hybrid Solar Dryer For Domestic Applications” submitted herein has
been carried out in the Department of Mechanical Engineering of Shri
Ramdeobaba College of Engineering & Management, Nagpur. The work
is original and has not been submitted earlier as a whole or part for the
award of any degree/diploma at this or any other institution / University.

Date: 15/12/2021
Place: RCOEM, Nagpur

Purvesh Rode
52

Sangeet Khule
60

Sannidhya Shegaonkar
61

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is our pleasure to be indebted to various people who directly or indirectly

contributed to the development of this work and who influenced our
thinking, behaviour and acts during the course of study.
We express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Sandeep S. Joshi, Asst. Professor
at Mechanical Engineering Department and our Project-II guide provided
his support regarding the research techniques, valuable suggestions, and
precious time in accomplishing our project report.
We are thankful to Dr. K. N. Agrawal, Head of Department at Mechanical
Engineering Department, without whose guidance this report would not
have been completed successfully.
We are also grateful to the department's faculty members for their constant
support and motivation, and we extend our heartfelt gratitude to the
panellists who gave constructive criticism on our project presentation,
which helped us improve our report multifold.

By:
Purvesh Rode
Sangeet Khule
Sannidhya Shegaonkar

iv
 ABSTRACT

Solar energy is a primary renewable energy source with the potential to meet

several challenges faced by humankind. Solar technologies convert sunlight into

electrical energy either through photovoltaic (PV) panels or through mirrors that

concentrate solar radiation. There are two basic mechanisms involved in the drying

process of solar drying; are: The migration of moisture from the interior of the

substance to be dried, and the second is the evaporation of moisture from the surface to

the surrounding air. The solar drying system utilizes the solar energy to heat air and to

dry any food substance which is loaded, which is not only beneficial but also it reduces

wastage of agricultural products and helps in the preservation of agricultural products,

but it also makes transportation of such dried product quickly and promotes the health

and welfare of the people. So, the development of a hybrid solar-energy dryer using a

photovoltaic (PV) solar panel to power the heating element coil and charge the battery,

which had a storage energy system, was developed and constructed with readily

available materials market was proposed.

This report presents the basics of the solar dryer, and the Literature review

contains recent innovative techniques used for developments of different types like

direct, indirect, mixed-mode, and hybrid solar dryers are discussed from the duration of

the previous two to three decades. Also, a comprehensive report of the fundamental

principles governing the drying process with the classification of the practically realized

various designs and selection of solar dryers for drying agricultural and marine products

has been presented.

The dryer comprises a solar collector (air heater) with the baffles and a solar

drying chamber containing a rack of four net trays, both being assimilated together. The

air allowed in through the air inlet is heated up in the solar collector chamber and

v
channelled through the drying chamber, where it is utilized in drying (removing the

moisture content from the food substances or agricultural product loaded in it). Locally

materials were used for the construction are wood, glass, aluminium metal sheet, PV,

and net for the trays.

The hybrid solar dryer discussed in the papers in the literature review is a

prominent practical technology that can dry various crops under all weather conditions.

Temperatures in the drying cabinet can be expected to range between 40 to 70ºC.

Compared to traditional drying, the hybrid dryer produces a better quality product and

can reduce the drying time by up to 50 to 70 %. It also proved that the efficiency of

agricultural dryers could be increased by using a combination of solar and heating

element coil powered by photovoltaic (PV) solar panels, compared to conventional

dryers with only solar heating sources. The average collector temperature reached

57.4oC, and that of the dryer reached 63.75oC, while the average ambient temperature

was 30.00oC. This indicated that the temperature in the dryer was raised above the

ambient temperature creating a suitable condition for drying.

vi
 CONTENTS

Chapters No. Topic Page No.

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Role of The Sun 2
1.2 Importance of Renewable Energy Sources 2
1.3 Solar Drying 2
1.4 Basics of Solar Energy 3
1.5 Working of Solar Cell 4
1.6 Basics of Solar Thermal Conversions 5
1.7 Outline of Thesis 6
Chapter 2 Solar Dryer 8
2.1 Basics of Solar Dryers 9
2.2 Need For Dryers 11
2.3 Various Methods of Drying 12
2.4 Basics of Solar Drying Technique 16
2.5 Difference Between OSD & Solar Drying 19
2.6 Various Types of Solar Dryers 21
2.7 Working Consist of Hybrid Solar Dryer 24
2.8 Advantages & Reasons For Limited Use In India 25
2.9 Applications of Solar Dryers 26
Chapter 3 Literature Review 27
3.1 Direct Solar Dryer 28
3.2 Indirect Solar Dryer 31
3.3 Mixed Mode Solar Dryer 34
3.4 Hybrid Solar Dryer 35
3.5 Conclusions 40
3.6 Outcome of Literature Review 41
Chapter 4 Selection of Food Products 43
Chapter 5 Methodology And Design Criterion 57
5.1 Methodology 58
5.2 Design Criterion 60

vii
Chapter 6 Selection of Solar Dryer Type 62
Chapter 7 Design of Solar Dryer 64
7.1 Working of Model 65
7.2 Design Calculations 66
7.3 The Fan/Blower Design 73
Chapter 8 Computer-Aided Design of Hybrid Solar 76
Dryer
8.1 Solar Collector 78
8.2 Drying Chamber 78
8.3 Trays 79
8.4 Stand 80
Chapter 9 Computational Analysis 83
9.1 Pre-Processor 84
9.2 Post Processor 88
Chapter 10 Economic Analysis 91
10.1 Economic Analysis of Dried Food Products 92
10.2 Bill 93
10.3 Actual Components For Fabricating 94
10.4 Commercial Solar Dryers 99
10.5 Other Locations 101
Chapter 11 Conclusion And Recommendations 103
11.1 Conclusion 104
11.2 Recommendations 107
References 109
Appendix - A Power Requirements 121
Appendix - B Optimum Angle of Inclination 126
Appendix - C Solar Collector Area Calculations 128
Appendix - D Calculation of Components 133

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Sr Figure No. Title of Figure Page

No. No.
1 Figure 1.4.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum 4
2 Figure 1.6.1 Classification of Methods for Solar Energy 5
Utilization
3 Figure 2.1.1 Forced circulation dryer 10
4 Figure 2.1.2 Cabinet dryer 10

5 Figure 2.3 Various methods of drying based on heat 12

transfer modes
6 Figure 2.3.1 Solar Drying 15
7 Figure 2.4.1 Drying process 16
8 Figure 2.4.2 Direct Solar Dryer 16
9 Figure 2.4.3 Movement of moisture during drying 17
10 Figure 2.4.4 Drying curves: The temperature and humidity of 18
the drying air are constant, and all heat is
supplied to the food surface by convection.
11 Figure 2.5.1 Actual model setup 20
12 Figure 2.5.2 Comparison of open sun and solar dryer after 20
every 20 minutes
13 Figure 2.5.3 Moisture percent removal vs time 20
14 Figure 2.6.1 Solar dryer types 21
15 Figure 2.6.1.1 Direct solar dryer 22
16 Figure 2.6.3.1 Indirect solar dryer 22
17 Figure 2.6.4.1 Mixed-Mode solar` dryers 23
18 Figure 2.6.5.1 Hybrid solar dryer 23
19 Figure 2.8.2.1 Solar Dryer 25
20 Figure 3.2.1 Indirect solar dryer 33
21 Figure 3.4.1 Forced air solar dryer 40
22 Figure 3.5.1 Summary of different types of dryers 40
23 Figure 4.1 List of all mentioned food products 54
24 Figure 4.2 Texture changes during different drying 54

ix
 methods. (a) Dried banana slices i) oven-dried
ii) open sun-dried iii) Solar cabinet dried
25 Figure 4.3 Colour changes during different drying methods 54
(a) chilli (b) apple
26 Figure 4.4 Solar dried garlic flakes and garlic powder 55
27 Figure 4.5 Solar drying of fenugreek leaves 55
28 Figure 4.6 Various stages during grape drying 55
29 Figure 4.7 Commercial production of some agricultural 56
products in Thailand using “Parabolic Solar
Dome”: (A) Dragon fruit; (B) Lotus flowers; (C)
Coffee beans; (D) Kaempferia parviflora (Thai
black ginger); (E) Lingzhi mushroom; (F) Chili;
(G) Pork meat; (H) Fish; and (I) Rice crackers
30 Figure 5.2.1 Flowchart of methodology 60
31 Figure 7.1.1 Isometric view 65
32 Figure 7.1.2 Moisture Content in Parts 66

33 Figure 7.2.1.1 Quantity of heat required 68

34 Figure 7.2.1.2 Power Required 69

35 Figure 7.2.3.1 Illustration of angles 70

36 Figure 7.2.3.2 The angle of incidence of beam radiation at 12 70

PM

37 Figure 7.2.3.3 The Angle of Incidence of Beam Radiation at 12 71

PM

38 Figure 7.2.5.1 Solar irradiance 72

39 Figure 7.3.4.1 Dimensions of solar dryer 75

40 Figure 8.1 Isometric view of designed hybrid solar dryer 77

41 Figure 8.1.1 Solar Collector 78

42 Figure 8.2.1 Drying chamber 79
43 Figure 8.3.1 Trays 79

x
44 Figure 8.4.1 Stand 80
45 Figure 8.4.2 Front View, Top View, Side View, back view of 81
a solar dryer
46 Figure 9.1.1.1 CFD Model 84
47 Figure 9.1.1.2 Velocity Inlet 85
48 Figure 9.1.1.3 Velocity Outlet 85
49 Figure 9.1.1.4 Mesh 86
50 Figure 9.1.1.5 Natural convection inlet 87
51 Figure 9.2.1.2 Velocity Variation 88
52 Figure 9.2.1.3 Velocity Variation 89
53 Figure 9.2.1.4 Temperature Variation 89
54 Figure 9.2.1.5 Velocity variation inside a dryer (old model) 90
55 Figure 10.1.1 Dried Tomatoes 92
56 Figure 10.1.2 Fresh Tomatoes 92
57 Figure 10.1.3 Packed Dried Tomatoes 93
58 Figure 10.3.1 Aluminum sheet 94
59 Figure 10.3.2 Glass 94
60 Figure 10.3.3 Aluminum net 95
61 Figure 10.3.4 Black paint 95
62 Figure 10.3.5 Steel rods 95
63 Figure 10.3.6 Electric fan 96
64 Figure 10.3.7 Solar panel 96
65 Figure 10.3.8 12V adapter 96
66 Figure 10.3.9 Solar charge controller 97
67 Figure 10.3.10 Battery 97
68 Figure 10.3.11 Nichrome wire 97
69 Figure 10.3.12 Copper sheet 98
70 Figure 10.3.13 Copper net 98
71 Figure 10.4.1 3 Kg Dryer 99
72 Figure 10.4.2 10 Kg Dryer 99
73 Figure 10.4.3 50 Kg Dryer 100
74 Figure 10.4.4 3 Kg Dryer 100
75 Figure 10.4.5 3 Kg Dryer 100

xi
76 Figure 10.5.1 Some major cities location (a)World (b) India 101
77 Figure 10.5.2 Peak performance regions 102
78 Figure B.1 Formulas for optimum tilt angle calculations 126
79 Figure C.1 Angle of incidence of beam radiation 128
80 Figure C.2 ASHRAE model formulas 129
81 Figure C.3 IT model formulas 130

xii
 LIST OF TABLE
Sr Table No. Title of Table Page No.
No.
1 Table 2.5.1 Difference between open sun drying & solar drying 19
2 Table 3.1.1 Direct Solar Dryer 28
3 Table 3.2 Indirect Solar Dryer 31
4 Table 3.3 Mixed-Mode Solar Dryer 34
5 Table 3.4.1 Hybrid Solar Dryer 35
6 Table 3.5.1 Research gap 41
7 Table 7.2.1.1 Details of tomato 68
8 Table 9.2.1.1 Computational Data 90
9 Table 10.2.1 Bill of materials 93
10 Table 10.3 Components specifications 98
11 Table A.1 Moisture content in percentage 121
12 Table A.2 Amount of moisture removed 122
14 Table A.3 Quantity of heat required to remove the moisture 124
15 Table B.1 Constant values 126
16 Table B.2 Optimum tilt angle calculations (Part I) 126
17 Table B.3 Optimum tilt angle calculations (Part II) 127
18 Table C.1 Values 128
19 Table C.2 Angles calculations 128
20 Table C.3 Conversion of units 129
21 Table C.4 ASHRAE model calculations 130
22 Table C.5 IT model calculations (Part I) 131
23 Table C.6 IT model calculations (Part II) 131
24 Table C.7 Solar collector calculations 132
25 Table D.1 Insulation 133
26 Table D.2 Fan / Blower Calculations (Part I) 133
27 Table D.3 Fan / Blower Calculations (Part II) 134
28 Table D.4 Electronics 134
29 Table D.5 Nichrome wire 135
29 Table D.6 Battery 135

xiii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

SR NO. SHORT-FORM FULL FORM

1 Kg Kilogram
2 PV Photovoltaic
3 mm Millimeters
4 cm Centimeters
5 m Meters
6 DC Direct current
7 PN Pn junction diode
8 V Volts
9 A Ampere
10 Sq. Square
11 °C Degree celsius
12 Ta Ambient temperature
13 ρ Density of the material
14 M Mass of the substance
15 Ma Mass flow rate
16 Cp Specific heat of the substance
17 ΔT Temperature change
18 H Enthalpy
19 E Energy
20 LV Latent heat of vaporization of water
21 Td Time of drying
22 X Thickness
23 K Heat transfer coefficient
24 P Power
25 θi Angle of incidence
26 θz Zenith angle
27 β Slope angle

xiv
28 ɣ Surface azimuth angle
29 Φ Latitude angle
30 ω Hour angle
31 δ Declination angle
32 S Daylength
33 Ho Monthly average of the extraterrestrial radiation
34 Hg Monthly average of the daily global radiation
35 Hd Monthly average of the daily diffuse radiation
36 Hb Monthly average of the daily beam radiation
37 Ig Hourly global radiation
38 Id Hourly diffuse radiation
39 Ib Hourly beam radiation
40 IT Hourly radiation on a tilted surface
41 Rs. Rupees
42 PCM Phase change material

xv
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter elaborates on the overview of solar and its basic concepts. This
chapter contains topics such as the role of the sun, the importance of renewable energy
systems, the basics of solar drying, the basics of solar energy, the working of a solar
cell, and the basics of solar thermal conversions; these are the foundation for the thesis.

1.1 ROLE OF THE SUN

The Sun provides solar energy that is clean and environmentally friendly. It can
be directly used to produce thermal as well as electrical power. However, Sun is also
directly the primary source of all renewable energy sources. Furthermore, the Sun can
also be the indirect source of other nonrenewable energy sources. Solar energy is in the
form of electromagnetic waves and photons. Electromagnetic waves produce thermal
energy and wind energy. The photons produce electrical energy through semiconductor
devices. Photons were also used for the photosynthesis of all plants on the Earth.
Thermal energy available on the Earth can defreeze frozen water on Earth for the
growth of bacteria. Thus, living organism exists on the earth. [1]

1.2 IMPORTANCE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Due to global industrialization, particularly after the Second World War (WWII)
in developed countries, there was a sharp increase of CO2 concentration from 270 ppm
to 450 ppm. This was due to polluting fossil fuels in the form of solid, liquid and gases
available inside the Earth for power production. In order to balance the ecological
system for clean air, water and food, less-polluting renewable energy sources should be
used to meet the energy demand of human beings across developed, developing and
underdeveloped countries. [1]

1.3 SOLAR DRYING

Drying is a method used to preserve food products for a longer period by
extracting the moisture content of the product. The heat from the sun and the wind have
been used to dry food for preservation. The present researches include the design and
manufacturing of solar dryer. In recent years the use of solar energy has reached a
remarkable edge. It is becoming a popular technique to use as fossil fuel costs continue

2
to rise. Sun drying of crops is one of the most widespread methods of food preservation
in most parts of India because most of the areas are sunny days for most of the year.
This solar energy is used by many solar energy techniques. Among the various
techniques, solar drying is one of the essential applications. The solar dryer uses air
collectors to collect solar energy.
The objective of solar drying is to minimize the moisture content of products to
a level that can prevent spoilage. A solar dryer's performance depends on parameters
like incident solar radiation and atmospheric conditions. Also, the design of solar dryers
plays a vital role in achieving required drying characteristics. The inclusion of a solar
collector provides better performance than when products are directly exposed to
sunlight in a solar dryer. Farmers may find it challenging to adopt recommended
technologies because of economic problems, labour constraints, or lack of materials. To
promote solar drying in India, the government provides financial and technical
assistance to emerging entrepreneurs in this field.

1.4 BASICS OF SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is a major renewable energy source that can meet humankind's
several challenges. This power source is gaining popularity because of its versatility and
many benefits to people and the environment. Climate change has led us to a real crisis,
with the increase in temperature, pollution, flooding and hurricanes due to disturbed
weather patterns. High carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere makes oceans acidic
and kills marine life. Higher temperatures lead to the melting of polar ice caps, reducing
habitats for wildlife and increasing sea levels. Irregular rainfall or increasing droughts
affect agriculture and the livelihoods of the weaker sections of society worldwide.
The amount of sunlight that strikes the earth's surface in an hour and a half is
enough to handle the entire world's energy consumption for a full year. Solar
technologies convert sunlight into electrical energy either through photovoltaic (PV)
panels or through mirrors that concentrate solar radiation. This energy can generate
electricity or be stored in batteries or thermal storage. [2]

3
 Figure1.4.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum [3]

 ULTRAVIOLET (Heat) Solar Collector

 VISIBLE (Electricity) Solar Panel
 INFRARED (Heat) Solar Collector

1.5 WORKING OF SOLAR CELL

The primary component of a solar cell is silicon. Silicon is a semiconductor
material at its core and actually a very poor conductor of electricity. Silicon is suitably
doped with certain impurities to employ a solar photovoltaic (PV) cell to capture energy
from the sun and convert it into electricity.
In the operation of solar cells, the principle is that when a photon reaches a
semiconductor, it ejects an electron, creating two conductors: the free electron and the
electron hole. When the PN junction is exposed to light, photons with energy greater
than the bandgap of silicon cells are absorbed, causing the emergence of electron-hole
pairs. These carriers are separated under the influence of electric fields within the
junction, creating a current proportional to the incidence of solar irradiation.
Electricity is created without noise, in a clean way and without any harmful by-
products. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into usable direct current (DC)
electricity. Solar cells are connected in series to increase the output voltage. Series
connected cells form what is called solar PV modules. A PV module consists of several
interconnected solar cells (typically 60 or 72 connected in series) encapsulated into a
single, long-lasting, stable unit. Encapsulation is done to protect the solar cells from
mechanical damage and for the module to sustain in harsh environments. [2]

4
1.6 BASICS OF SOLAR THERMAL CONVERSIONS
Solar has been perceived as an essential world sustainable power source to
enhance declining petroleum product assets. Solar radiation episode superficially
incorporates pillar and diffuse radiation, just as radiation is reflected near surfaces.
Most sustainable power sources are obtained from solar radiation. It is the
goldmine of all vitality. The actual utilization of solar vitality can be ordered into two
classifications warm solar frameworks to deliver warm vitality and solar photovoltaic
frameworks to create electrical vitality. The immediate transformation of solar vitality to
power has progressed uniquely in the most recent two decades, prompting essentially
scaled-down costs of photovoltaic modules and applications to have expanded, mainly
because of the accessibility of motivating forces in numerous pieces of the world. [4]

Figure 1.6.1 Classification of Methods for Solar Energy Utilization [5]

Hydropower, also known as water power, uses falling or fast-running water to
produce electricity or power machines. This is achieved by converting a water source's
gravitational potential or kinetic energy to produce power.
Wind forms when the sun heats one part of the atmosphere differently than
another part. This causes expansion of warmer air, making less pressure where it is
warmer than where it is cooler. Air always moves from high pressure to lower pressure,
and this movement of air is wind. Biomass is a plant or animal material used as fuel to
produce electricity or heat. Biomass contains stored chemical energy from the sun; for
example, plants produce biomass through photosynthesis. The motion of the Earth and
the moon around the Sun is responsible for creating waves and tides in oceans in the
form of kinetic energy, which is also a renewable energy source. [4]
Solar radiation collection and concentration
• Conversion to heat
• Storage of energy
• Generation of electricity

5
1.7 OUTLINE OF THESIS
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter elaborates on the overview of solar energy utilization.

Chapter 2: Solar Dryers

This chapter elaborates on the various drying techniques, solar dryer and solar dryer
types in detail.

Chapter 3: Literature Review

This chapter reviews the available literature on all types of solar dryers. The research
gap and scope of the project and its main objectives have been discussed.

Chapter 4: Selection of Food Product

This chapter elaborates in detail on 39 food items.

Chapter 5: Methodology & Design Criterion

This chapter elaborates on the methodology & design criteria for designing a hybrid
solar dryer.

Chapter 6: Selection of Solar Dryer Type

This chapter elaborates on the selection of solar dryer types in detail.

Chapter 7: Design of Solar Dryer

This chapter elaborates on the design of a hybrid solar dryer and has fewer extra
components than a conventional solar dryer.

Chapter 8: Geometrical Modelling

This chapter elaborates on the CAD modelling and specification of the hybrid solar
dryer components.

Chapter 9: Computer Analysis

This chapter elaborates on the performance analysis of solar dryers based on the CFD
analysis is discussed in this chapter

6
.
Chapter 10: Economical Analysis
The economic analysis of solar dryer based on the computer analysis is discussed in
this chapter.

Chapter 11: Conclusions And Recommendations

The conclusion drawn from the results of the analysis is being presented in this chapter
along with the scope for future work.

The useful tables and graphs are added in the section of the Appendix.

The solar power source is gaining popularity because of its benefits to people
and the environment. Solar technologies convert sunlight into a useful form of energy.
The thermal conversions with fundamental topics are explained. This concludes that for
a safe and sustainable future, there should be an advancement in the field of renewable
energy with proper research and development

7
 CHAPTER 2
SOLAR DRYER

8
 CHAPTER 2
SOLAR DRYER

This chapter is advance as it contains the various drying techniques, solar dryers,
and their types, need for solar dryers, working principle of the solar dryer, basics of
solar drying techniques, drying process and its fundamentals, drying requirement,
advantages of using a solar dryer, solar dryers applications and the present day scenario
of soar dryer in India.

2.1 BASICS OF SOLAR DRYERS

One of the traditional uses of solar energy has been for the drying of agricultural
products. The drying process removes moisture and helps in the preservation of the
product. Traditionally, drying is done on open ground. The disadvantages of this are that
the process is slow, insects and dust get mixed with the product. The use of dryers helps
to eliminate these disadvantages. Drying can then be done faster and in a controlled
fashion. In addition, a better-quality product is obtained.
A cabinet-type solar dryer, suitable for small-scale use, is shown in Fig. 2.1.1.
The dryer consists of an enclosure with a transparent cover. The material to be dried is
placed on perforated trays. Solar radiation entering the enclosure is absorbed in the
product itself and the surrounding internal surfaces of the enclosure. As a result,
moisture is removed from the product, and the air inside is heated. Suitable openings at
the bottom and top ensure a natural circulation. Temperatures ranging from 50 to 80°C
are usually attained, and the drying time ranges from 2 to 4 days. Typical products
which can be dried in such devices are dates, apricots, chillies, grapes, etc. For large-
scale drying, the passive device of Fig. 2.1.1 relying on natural circulation is replaced
by an active device with forced circulation, as shown in Fig. 2.1.2. Systems of this type
have been used for drying timber.
An indirect type of active device is used when the solar radiation falling directly
on the product (as in Figs 2.1.1 and 2.1.2) is not adequate, or the temperature of the
product needs to be controlled. Here, the air is heated separately in an array of solar air
heaters and then ducted to the chamber where the product is dried is stored. Such dryers
are suitable for food grains and products like tea and tobacco. Systems utilizing solar
radiation both directly and indirectly are also used for drying. In India, about 150 large-

9
scale systems for drying various kinds of crops and for drying timber have been set up
in the last ten years. [5]

Fig.2.1.1 Forced circulation dryer [5] Fig.2.1.2 Cabinet dryer [5]

2.1.1 NATURAL CONVECTION DRYERS

Solar dryers use the natural vertical convection that occurs when air is heated.
Generally, natural convection dryers are sized appropriately for on-farm use. The
structure consists of three main components: a solar collector, a drying bin and a solar
chimney. Natural convention dryers that are smaller in scale are wooden boxes with
vents at the top and bottom. Food is placed on screened frames which slide into the
boxes. A properly sized solar air heater with south-facing plastic glazing and a black
metal absorber is connected to the bottom of the boxes. Air enters the bottom of the
solar air heater and is heated by the black metal absorber. The warm air rises past the
food and out through the vents at the top. While operating, these dryers produce
temperatures of 130–180° F (54–82° C), a desirable range for most food drying and
pasteurization. With these dryers, it‟s possible to dry food in one day, even when it is
partly cloudy, hazy, and very humid. Inside, thirteen shelves hold 35 to 40 medium-
sized apples or peaches cut into thin slices. [6]

2.1.2 FORCED CONVECTION DRYERS

The convection is forced over the food through the use of a fan. In the case of
forced convection dryers, the structure can be relatively similar. However, the forced
convection dryer requires a power source for the fans to provide the airflow. The forced
convection dryer doesn't require an incline for the airflow. However, the collector can be
placed horizontally with the fan at one end and the drying bin at the other end. In
addition, the forced convection dryer is less dependent on solar energy as it provides the

10
airflow itself; this allows the design to work in weather conditions in which the natural
convection dryer doesn't work. As inadequate ventilation is a primary cause of food loss
in solar food dryers and is made worse by intermittent heating, it is essential to realize
proper ventilation. For instance, a forced convection flow provided through a PV- solar
cell connected to a fan will prevent food loss. [6]

2.2 NEED FOR DRYERS

DRYING AND FOOD PRESERVATION
The preservation of foods by drying is the time-honoured and most common
method humans and the food processing industry use. [7]
Drying: Removal of water from the food by non-conventional energy sources
like sunlight and wind.
Dehydration: The process of removal of water from the food under controlled
conditions like temperature, relative humidity and airflow, etc.
Drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. Removing moisture
stops the growth of bacteria, yeasts & Moulds that usually spoils the food. Due to this,
transportation, handling and storage costs are reduced, and it is an easy and economical
way to save surplus food for a later time.
The main benefit of dry food.
 Easy to measure.
 Easy to serve.
 Easy to store.

 HEAT INTENSITY IS DOUBLE THAN OPEN SUN‟S HEAT.

This makes the dryers take away moisture from food products and dry it
rapidly than sunlight heating. This increases operational productivity with a
reduced drying period.
 IT CAN BE USED EVEN ON RAINY DAYS.
A rainy climate is not suitable for the drying process. But using solar dryers can
retain heat and can dry food products efficiently.
 NO COLOUR DEGRADATION DUE TO UV RAYS.
As the food products are not directly exposed to sunlight, the colour of food
products remains the same.

11
  THE PRODUCT OBTAINED IS HYGIENIC.
Normal drying methods not only attract flies, dust, and other microbes. It also
hassles during the rainy season.
 REDUCING THE OPERATIONAL COST.
Solar dryers are a one-time investment, unlike other dryers using electrical
energy, and you won‟t get any other operational cost.
 IT OCCUPIES LESS AREA.
Food can be stacked in trays and placed one above another in solar dryers,
occupying very little space. You can stack products in trays and place one above
another in solar dryers, occupying the minimal area.

2.3 VARIOUS METHODS OF DRYING

Figure2.3 Various methods of drying based on heat transfer modes

SPRAY DRYER
A fine dispersion of pre-concentrated food (40–60% moisture) is first „atomized‟
to form fine droplets and then sprayed into a co- or counter-current flow of heated air at
150–300ºC in a large drying chamber. [7]

TUNNEL DRYER
Layers of food are dried on trays stacked on trucks programmed to move semi-
continuously through an insulated tunnel. Able to dry large quantities of food relatively
quickly. However, the method has now been largely superseded by conveyor drying and

12
fluidized bed drying due to their higher energy efficiency reduced labour costs, and
better product quality. [7]

BIN DRYER
Bin dryers are large, cylindrical or rectangular containers fitted with a mesh
base. Hot air passes up through a bed of food at relatively low velocities and then drying
happens[7].

ROTARY DRYER
The foodstuff is contained in a horizontal cylinder through which it
travels. Heated either by airflow through the cylinder or by conduction of heat from the
cylinder-walls.

FLUIDISED-BED DRYER
Warm air is blown upwards directly underneath the food, causing it to flow and
remain separated. This procedure is suitable for small items. Heat is supplied to the food
by-conduction[7].

DRUM DRYER (ROLLER DRYER)

Drum drying is a method used for drying out liquids from raw materials with
a drying drum. In the drum-drying process, pureed raw ingredients are dried at
relatively low temperatures, over-rotating, high-capacity drums that produce sheets of
drum-dried product. This product is milled to a finished flake or powder form. Modern
drum drying techniques results in dried ingredients which reconstitute immediately and
retain much of their original flavour, colour and nutritional value. [7]
Some advantages of drum drying include drying dense foods that cannot be
quickly dried with other methods. Drum dryers are easy to operate and maintain.

VACUUM BAND AND VACUUM SHELF DRYERS

Two main advantages over hot-air drying:
 It is unnecessary to heat large volumes of air before drying commences, and the
thermal efficiency is high.
 Drying may be carried out in the absence of oxygen to protect components of
foods that are easily oxidized. [7]

13
 This method is usually used for high-quality dried products, which contain heat-
sensitive components such as vitamins, antibiotics, and microbial culture. The virtual
absence of air and low temperature prevents deterioration due to oxidation or chemical
modification of the product. It also gives very porous products, which results in high
rehydration rates. However, freeze-drying is a slow and expensive process. [7]

OSMOTIC DEHYDRATION
This dehydration process generally does not produce a product of low moisture
content that can be considered shelf-stable. Need further processing (generally by air,
freeze-, or vacuum-drying methods) to obtain a shelf-stable product, or the dehydration
process could be used as a pretreatment for canning, freezing, and minimal processing.
Osmotic dehydration is the process of water removal by immersion of water-containing
cellular solid in a concentrated aqueous solution. The driving force for water removal is
the concentration gradient between the solution and the intracellular fluid. [7] Water
removal during the osmotic process is mainly by diffusion and capillary flow, whereas
solute uptake or leaching is only by diffusion. [7]
The osmotic dehydration process:
 Dynamic period (mass transfer rates increased or decreased until equilibrium is
reached).
 Equilibrium period (equilibrium is the endpoint of the osmotic process, i.e., the
net rate of mass transport is zero).

FREEZE-DRYING

It is also known as lyophilisation or cryodesiccation, which is a low-

temperature dehydration process that involves freezing the product, lowering pressure,
then removing the ice by sublimation. This is in contrast to dehydration by most
conventional methods that evaporate water using heat. Because of the low temperature
used in processing, the quality of the rehydrated product is excellent, and the original
shape of the product is maintained. [7]

14
MICROWAVE OVEN DRYING
A microwave oven (commonly called a microwave) is an electric oven that heats
and cooks food by exposing it to electromagnetic radiation in
the microwave frequency range. [7] This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate
and produce thermal energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Which then can
also be used for drying.

OVEN DRYING
An oven is a tool used to expose materials to a hot environment. Ovens contain a
hollow chamber and provide a means of heating the chamber in a controlled way. In use
since antiquity, they have been used to accomplish a wide variety of tasks requiring
controlled heating. Because they are used for various purposes, there are many
different ovens. These types differ depending on their intended purpose and how they
generate heat.

SMOKING
One of the most ancient food preservation processes and one of the most
important in some communities. The use of wood smoke to preserve foods is nearly as
old as open-air drying. The heat associated with the generation of smoke also causes a
drying effect. Smoking has been mainly used with meat and fish. [7]
The primary purposes of smoking are:
 It imparts desirable flavours and colours to the foods.
 Some of the compounds formed during smoking have a preservative effect
(bactericidal and antioxidant) due to several compounds.

Figure2.3.1 Solar Drying

15
2.4 BASICS OF SOLAR DRYING TECHNIQUE
2.4.1 SOLAR DRYERS
Solar dryers are devices that use solar energy to dry substances, especially food.

Figure2.4.1 Drying process [8]

(1) Cold dry air enters the drying chamber through the air inlet.
(2) The solar rays enter the cabinet through the transparent cover material, where they
are converted into heat energy, thereby increasing the temperature inside. The heated
food gives out water vapour and dries up.
(3) Gradually, the heated moist air goes up and leaves the drying chamber through the
air outlet at the high end of the dryer. [8]

2.4.2 THE NEED FOR AIRFLOW IN THE SYSTEM.

Key processes
 Heat transfer from the heating source to the target product.
 Mass transfer of moisture (water vapours) from the product to the air.
 To avoid condensation of water on glass or surface.
In the drying process, heat is necessary to evaporate moisture from the substance to be
dried, and a flow of air is needed to carry away the evaporated moisture. [9]

Figure 2.4.2 Direct Solar Dryer [9]

16
2.4.3 MECHANISM OF DRYING
There are two basic mechanisms involved in the drying process:
 Migration of moisture from the interior of the substance to be dried.
 Evaporation of moisture from the surface to the surrounding air. [9]
The 3 factors that control the rate of drying are
 Air temperature
 Humidity
 Air velocity
When hot air is blown over wet food, water vapour diffuses through a boundary
film of air surrounding the food and is carried away by the moving air (Fig. 12). A water
vapour pressure gradient is established from the moist interior of the food to the dry air.
This gradient provides the `driving force' for water removal from the food. The
boundary film acts as a barrier to heat transfer and water vapour removal. The thickness
of the film is determined primarily by the air velocity; low-velocity air produces thicker
boundary films that reduce the heat transfer coefficient. When water vapour leaves the
surface of the food, it increases the humidity of the air in the boundary film. This
reduces the water vapour pressure gradient and hence slows the rate of drying.
Conversely, fast-moving air removes humid air more quickly, reduces the boundary film
increases the water vapour pressure gradient and hence increases the rate of drying. In
summary, the three characteristics of air that are necessary for successful drying when
the food is moist are: [9]
 Moderately high dry-bulb temperature
 A low RH
 A high air velocity

Figure2.4.2 Movement of moisture during drying [10]

17
2.4.4 CONSTANT RATE PERIOD
When food is placed in a dryer, there is a short initial settling down period as the
surface heats up to the wet-bulb temperature (A-B in Fig. a). Drying then commences
and, provided that water moves from the interior of the food at the same rate as it
evaporates from the surface, the surface remains wet. This is known as the constant-rate
period and continues until certain critical moisture content is reached (B-C in Figs a and
b). The surface temperature of the food remains close to the wet-bulb temperature of the
drying air until the end of the constant-rate period due to the cooling effect of the
evaporating water. [10]
 In practice, different food surface areas dry out at different rates and, overall, the
drying rate declines gradually towards the end of the constant-rate period.
 The temperature and humidity of the drying air are constant, and all heat
is supplied to the food surface by convection. [10]

Fig. 2.4.3 Drying curves: The temperature and humidity of the drying air are
constant, and all heat is supplied to the food surface by convection. [10]

2.4.5 DRYING REQUIREMENTS

In the drying process, heat is necessary to evaporate moisture from the substance
to be dried, and a flow of air is needed to carry away the evaporated moisture. Drying
an object is a process where the following parameters play a determining role: [9]
1) The Air Temperature.
2) The Relative Humidity.
3) The Air Pressure.
4) The Dew Point.

18
5) The Temperature of The Product To Be Dried.
6) The Amount of Air That Passes Through The Product.
7) Velocity of The Air In Contact With The Substance To Be Dried.

2.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OSD & SOLAR DRYING

The difference between opens sun-drying and solar drying are huge and solar
drying comes with many advantages that are essential for proper and quick drying.
Some of the differences and advantages of solar drying are mentioned below against the
traditional drying method, i.e. drying under the sun.
Some advantages of solar drying are early harvest, planning of the harvest
season, long-term storage without deterioration, a higher price a few months after
harvest, the availability of seeds, selling a better quality product.

Table 2.5.1 Difference between open sun drying & solar drying [11]
Open Sun Drying Solar Drying

Traditional method More recent invention

Delayed drying Fast drying
Problems of contamination by birds, insects, No contamination
etc.
Less hygienic & less clean Highly hygienic & very clean

Inferior quality products Best quality products

May not meet GMP Meets GMP requirements
Drying possible only on sunny days Drying possible on all days,including cloudy
and rainy days with electrical backup
Poor sensory qualities to products - Highly acceptable sensory qualities to produ
Appearance/Color & Textures cts - Attractive appearance, Color & Texture
Uneven drying Even/Uniform drying
More nutrient loss Better nutrient retention
Low-profit margins Best profit margins due to quality products
The space required is higher Low space required

19
 Figure 2.5.1 Actual model setup [12]

Figure 2.5.2 Comparison of open sun and solar dryer after every 20 minutes [12]

Figure 2.5.3 Moisture percent removal vs time [12]

20
2.6 VARIOUS TYPES OF SOLAR DRYERS
SOLAR DRYING SYSTEMS

In a solar dryer, the air is heated and circulated naturally by buoyancy force or
due to wind pressure or in a combination of both. Normal and reverse absorber cabinet
dryer and greenhouse dryer operate in passive mode. Passive drying of crops is still in
common practice in many Mediterranean, tropical and subtropical regions, especially in
Africa and Asia or in small agricultural communities. These are primitive, inexpensive
construction with locally available materials and easy to install and operate, especially
at sites far from the electrical grid. The passive dryers are best suited for drying small
batches of fruits and vegetables like bananas, pineapple, mango, potato, and carrots.

Fig.2.6.1 Solar dryer types

2.6.1 DIRECT SOLAR DRYER

In this type of dryer, the solar radiation is absorbed directly by the product
intended to be dried. The hot air supply is provided through solar collectors, which are
employed in the drying unit in which the product is directly irradiated by solar energy
through a transparent sheet covering the east and west sides of the chamber. One of the
disadvantages of this system is the poor quality of product processed which may cause a
black surface on the product due to the direct solar radiation on the product. On the
other hand, the drying time is very fast, and this class of dryers came with a simple
design that can be assembled by farmers themselves using locally available materials.
The material to be dried is placed in a transparent enclosure of glass or
transparent plastic. The sun heats the material to be dried, and heat builds up within
the enclosure due to the greenhouse effect. [13]

21
 Figure 2.6.1.1 Direct solar dryer [14]

2.6.2 TUNNEL DRYERS

The structure of a tunnel dryer is relatively simple. The essential design
components of a tunnel dryer are the following: [6]
 A semi-circular shaped solar tunnel in the form of a poly house framed structure
with UV stabilized polyethene sheet.
 In contrast to the other dryer designs, the structure is large enough for a person
to enter.

2.6.3 INDIRECT SOLAR DRYER

In this type of dryer, the solar radiation acquired by the system is used to heat
the air circulating around the product to be dried. The air is typically heated by the
thermal energy converted from solar radiation absorbed with a separate collector. In this
operating mode, the sides of the drying chamber are insulated to prevent the loss of
solar radiation through the sides. Product quality is improved by an increase in the
drying speed. Indirect dryers are generally predestined for manufacture by small
industries in most cases. [13]
The sun does not act directly on the material to be dried, thus making
them useful in the preparation of those crops whose vitamin content can be destroyed by
sunlight. The products are dried by hot air heated elsewhere by the sun

Figure 2.6.3.1 Indirect solar dryer [15]

22
2.6.4 MIXED-MODE SOLAR DRYING
The mixed-mode solar drying technique performs both direct and indirect solar
drying simultaneously. This method is a passive type of dryer. The mixed-mode solar
dryer has no moving parts. This type of dryer acquires energy from the sun's rays that
enter through the collector lustring. The inside surface of the collector is painted black,
and the sun's rays are harnessed by trapping the heat of the air collected inside the
chamber. [13] The solar radiation incident's combined action on the material to be
dried and the air preheated in the solar collector provides the heat required for
the drying operation.

Figure 2.6.4.1 Mixed-Mode solar dryers [16]

2.6.5 HYBRID SOLAR-ENERGY DRYERS

A hybrid type solar‐energy dryer has the same typical structure as the indirect‐
type (i.e., a solar air heater, a separate drying chamber and a chimney), and in addition,
has glazed walls inside the drying chamber so that the solar radiation impinges directly
on the product as in a direct‐type dryer. Here the sun is used to dry products. Other
technologies like blowers are also used to cause air movement in the dryers. The hybrid
solar convective drying system consists of a solar air heater, drying chamber, and
electric heater to provide air at a constant temperature to the dryer. Pebble bed storage
was used to reduce the electric energy consumption, comprising one unit with a drying
chamber. Although the sun is used to dry products, other technologies are also used to
cause air movement in the dryers. For example, fans powered by solar PV can be used
in these types of dryers. [13]

Figure 2.6.5.1 Hybrid solar dryer [17]

23
2.7 WORKING CONSIST OF HYBRID SOLAR DRYER
2.7.1 BASIC WORKING PRINCIPLE
 Greenhouse Effect
 Convection

2.7.2 THE WORKING OF A DRYER CONSISTS [9]

AIRFLOW
The airflow inside the dryer is maintained using the motor fan arrangement. The
air intake is axial, and then it is thrown radially into the tapered duct, where the velocity
of the air is increased due to the uniform decrement of the duct‟s height.
HEATING
The heating of the air is achieved inside the heating chamber with the help of
two heating elements and the sunlight falling on the collector plate (glass). Then this hot
air goes inside the drying chamber.
DRYING
The hot air at desired temperature enters the drying chamber and strikes the food
item to be dried.
MOISTURE REMOVAL
The moisture is removed from the food item through an outlet port at the top of
the drying chamber.
HOT-AIR RECIRCULATION
Now the hot air is recirculated into the motor fan arrangement to maintain a
constant temperature inside the drying chamber, and the desired temperature is achieved
in less time.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
The desired temperature can be set on the temperature controller, connected to a
temperature sensor (the sensor is placed inside the drying chamber). The controller takes
the temperature input from the sensor and accordingly regulates the current in the
heating elements. As the temperature exceeds the set temperature, the heating elements
are automatically switched OFF, and further, as the temperature goes below the set
temperature, the heating elements are again switched ON by the controller. [9]

24
2.8 ADVANTAGES & REASONS FOR LIMITED USE IN INDIA
2.8.1 ADVANTAGES

 A solar dryer can provide a faster drying period by trapping heated air in an
enclosed place.
 A solar dryer can secure a higher air temperature for the drying process than
drying in an open-air condition.
 The drying process can also be shortened by applying a thermal energy storage
facility that helps to supply heat energy during off sunshine hours.
 Drying using a solar dryer is efficient since the process takes a shorter drying
period while reducing waste production.
 A more significant percentage of quality dried crops can be produced.
 The enclosed drying surrounding can avoid attacks from the animals and prevent
the growth of micro-organisms ( bacteria, yeasts, fungus).
 The nutritional value, such as vitamins and proteins, can be maintained by
drying products at an optimum temperature. [18]

2.8.2 REASONS FOR LIMITED USE IN INDIA

 The high capital cost of installation, i.e. solar panels, insulation, building.
 Lack of government incentive to encourage the use of new technology.
 No premium price is given for better quality products dried using solar drying.
 Farmers are reluctant to learn a new technique and replace the conventional
one that has been used for decades.
 Difficulties in getting spare parts and lack of skilled personnel for routine
maintenance jobs.
 Limited funding to carry out continuous and follow up extension work to
promote the use of solar dryers. [18]

Figure 2.8.2.1 Solar Dryer [19]

25
2.9 APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR DRYERS

APPLICATIONS IN INDUSTRIES SUCH AS

 Textiles
It is typically used for the quick drying of clothes.
 Wood
It is used for quick drying of woods when required dry woods for various
processes.
 Fruit And Food Processing
A significant section of the Food processing industry deals with drying
agricultural products for better preservation, long-term storage, and exports.
Solar Drying provides a very suitable and economical way of drying various
fruits and vegetables.
 Paper
 Pharmaceutical
 Agro-Industries
Drying spices like chillies, coriander, pepper, turmeric, dehydration of fruits and
vegetables like mango, sapota, grapes, banana, papaya amla, carrot, beetroot,
potato, bitter gourd and many more, also it is beneficial in drying herbs like
tulsi, neem and others which need to be protected from direct sun lights.
 Solar Fish Dryer
It is typically used for drying Fish, Bombay Duck, Pomfret, Anchovies, Prawns,
Shrimps etc.
 Solar Hot Air Generation For Industry & Space Heating
Solar Air heating systems can provide preheated air for various processes. This
can reduce the consumption of diesel and gas, which is traditionally used to heat
air.
 Solar Laundry Dryer
The solar dryer is used for drying clothes using Solar Energy. This solar-based
laundry is for the Indian Army located in the North-East part of India.

This chapter concludes the detailed study on solar dryers and their importance in
a sustainable future. Therefore solar drying is an excellent method for drying proposes.

26
 CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE REVIEW

27
 Chapter 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
After harvesting, the high moisture content in some agricultural produce can
facilitate micro-organisms' growth, resulting in spoilage of the produce. Reducing the
moisture content of food to between 10 and 20% prevents bacteria, yeast, mold and
enzymes from spoiling it. Drying is the oldest technique used for food preservation. It
can reduce surplus production wastage and make produce lighter, smaller, and easier to
handle. Drying is a suitable preservation technique for developing countries with poorly
established low-temperature and thermal processing facilities. The solar drying system
utilizes the solar energy to heat air and to dry any food substance which is loaded,
which is not only beneficial but also it reduces wastage of agricultural products and
helps in the preservation of agricultural products, but it also makes transportation of
such dried product quickly and promotes the health and welfare of the people. Hence,
experimental studies are continuously going on to find a cost-effective solution for
improving the performance of solar photovoltaic modules and developing solar dryers.
In the literature review, several collected relevant resources have been reported
to help understand what research has already been done on the solar dryer.

3.1 DIRECT SOLAR DRYER

Table 3.1.1 Direct Solar Dryer
Author and Remarks Figure
product
Sodha et al. Moisture content reduced from 95% to
(1985) Mango 13% in 12 sunshine hours.
[20]

EL- Amin Omda The dryer had a collector area of 16.8.

Mohamed Akoy They dried 195.2 kg of fresh mangoes
et al. (1999) from 81.4% to 10% wet basis.
Mango
[21]

28
Ezekwe Food Dryer equipped with wooden plenum
products (2000) and chimney which were accelerated
[22] the drying rate 5 times over the un
drying
H. Yobouet Moisture content was reduced from
Andoh et al 80% to 13%. They concluded that the
(2007) Cassava drying rate increases with drying air
and sweet banana temperature and drying air mass flow.
[23]
Ben Akachukwu Tomato, okra, and carrot dryers
et al.(2014) achieved 54.55, 52.88 and 50.98
Tomato, okra and percent gain in drying time and
carrot 21.80%, 21.18%, and 24.95% system
[24] drying efficiencies.
S. Nabnean et al. They had a performance of a newly
Tomato(2016) designed solar dryer for drying
[25] osmotically dehydrated cherry
tomatoes. This solar dryer consists of
a heat exchanger, water type solar
collector, water type heat storage unit
and drying cabinet.
M. Yahya (2017) The performance investigation of a
Cassava chips[26] solar dryer (SD) and solar-assisted
heat pump dryer (SAHPD) for cassava
chips drying. The average Coefficient
of Performance of the heat pump was
3.38 in a range of 3.23 to 3.47.
S. Deeto (2020) The solar greenhouse dryer
Coffee beans[27] investigated a thin layer of coffee
beans dehumidified with hot water
storage. The thermal energy in the
form of hot water can be used and
reused at a time of sunset.

29
 Prospect and future of solar dryers (2011) [28] This paper's objective is to design
and performance analysis of different types of the solar dryer.
Review on development of solar drying applications (2013) [29] They review
the role of the drying system in industry and agriculture, the energy consumption
capacity, and the availability of the required energy for the products to be dried.
Solar drying technology: A Review (2015) [30] For drying the food in the
various techniques of food drying such as – (1)Direct food drying (2)Indirect food
drying.
Review on direct solar dryers (2015) [31] This paper is focused on direct type
solar dryers. On its various design and modification.
Design and Construction of Solar Dryer for Drying Agricultural Products (2017)
[32] Performance of existing solar food dryers and still be improved upon, especially in
the aspect of reducing the drying time and probably storage of heat energy within
the system.
As for the direct solar dryer, research papers ranged from 1985 to 2017. This
span represents a variety of direct solar dryer types. The overall objective of the
research papers was to design a direct solar dryer while mentioning various types of
food drying and its performance analysis.

30
3.2 INDIRECT SOLAR DRYER
Table 3.2 Indirect Solar Dryer

Author and Remarks Figure

product
Othieno et al. The dryer consisted of a single
(1981) glazed passive solar air heater with a
Maize 1 m2 single flat-plate collector.
[33] Moisture content reduced from 20%
to 12% within 3 days and has a
capacity of 90 kg
A. Madhlopa Solar dryer integrated with collector
et al.(2007) storage and biomass-backup heaters.
Sliced Moisture pickup efficiency was 13%
Pineapple in solar-biomass modes of operation.
[34]

P.N. Sarsavadia Moisture content reduces from 86%

(2007) to 7 % (wet basis). They concluded
Onion slices that by recirculation of exhaust air,
[35] the maximum saving in total energy
up to 70.7% was achieved, and
energy required per unit mass of
water removed was found between
12.040 and 38.777 MJ/kg water.
K.P. Vijayakumar Moisture content reduced from 95%
et al. (2008) to 5% within 6 h with 4 kg capacity.
Bitter gourd 1kg of bitter gourd as Rs. 17.52,
[36] while, in the case of an electric dryer,
it was Rs. 41.35.

31
Bukola O. Average air velocity and daylight
Bolaji.et.al. and
(2008) efficiency was 1.62 m/s and 46.7%.
Pepper, yam The maximum drying air
Chips temperature was found to be 64oC
[37] inside the dryer. The weight losses
were obtained 80% to55% in drying
pepper and yam chips, respectively.

Subarna Maiti et Collector efficiency without load

al. was
(2011) enhanced from 40.0% to 58.5%.
Papad They dried papad„ to a moisture
[38] content of 12 in 5 h. dryer has
collector area of 1.8 and loading
capacity of 3.46 kg.
S. Shanmugam et They compared the results of the
al.(2011) physical model and the mathematical
Sunflower seed model and concluded that the
[39] percentage of the average error and
the standard deviation for the dryer
thermal efficiency was 0.78% and
1.33%, respectively.
Fudholi et al. The collector, drying system and
(2011) pickup efficiencies are found to be
Marine products 35, 27 and 95 %, respectively.
[9] Moisture reduced from 90% to 10 %
in 15 h.
J. E. Berinyuy et Moisture content reduced from 95%
al. (2012) to 9% in five days. The overall dryer
Sliced efficiency was 17.68%, with a
Cabbage moisture extraction efficiency of
[40] 79.15% and airflow of 9.68 m3 /hr.

32
 R.K. Aggarwal The solar dryer of 25kg capacity was
(2012) attached with a solar cell for running
Hill products the fan. Bulbs were also provided in
[41] the solar collector for heating air
during cloudy days, evenings, and
mornings for faster drying, reducing
drying time.
A. O. Adelaja Collector efficiency to be 46.4%,
et al. (2013) while system efficiency was 78.73%.
Food products The collector had a moisture removal
[42] efficiency of 77.5% achieved in 20
hours.

Figure 3.2.1. Indirect solar dryer

In the indirect solar dryer, the efficiencies of the solar dryer were calculated with
different products. The research papers represent the overall efficiency of the solar dryer
and the time recorded for reducing the original moisture content to an acceptable level.

33
3.3 MIXED-MODE SOLAR DRYER

Table 3.3 Mixed-Mode Solar Dryer

M.A. Hossaina The drying rate, collector efficiency,
and B.K. Bala and percentage of moist removed (dry
(2005) basis) for drying yam chips were 0.62
Red chilli kgh 1, 57.5 and 85.4%, respectively.
[44] The temperature rise inside the drying
cabinet was up to 24o C
F.K. Forson.et.al Collector area of 42.4 and expected
(2006) drying efficiency of 12.5%. Under
[45] average ambient conditions of 28.2
and 72.1% relative humidity with solar
irradiance of 340.4W/m2, a drying
time was 35.5 h, and the drying
efficiency was evaluated as 12.3%.

Bukola O. Bolaji The drying rate, collector efficiency,

and Ayoola P. and percentage of moist removed (dry
Olalusi:(2008) basis) for drying yam chips were 0.62
Yam chips kg h-1, 57.5 and 85.4%, respectively.
[36] The temperature rise inside the drying
cabinet was up to 24o C

The research papers show the drying rate, collector efficiency, and percentage of
moisture removed from various products in a mixed-mode solar dryer.

34
3.4 HYBRID SOLAR DRYER

Table 3.4.1 Hybrid Dryer

A.G.Ferreira et The dryer has 1.50 m of length, 1.20 m
al. (2007) of width and 0.20 m of internal height.
Banana slices The drying chamber has 0.90 m of
[45] length, 1.20m of width and 0.96 m of
height. The auxiliary heating system
comprises 20 incandescent lamps of
100 W each. The diameter chimney
was 0.20 m, eight trays (0.74 m x 0.52
m) were put inside the drying
chamber, corresponding to an area of
3.08 m2.+
B.M.A Amer et The efficiency of the solar dryer was
al. (2010) raised by recycling about 65% of the
Banana slices drying air in the solar dryer. The
[46] capacity of the dryer was to dry 30 kg
of banana slices in 8 h on a sunny day
from the moisture content of 82% to t
18% (wb).
Okoroigwe E. C. Maximum tray temperature of 53°C.
et al (2013) An optimal drying rate of 0.0142
Yam chips kg/hr. It was achieved with the
[47] combined solar and biomass dryer,
compared to the slower drying rate of
0.00732 kg/h for the solar drying and
0.0032 kg/h for the biomass drying.
Reyes A et al. The dryer has a 3 m2 solar panel and
(2014) electric resistances. At the outlet of the
Tomato tray dryer, 80 or 90% of the air was
[48] recycled, and the air temperature was
adjusted 50 or 60ºC. The solar energy

35
 input resulted in 6.6-12.5% energy
saving.
Saravanan et al The system is capable of attaining
Cashew nut drying temperature between 50º and
[49] 70ºC. Moisture content reduced
from9% to 3% is achieved within 7
hours, and the average system
efficiency is estimated as 5.08%.

Tobacco leaves (1995) [50] The loading capacity of the dryer was 1000 kg. The
results indicated that solar energy accounted for 25–30% of the total energy consumed.

Tea (2000) [50] Solar dryer with the V Groove type solar collectors, The fresh
tea leaves are dried from an initial moisture content of 87% (wet basis) to 54% (wet
basis) at a drying temperature of 50ºC and flow rate of 15.1 m3/min.

Tea (2003) [50] The total energy required to maintain a drying chamber
temperature of 50ºC is 60.2 kWh. The additional energy contribution is 17.6 kWh.
Hence, solar energy contributes 42.6 kWh during the process and
contributes approximately 70.2% of the overall energy requirement.

Turmeric rhizomes (2006) [50] Open sun drying had taken 11 days to dry
the rhizomes, while solar biomass drier hybrid took only 1.5 days.

Onion slices (2007) [36] Onion slices dried from initial moisture content of
about 86% (w.b.) to final moisture content of about 7% (w.b.), The maximum savings in
total energy up to 70.7% can be achieved with recycling of the hot exhaust air.

Pineapple (2007) [36] The dryer reduced the moisture content of pineapple
slices from about 66% to 11% (d.b.) and yielded a nutritious dried product. The average
values of the final-day moisture pickup efficiency were 15%, 11% and 13% in the solar,
biomass and solar–biomass modes of operation, respectively.

Fresh sliced mango (2007) [51] This paper describes the design considerations
followed and presents the results of calculations of design parameters. A minimum of
16.8m2 solar collector area is required to dry a batch of 100kg sliced mango (195.2kg

36
fresh mango at 51.22% pulp) in 20hours (two days drying period). The initial and
final moisture content considered were 81.4% and 10% wet, respectively. The average
ambient conditions are 30ºC air temperature and 15% relative humidity with daily
global solar radiation incident on the horizontal surface of about 20MJ/m2/day.

Cashew nut (2007) [52] The system is capable of attaining drying temperature
between 50ºC and 70ºC. Moisture content reduced from 9% to 3% is achieved within 7
hours, and the average system efficiency is estimated as 5.08%.

Fish (2012) [53] For the analysis purpose, different types of solar dryers were
designed. The study shows that the drying rate obtained by the natural convection solar
dryer is not satisfactory. An indirect heating natural convection solar dryer was
constructed and evaluated. The system consists of a 1.83 m long 90.91 m wide 90.34 m
high natural convection aluminium solar air heater coupled to an all-around insulated
drying chamber. The latter measured 1 m 9 1 m 9 2 m high and was provided with 6
vertically stacked trays, each capable of holding up to 7.84 kg of paddy of 2.54 cm
deep. Also, for different types of solar dryers, the temperature of 74°C was achieved,
and in some cases, the dryer's temperature was above the simulations.

Grape, Carrot & Garlic (2012) [50] This case study is adapted from research
work carried out in Advanced Drying Lab, Mumbai, India. A solar cabinet dryer (M/s
NRG Technologies, Baroda, India) is used for drying garlic slices. The solar cabinet
dryer has 32 perforated aluminium trays. Each tray has an area of 0.46 m2 with raw
material loading density of 4 kg/m2 in the cabinet. A non-tracing solar collector panel
heats the air with a 40 m2 collector area, and the heated air was distributed in the drying
chamber by a blower fitted in a duct located at the left side of the cabinet. The cabinet's
air velocity, air temperature, and relative humidity were in the range of 0.9-1.0 m/s, 53-
57°C and 35-45%, respectively.

Banana (2012) [54] The main object of the present invention is to provide an
improved solar dryer with enhanced efficiency of drying. Another object of the present
invention is to provide solar reflectors to enhance the solar insolation on the collector
and, consequently, the drying air temperature. Yet another object of the present
invention is to provide a foldable reflector assembly on the drying cabinet, which
enables the unit to be operated in direct or indirect mode. Yet another object of the

37
present invention is to provide forced air convection through DC fans at the inlet and
outlet points. Yet another object of the present invention is to provide synchronization
of the fan speed, and consequently, the mass flow rate of air with the solar radiation
incident on the solar dryer.

Saffron (2012) [55] The effect of air mass flow rate at three levels (0.008, 0.012,
and 0.016 kg/s), drying air temperature at three levels (40, 50, and 60C), and two
different dryer modes (with and without the heat pump unit) on the operating
parameters of the dryer was investigated. Applying a heat pump with the dryer led to a
reduction in the drying time and energy consumption and an increase in the electrical
efficiency of the solar collector. The average total energy consumption was reduced by
33% when the dryer was equipped with a heat pump. Maximum values for electrical
and thermal efficiency of the solar collector were found to be 10.8 and 28%,
respectively.

Maize (2012) [56] The design and construction of a domestic passive solar
dryer. The dryer comprises a solar collector (air heater) and a solar drying chamber
constraining rack of three cloth (net) trays, both being integrated. The air allowed in
through the air inlet is heated up in the solar collector and channelled through the drying
chamber, where it is utilized in drying. Available materials were used for the
construction, chiefly comprising of wood (gmelina), glass, aluminium metal sheet,
copper and net cloth for the trays. The optimum temperature of the dryer is 50.50°C
with a corresponding ambient temperature of 34.50°C. The moisture content removal of
43.2% and 40.6% in maize and plantain, respectively, using the solar dryer, was
achieved against 28.2% and 27.89% in maize.

Pineapple and Mango (2015) [57] An indirect type solar dryer integrated with a
charcoal burning stove that can be used for drying fruits was designed, constructed and
evaluated. The study mainly tried to address the problem associated with the fact that
solar dryers are efficiently operational only when there is sufficient solar energy. The
dryer mainly consists of a solar collector panel, drying chamber, chimney and charcoal
stove. The solar collector comprises 5 mm thickness single layer glass, 2 mm black-
painted aluminium absorber plate and 3 mm fibreglass insulation enclosed in a casing
made from wood. The drying chamber is made from plywood with 2 cm thickness.
Galvanized metal sheet of 1 mm thickness was rolled and welded to make the chimney.

38
Different tests were carried out to evaluate the dryer's performance. No-load test, i.e.
test without keeping any material to be dried, was performed, and it indicated
temperature could rise to 53.3 ºC in the dryer. The average collector temperature
recorded was 56.4 ºC. In the evening, the dryer temperature was kept above the ambient
and collector temperature by burning charcoal using the backup stove. As a result, after
three hours of heat supply, the drying temperature reached 50.8 ºC.

Tomato (2017) [58] This research paper shows the study of different drying
techniques discussed. Also, the research gaps were found, and in overcoming these
gaps, the mixed-mode solar dryer was designed. The dryer consist of a solar collector,
drying chamber, solar collector and solar photovoltaic system. The maximum
temperature achieved by the dryer was 40.1 °C. The result shows that the dryer can
reduce the moisture content of tomatoes from 95% to 14% in 45 hours.

Mint leaves (2019) [59] The low-cost solar dryer was designed for drying of
mint leaves collector material used was U.V stabilized polycarbonate sheet of the
capacity of up to 2.3 kg the initial moisture content was 81.25% and was reduced to
10.34 %. The temperature obtained by the dryer was 69 °C, and the maximum tray
temperature was obtained to be 79 °C at the no-load condition and 72 °C in load
condition. The time taken by mint leaves to dry was found to be 380 mins. The
efficiency was drying was found to be good.

Fresh scotch bonnet pepper (2019) [60] In this project, a solar dryer was
designed, constructed and its performance was evaluated. The dryer dimensions are
1000mm by 410mm by 700mm. The inner part of the dryer compartment was lagged
with aluminium foil to act as an insulator. The solar collector is made of galvanized
sheet, and the glass on top of it has an area of 800mm by 380mm. Fresh scotch bonnet
pepper was used as the product of choice. The pepper was dried in 2 experiments for 3
weeks each. 200g of pepper was used and weighed to measure weight loss periodically.
The temperature and humidity of the drying chamber and the surroundings were
measured with data loggers throughout the periods of the experiments. The results
showed that the ambient temperature during the experiments was higher than the
temperature of the drying chamber in the early hours of the morning between 4 am and
10 am. During every other period, the temperature in the drying chambers was higher

39
than the ambient temperature. The average moisture content of 81.3%w.b. was removed
from the pepper during the experiments. The average efficiency of the dryer was 28.4%.

Figure 3.4.1 Forced air solar dryer [61]

In the hybrid type of solar dryer, average system efficiency, inside tray
temperature, and drying rates were recorded along with the collector efficiency and
percentage of moisture removed from the food product.

3.5 CONCLUSIONS
The hybrid dryer discussed in these papers is a practical technology that can
be used to dry various crops under all weather conditions. Temperatures in the drying
cabinet can be expected to range between 40 to 70 ºC. Compared to traditional drying,
the hybrid dryer produces a better quality product and can reduce the drying time by up
to 50 to 70%.

Figure 3.5.1 Summary of different types of dryers [57]

40
 Table 3.5.1 Research gap

Dryer Gaps
Direct Longer drying period when used during the wet season.
Indirect Corrosion of tools used to construct the drier affects its modification.
Difficulty in handling and moving the dryer due to large size.
Mixed Mode Drier sometimes not wholly rely on the renewable energy source.
Difficult to control and suitable for large scale application only.
Hybrid Higher cost of construction.
Insulation problems.
In General  The dehydration process is interrupted at low insolation or at
night when solar radiation is unavailable, resulting in a bad
quality of the dried product.
 Less efficiency than modern dryers with energy sources such as
fossil fuels and electricity.
 A backup heating system is necessary for products that require
continuous drying.
 Initial capital investment for the solar dryer is too high.

3.5 OUTCOME OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. In the papers, the authors reviewed recent innovative techniques which are used
for developments of different types like direct, indirect, mixed-mode, and
Hybrid solar dryers are discussed.

2. From the previous two to three decades, many researchers have designed and
developed efficient solar collectors, drying chambers, and solar dryers.

3. Have focused on the fruits and vegetables solar dryer in agriculture and for
domestic uses.

4. Many solar dryers are designed and developed worldwide according to climate
and location to minimise food losses.

41
 5. Have also seen development and research in relative humidity, drying time,
loading capacity, etc., which lead to the increase in the performance and
efficiency of solar dryers.

6. Farmers or anyone in need of solar dryers can use the locally available material
to construct solar dryers.

The study of all the types of solar dryers is done in detail, then the study of research
paper and thesis from various reputed journals on all the types of the solar dryer is done.
A total of 49 papers are studied for literature review and are divided as follows 13 for
direct solar dryer, 11 for indirect solar dryer, 3 mix-mode solar dryer, and the last 22
papers on the hybrid solar dryer. After comparing all the types and then considering
various priorities and factors, the conclusion was that the hybrid solar dryer is best for
the application of drying food products in domestic places.

42
 CHAPTER 4
SELECTION OF FOOD
PRODUCTS

43
 CHAPTER 4
SELECTION OF FOOD PRODUCTS
This chapter describes how the food product is selected. The selection of food
products becomes important while fabricating a solar dryer. Every other food product
has different water content, mineral content, and the drying process may vary from the
type of food product desired to be dried. Hence, while fabricating a solar dryer,
knowing water content is essential to maintain a good efficiency for drying. The
following is the report of different types of food products along with their initial and
final moisture content and specific heat of the food product.
4.1 MUSHROOM:
A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus,
typically produced above ground, on soil, or its food source. Raw brown mushrooms are
92% water, 4% carbohydrates, 2% protein and less than 1% fat. Mushrooms can be used
for dyeing wool and other natural fibres. The initial moisture content of the food
product mentioned is 92%. The final moisture content of the food product that was
required was 7 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.89 KJ/KgK. [62]
4.2 MANGO:
Amchoor or amchur or amchur also referred to as mango powder, is a fruity
spice powder made from dried unripe green mangoes and is used as a citrusy seasoning.
The dried slices, which are light brown and resemble strips of woody bark, can be
purchased whole and ground by the individual at home, but the majority of the slices
processed in this way are ground into a fine powder and sold as ready-made amchoor.
The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 83 %. The final moisture
content of the food product that was required was 3 %. The specific heat capacity of the
food product is 3.74 KJ/KgK. [63]
4.3 APPLE SLICES:
Worldwide production of apples in 2018 was 86 million tonnes,
with China accounting for nearly half of the total. Apples are commonly stored in
chambers with higher carbon dioxide concentrations and high air filtration. This
prevents ethylene concentrations from rising to higher amounts and preventing ripening
from occurring too quickly. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned

44
is 86%. The final moisture content of the food product that was required was 23%. The
specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.64 KJ/KgK. [64]
4.4 RED BELL PEPPER:
Cultivars of the plant produce fruits in different colours, including red, yellow,
orange, green, white, and purple. Bell peppers are sometimes grouped with less
pungent chilli varieties as "sweet peppers". Bell peppers are 94% water,
5% carbohydrates, and negligible fat and protein. China is the world's largest producer
of bell and chilli peppers, followed by Mexico, Turkey, Indonesia, and the United
States. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 92 %. The final
moisture content of the food product that was required was 10%. The specific heat
capacity of the food product is 3.81 KJ/KgK. [65]
4.5 CHILLIES:
Chilli peppers are widely used in many cuisines as a spice to add pungent
'heat' to dishes. Chilli peppers originated in Mexico. After the Columbian Exchange,
many cultivars of chilli pepper spread around the world, used for both food
and traditional medicine. In 2016, 34.5 million tonnes of green chilli peppers and 3.9
million tonnes of dried chilli peppers were produced worldwide. The initial moisture
content of the food product mentioned is 79 %. The final moisture content of the food
product that was required was 10 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is
3.25 KJ/KgK. [66]
4.6 POTATO:
The Spanish introduced potatoes to Europe from the Americas in the second half
of the 16th century. In 2018, the world production of potatoes was 368 million tonnes,
led by China with 27% of the total. According to the United States Department of
Agriculture, a typical raw potato is 79% water, 17% carbohydrates (88% is starch),
2% protein, and negligible fat. The initial moisture content of the food product
mentioned is 80%. The final moisture content of the food product that was required was
4 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.43 KJ/KgK. [67]
4.7 PAPAD:
A Papadam or Appalam is an Indian deep-fried dough of black gram bean flour,
either fried or cooked with dry heat (flipped over an open flame) until crunchy. Papad is
typically served as an accompaniment to a meal in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal
and Sri Lanka or as an appetiser, often with a dip such as chutneys or toppings such as
chopped onions and chillies, or they may be used as an ingredient in sabzis. The initial

45
moisture content of the food product mentioned is 31 %. The final moisture content of
the food product that was required was 10 %. The specific heat capacity of the food
product is 6.82 KJ/KgK. [68]

4.8 CORIANDER:

All plant parts are edible, but the fresh leaves and the dried seeds (as a spice) are
the parts most traditionally used in cooking. Most people perceive coriander as having a
tart, lemon/lime taste, but to nearly a quarter of those surveyed, the leaves taste like dish
soap, linked to a gene that detects some specific aldehydes that are also used as odorant
substances in many soaps and detergents. The initial moisture content of the food
product mentioned is 88 %. The final moisture content of the food product that was
required was 7 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 4.02 KJ/KgK. [69]

4.9 ONION:
The onion plant has a fan of hollow, bluish-green leaves, and its bulb at the base
of the plant begins to swell when a specific day length is reached. The crop is harvested
and dried, and the onions are ready for use or storage. Most onion cultivars are about
89% water, 9% carbohydrates (including 4% sugar and 2% dietary fibre), 1% protein,
and negligible fat. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 87 %.
The final moisture content of the food product that was required was 4 %. The specific
heat capacity of the food product is 3.95 KJ/KgK. [70]
4.10 DATES:
The species is widely cultivated across northern Africa, the Middle East, and
South Asia and is naturalized in many tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.
Containing 61–68 percent sugar by mass when dried, dates are very sweet and are
enjoyed as desserts on their own. The initial moisture content of the food product
mentioned is 56 %. The final moisture content of the food product that was required was
15 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 0.84 KJ/KgK. [71]

4.11 AMLAS:

Amlas leaves are simple, subsessile and closely set along branchlets, light green,
resembling pinnate leaves. The flowers are greenish-yellow. The fruit is nearly
spherical, light greenish-yellow, relatively smooth and hard on appearance, with six
vertical stripes or furrows. The taste of Indian emblic is sour, bitter and astringent, and it
is quite fibrous. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 76 %. The

46
final moisture content of the food product that was required was 3 %. The specific heat
capacity of the food product is 3.6 KJ/KgK. [72]

4.12 PEACHES:
Peaches grow in a relatively limited range in dry, continental or temperate
climates since the trees have a chilling requirement that tropical or subtropical areas
generally do not satisfy except at high altitudes (for example, in some regions
of Ecuador, Colombia, India, and Nepal). Strong chemical reactions occur during the
chilling period, but the plant appears dormant. The initial moisture content of the food
product mentioned is 89 %. The final moisture content of the food product that was
required was 26 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.77 KJ/KgK. [73]
4.13 COFFEE BEANS:
A coffee bean is a seed of the coffee plant and the source for coffee. It is
the pip inside the red, or purple fruit often referred to as a cherry. Like ordinary cherries,
the coffee fruit is also a so-called stone fruit. A small percentage of cherries contain a
single seed instead of the usual two. The initial moisture content of the food product
mentioned is 50 %. The final moisture content of the food product that was required was
11 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 1.41 KJ/KgK. [74]
4.14 OREGANO:
Oregano is a woody perennial plant, growing 20–80 cm tall, with opposite
leaves 1–4 cm long. The flowers are purple, 3–4 mm long, produced in erect spikes in
summer. It is sometimes called wild marjoram. It is widely used as culinary herbs,
especially in Spanish, Italian and French cuisine. Oregano is also an ornamental plant,
with numerous cultivars bred for varying leaf colour, flower colour and habit. The initial
moisture content of the food product mentioned is 60 %. The final moisture content of
the food product that was required was 12 %. The specific heat capacity of the food
product is 2.53KJ/KgK. [75]
4.15 PAPAYA:
The papaya is a small, sparsely branched tree, usually with a
single stem growing from 5 to 10 m tall. It is ripe when it feels soft (as soft as a
ripe avocado or softer), its skin has attained an amber to orange hue, and along the walls
of the large central cavity are attached numerous black seeds. The initial moisture
content of the food product mentioned is 88 %. The final moisture content of the food

47
product that was required was 8 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is
3.43 KJ/KgK. [76]
4.16 GUAVA SLICES:
Guavas originated from an area thought to extend from Mexico, Central America
or northern South America throughout the Caribbean region. Guavas are cultivated in
many tropical and subtropical countries. Guavas also grow in southwestern Europe
(Spain) and Greece, where guavas have been commercially grown since the middle of
the 20th-century Initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 83 %. The
final moisture content of the food product that was required was 10 %. The specific heat
capacity of the food product is 3.6 KJ/KgK. [77]
4.17 BANANA:
A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry– produced by several
kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa. The fruit is variable in
size, colour, and firmness but is usually elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich
in starch covered with a rind, which may be green, yellow, red, purple, or brown when
ripe. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 74 %. The final
moisture content of the food product that was required was 20 %. The specific heat
capacity of the food product is 3.35 KJ/KgK. [78]
4.18 CURRY LEAVES:
The plant produces small white flowers which can self-pollinate to produce
small shiny-black drupes containing a single, large viable seed. The berry pulp is edible,
with a sweet flavour. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 85
%. The final moisture content of the food product that was required was 8 %. The
specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.65 KJ/KgK. [79]
4.19 GRAPES:
Grapes can be eaten fresh as table grapes, used for making wine, jam, grape
juice, jelly, grape seed extract, vinegar, and grape seed oil, or dried
as raisins, currants and sultanas. Grapes are a non-climacteric type of fruit, generally
occurring in clusters. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 81
%. The final moisture content of the food product that was required was 10 %. The
specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.6 KJ/KgK. [80]
4.20 CASHEW KERNEL:
The cashew tree is a tropical evergreen tree that produces the cashew seed and
the cashew apple accessory fruit. The tree can grow as high as 14 m (46 ft), but the

48
dwarf cultivars, growing up to 6 m (20 ft), prove more profitable, with earlier maturity
and greater yields. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 10 %.
The final moisture content of the food product that was required was 3 %. The specific
heat capacity of the food product is 3.82 KJ/KgK. [81]
4.21 FISHES:
Fish are aquatic, craniate, gill-bearing animals that lack limbs with digits. Most
fish are ectothermic ("cold-blooded"), allowing their body temperatures to vary as
ambient temperatures change, though some large active swimmers like white
sharks and tuna can hold a higher core temperature. The initial moisture content of the
food product mentioned is 66 %. The final moisture content of the food product that was
required was 15 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.68 KJ/KgK. [82]

4.22 BLACK CURRANTS:

It is native to temperate parts of central and northern Europe and northern Asia,
prefer damp fertile soils. It is widely cultivated both commercially and domestically.
Bunches of small, glossy black fruit develop along the stems in the summer and can be
harvested by the hand or by the machine. Breeding is very common
in Scotland, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Norway, and New Zealand to produce. The
initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 82 %. The final moisture
content of the food product that was required was 20 %. The specific heat capacity of
the food product is 1.76KJ/KgK. [83]

4.23 ALMONDS:
The almond is a species of tree native to Iran and surrounding countries but
widely cultivated elsewhere. The almond is also the name of the edible and widely
cultivated seed of this tree. Shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the
seed. Almonds are sold shelled or unshelled. The initial moisture content of the food
product mentioned is 12 %. The final moisture content of the food product that was
required was 5 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 2.2 KJ/KgK. [84]

4.24 BLUEBERRIES:

Blueberry refers to a wild section of purple or blueberries. It grows in a type of

woody plant called a shrub. Many types of blueberries grow in North America and
eastern Asia. Blueberries are more common between May and October. Blueberry has a
very sweet taste and with a bit of acidic hint. Blueberries are good for

49
making jelly, jam, pie, muffins, and other foods. The initial moisture content of the food
product mentioned is 85 %. The final moisture content of the food product that was
required was 14 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.83 KJ/KgK. [84]

4.25 CRANBERRIES:
Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to 2 meters (7 ft) long and 5 to
20 centimetres (2 to 8 in) in height; they have slender. The fruit is a berry that is larger
than the plant's leaves; it is initially light green, turning red when ripe. It is edible but
with an acidic taste that usually overwhelms its sweetness. The initial moisture content
of the food product mentioned is 87 %. The final moisture content of the food product
that was required was 15 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.77
KJ/KgK. [84]

4.26 STRAWBERRIES:

A strawberry is a short plant in the wild strawberry genus of the rose family. The
plant grown today is a mix of two other species of wild strawberries and was first grown
in the 1750s. Most strawberries are grown on farms. Strawberry farmers often have
special bees that they take care of to help the strawberry plants grow their "fruit".
Strawberry stems are called runners. They grow above ground. They are a type
of stolon. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 92 %. The final
moisture content of the food product that was required was 19 %. The specific heat
capacity of the food product is 3.98 KJ/KgK. [84]

4.27 RASPBERRIES(RED):
A raspberry is an aggregate fruit, meaning it has many parts joined together. It is
similar to a blackberry, but the fruit is hollow inside. There are many different species of
raspberry plants, but only a few of them have fruit that is sold in stores. It is easy to
grow as a cultivated plant in moist temperate regions. It has a tendency to spread unless
cut back. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 87 %. The final
moisture content of the food product that was required was 16 %. The specific heat
capacity of the food product is 3.73 KJ/KgK. [84]

4.28 PASTA, NOODLES:

Noodles are a type of food made from unleavened dough which is rolled flat and
cut, stretched or extruded, into long strips or strings. Noodle dishes can include a sauce,
or noodles can be put into the soup. The material composition and geocultural origin are

50
specific to each type of a wide variety of noodles. Noodles are a staple food in many
cultures. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 33 %. The final
moisture content of the food product that was required was 12 %. The specific heat
capacity of the food product is 1.69 KJ/KgK. [84]

4.29 CHERRIES:

Cherries have a short growing season and can grow in

most temperate latitudes. Cherries blossom in April (in the Northern Hemisphere), and
the peak season for the cherry harvest is in the summer. In the Southern Hemisphere,
cherries are usually at their peak in late December and are widely associated
with Christmas. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 81 %. The
final moisture content of the food product that was required was 19 %. The specific heat
capacity of the food product is 3.52 KJ/KgK. [84]

4.30 TOMATO:
Tomato is shiny and smooth. It has many tiny seeds. It is also very good for
health. Most tomatoes are red. The tomato is green when it is unripe. It slowly changes
colour from green to red as it gets ripe, and as it gets ripe, it gets bigger and bigger.
Although tomatoes are botanically fruits, many people consider them vegetables and
treat them as such in cooking. The initial moisture content of the food product
mentioned is 95 %. The final moisture content of the food product that was required was
30 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.98 KJ/KgK.[84]

4.31 GREEN BELL PEPPER:

Peppers are native to Mexico, Central America, and northern South America.
Pepper seeds were imported to Spain in 1493 and then spread through Europe and Asia.
The mild bell pepper cultivar was developed in the 1920s in Szeged, Hungary. Preferred
growing conditions for bell peppers include warm, moist soil in a temperature range of
21 to 29 °C. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 74 %. The
final moisture content of the food product that was required was 10 %. The specific heat
capacity of the food product is 3.42 KJ/KgK. [85]

4.32 PUMPKIN:

A pumpkin is a type of squash fruit. They are usually orange, but they can also
be purple, red, blue, or white. Pumpkins are usually shaped like spheres or stretched-out
spheres. People can eat pumpkins. It has been traditionally used in some Native

51
American tribes for treating intestinal and kidney problems. However, these uses may
not be reliable. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 90 %. The
final moisture content of the food product that was required was 3 %. The specific heat
capacity of the food product is 3.85 KJ/KgK. [86]

4.33 ALOE VERA:

Aloe vera is originally from the Arabian Peninsula, but it grows wild in tropical
climates around the world. It is a popular houseplant species. Aloe vera is used in many
consumer products. These include drinks, skin lotion, cosmetics, and ointments for
minor burns and sunburns. There is little scientific evidence that Aloe vera works for
treating burns or sunburns or that it is safe for treating them. The initial moisture content
of the food product mentioned is 98 %. The final moisture content of the food product
that was required was 16 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.34
KJ/KgK. [86]

4.34 BASIL:

It is also known as Sweet Basil or Tulsi. It is a tender low-growing herb that is

grown as a perennial in warm, tropical climates. Basil is originally native to India and
other tropical regions of Asia. The plant tastes somewhat like anise, with a strong,
pungent, sweet smell. Basil is very sensitive to cold. It is best grown in hot, dry
conditions. While most common varieties are treated as annuals, some are perennial,
including African Blue and Holy Thai basil. The initial moisture content of the food
product mentioned is 91 %. The final moisture content of the food product that was
required was 19 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.56 KJ/KgK. [87]

4.35 NEEM:

It is native to India, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Pakistan. It

grows in tropical and semi-tropical regions. It was also the state tree of Hyderabad
Deccan. Products made from neem have been used in India for over two millennia for
their medicinal properties, which are excellent to use. They are
antifungal, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiviral, contraceptive and sedative. The Neem
products are also used in selectively controlling pests in plants. Neem is considered a
part of Ayurvedic medicine. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned
is 69 %. The final moisture content of the food product that was required was 11 %. The
specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.34 KJ/KgK. [88]

52
4.36 TUSLI:
As the name suggests has a religious meaning for the people of India, especially
towards North and South India. It is usually placed or grown in every household in India
and carries religious meanings. In bigger households, the holy basil or tulsi plant is
placed in the centre of the house and prayers are offered in the morning. People usually
light an incense stick or agarbatti and pour water on the plant during the prayer. The
initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 86 %. The final moisture
content of the food product that was required was 12 %. The specific heat capacity of
the food product is 3.43 KJ/KgK. [84]

4.37 APRICOT:

An apricot is a drupe fruit. It is closely related to the plum Flowers: Flowers are
white to pinkish in colour. Fruit: The fruit has only one seed; the colour runs from
yellow to orange and may have a red cast; the surface of the fruit is smooth and nearly
hairless. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is 86 %. The final
moisture content of the food product that was required was 22 %. The specific heat
capacity of the food product is 3.87 KJ/KgK. [84]

4.38 CARROTS:

The carrot is a type of plant. Many different types exist. Carrots are grown in the
ground, and carrots roots are a common edible vegetable. After cleaning, the roots may
be eaten raw or cooked. They are served as part of many dishes. In Portugal,
carrot jam is a speciality. Carrots are a moderate source of beta carotene, biotin, vitamin
K1, vitamin B6, and potassium. The initial moisture content of the food product
mentioned is 87%. The final moisture content of the food product that was required was
9 %. The specific heat capacity of the food product is 3.92 KJ/KgK. [89]

4.39 SPINACH:

Spinach is a green, leafy vegetable. It comes from southwestern and

central Asia. Its flowers are small and yellow. Spinach is rich in vitamin K, vitamin
A, vitamin C, and folate, making it healthy. Spinach, along with other green, leafy
vegetables, is rich in iron. The initial moisture content of the food product mentioned is
93 %. The final moisture content of the food product that was required was 4 %. The
specific heat capacity of the food product is 4.02 KJ/KgK. [90]

53
 Figure 4.1 List of all mentioned food products

Figure 4.2 Texture changes during different drying methods. (a) Dried banana
slices i) oven-dried ii) open sun-dried iii) Solar cabinet dried [91]

Figure 4.3 Color changes during different drying methods (a) chilli (b) apple [91]

54
Figure 4.4 Solar dried garlic flakes and garlic powder [50]

Figure 4.5 Solar drying of fenugreek leaves [50]

Figure 4.6 Various stages during grape drying [50]

55
Figure 4.7 Commercial production of some agricultural products in Thailand using
“Parabolic Solar Dome”: (A) Dragon fruit; (B) Lotus flowers; (C) Coffee beans;
(D) Kaempferia parviflora (Thai black ginger); (E) Lingzhi mushroom; (F) Chili;
(G) Pork meat; (H) Fish; and (I) Rice crackers [92]

This chapter concludes the detailed study on various food products that are dried
by various dryers because of the need and the benefits of drying. This helped in the
calculation of the requirement for the solar dryer collector. The mentioned food products
were used to optimize the fabrication of a hybrid solar dryer. The tomato was selected as
an optimal product among these products because its specific heat and moisture content
are high in value.

56
 CHAPTER 5

METHODOLOGY AND

DESIGN CRITERION

57
 CHAPTER 5

METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN CRITERION

5.1 METHODOLOGY
5.1.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

Need for dryers: The preservation of foods by drying is the time-honoured and most
common method used by humans and the food processing industry. So, to dry the food
products more efficiently, a solar dryer is very useful.

Various methods of drying: various method of drying, quality of a dried food product,
drying time, drying efficiency was studied in a literature review.

Basics of solar drying technique: In the basics of solar drying technique, the
mechanism of drying was also studied various types of drying Techniques were studied.
And found out three factors that control the drying rate, i.e. air temperature, humidity,
and air velocity.

Various types of solar dryers: In the literature review, various types of solar drying
techniques were studied the can be broadly classified as direct solar dryer, indirect solar
dryer, mixed-mode solar dryers, hybrid solar dryers

Design of solar dryers: Depending on the type of solar dryer, the design and
construction details of the solar dryer were studied.

Performance analysis of solar dryers: Performances of different types of solar dryers

were studied performed on existing solar dryers.

Cost estimation and payback period: After generating a cad model, the estimated
dryer cost was estimated. Also, the payback period of a dryer was estimated.

5.1.2 IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH GAPS

In a literature review, research gaps were found, such as a longer drying period
when used during the wet season, difficulty in handling and moving the dryer due to
large size, higher cost of construction, etc.

58
5.1.3 SELECTION OF FOOD PRODUCTS

Different types of food products were taken, and their energy required for drying
is calculated depending on the heat required. The food product is selected depending on
the maximum energy required to dry. (Tomato)

5.1.4 FRAMING DESIGN CRITERION

While designing the solar dryer few parameters must be taken care of, such as
fabrication cost, space and volume, assembly and disassembly, portability, ease of
fabrication, weight, corrosion resistance, mechanical properties, maintenance,
reliability, durability, footprint area, etc.

5.1.5 SELECTION OF SOLAR DRYER TYPE

A hybrid solar dryer was selected by comparing the efficiencies and time of
drying different types of dryers.

5.1.6 DESIGN OF SOLAR DRYER

1) Estimation of moisture removal rate:

2) Estimation of available solar energy
3) Estimation of absorber surface area
4) Determination of specifications of all components
5.1.7 DETAILED GEOMETRIC MODELLING OF ALL THE COMPONENTS,
PART DRAWINGS, ASSEMBLY DRAWING, BILL OF MATERIALS

The detailed dimensions of a solar dryer were determined, and a cad model was
generated on software named onshape.

5.1.8 SIMULATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE SYSTEM

The simulation was performed on a cad model for 1000 seconds, and further, the
results were analyzed.

5.1.9 DISCUSSIONS ON THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCT

Commercially available solar dryers were found out and sorted out according to
the dryer's capacity, and the commercialization of a designed solar dryer was
determined.

59
5.2 DESIGN CRITERION

Figure 5.2.1 Flowchart of methodology

5.2.1 FABRICATION COST: While designing any product, fabrication costs are
important. Having a low cost of fabrication will always be beneficial hence lesser the
payback period.

60
5.2.2 SPACE AND VOLUME: A solar dryer should be designed in such a way that it
should occupy the minimum space or volume necessary.

5.2.3 ASSEMBLY AND DISASSEMBLY: The dryer should be designed in such a

way that it should be assembled and disassembled with minimal effort. This can be done
using nuts and bolts instead of permanent joints (welding).

5.2.4 PORTABILITY: A dryer should be easily portable. It should be able to

disassemble for easy moving of the parts.

5.2.5 EASE OF FABRICATION: The dryer should be easily manufacturable, raw

material should be readily available in the market.

5.2.6 WEIGHT: the dryer should not be too heavy in weight so that it is easy to move it
around.

5.2.7 CORROSION RESISTANCE: The dryer should be corrosion resistive as it will

be exposed to rain, high temperatures, harsh weather. It should be able to withstand the
weather conditions.

5.2.8 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: The dryer should possess good mechanical

properties.

5.2.9 MAINTENANCE: A dryer should require less maintenance, and it should be

easy to maintain.

5.2.10 RELIABILITY: A dryer should be reliable; it should be designed such as air is

circulated inside a chamber, and uniform drying should be obtained.

5.2.11 DURABILITY: A dryer should be durable and have a long life.

5.2.12 FOOTPRINT AREA: usually, a solar dryer is placed on a roof or open ground.
While using a solar dryer on a roof, it is essential that it should occupy less terrace area,
i.e. Footprint area.

This concludes on the methodology & design criteria for designing a solar dryer,
which is very important to get the best result.

61
 CHAPTER 6
SELECTION OF SOLAR
DRYER TYPE

62
 CHAPTER 6
SELECTION OF SOLAR DRYER TYPE:
Earlier in a literature review has studied different types of solar dryers, their design,
and their performance. Based on the literature review, a Hybrid solar dryer shows
higher efficiencies; also, it obtains higher temperatures inside a dryer. Also, a hybrid
solar dryer provides the following advantages.

1. Colour and Aroma remain intact.

2. Higher drying temperatures result in shorter drying times and the ability to dry
to lower final moisture content.
3. Protection from contamination by dust and rain showers.
4. Total independence from weather conditions.
5. Better control of the drying process. [93]
6. Food is not exposed to direct rays of the sun, which reduces the loss of colour
and vitamins.
7. High hygiene standards (no dust, no pollution, no fungus, no animals, no foreign
materials, etc.).
8. Higher durability and transparency over time (important for green-house effect).
9. UV protection of Solar Dryers maintains the colour and nutrients of fruits and
vegetables.
10. Better product quality (colour, skin, taste) [94]
After considering the above points, the hybrid solar dryer was selected as a dryer type.

Also, here are some objectives that are accomplished:

1. To apply the concept of the solar dryer and build a solar dryer for
domestic/household application.

2. Providing a backup heating system which is necessary for products for having
continuous drying.

3. To design an efficient and cost-effective solar dryer.

4. To do performance analysis on a solar dryer.

The selection process is done properly, and it is concluded that selecting a hybrid
solar dryer is obtaining the best results.

63
 CHAPTER 7
DESIGN OF SOLAR DRYER

64
 CHAPTER 7
DESIGN OF SOLAR DRYER
In this report, the literature survey is done on various types of solar dryers, and
the performance of evaluation was also studied. From the literature review, the hybrid
dryer was more efficient and reliable than other types of solar dryers. Also, the study
found that the time for the drying was reduced by almost 80 %, and the nutrition
contents of the dried food products were excellent.

Factors that need to be considered while designing are:

1) Fabrication cost.
2) Mechanical properties.
3) Corrosion resistance.
4) Ease of fabrication.
5) Service requirement.

7.1 WORKING OF MODEL

In this hybrid solar dryer, firstly sun-rays follows on the solar panel, this solar
panel absorbs to it, and then through wiring system, it transfers to the battery which
stores the extracted energy from the solar panel. Using both the natural convection
caused by the density difference in the air inside the cabinet and the surrounding air and
the forced convection due to solar dryer of indirect type operates 12v DC fans and dry
products kept inside.

DESIGN DETAILS:

DESIGN OF SOLAR DRYER

Figure 7.1.1 Isometric view

65
  Estimation of moisture removal rate
 Estimation of available solar energy
 Estimation of absorber surface area
 Determination of specifications of all components

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

 Tilt angle and insolation assessment

 Computation of moisture to be expelled
 Quantity of air needed for drying
 The heat energy required for drying
 Total solar collector area
The moisture content of fresh foods ranges from 20% to 90%. Foods require
different levels of dryness for safe storage. For example, the moisture content of rice
must be reduced from 24% to 14% of the total weight. Safe storage generally requires
reducing the moisture content to below 20% for fruits, 10% for vegetables, and 10-15%
for grains. If food is appropriately dried, no moisture will be visible when it is cut. [95]

Figure 7.1.2 Moisture content in parts [95]

7.2 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

The design of the solar dryer took into consideration different design criteria and
parameters. Some of these design criteria and parameters were from the literature
review, while others were determined using a series of mathematical calculations. These
design parameters included environmental conditions of the test location, drying
temperature, amount of moisture to be removed, heat energy requirement and
determination of airflow requirement. The dryer's performance was evaluated in
Nagpur, Maharashtra (Latitude 21o 14‟N and longitude 79o 08‟E).

66
 According to measurements done by the Meteorological Services Department of
Maharashtra, the average solar irradiation for Kumasi was about (placeholder) W/m 2.
The ambient temperature, Ta, for the test location was 30oC with a relative humidity of
60 %.

HEATER DESIGN/HEAT ENERGY REQUIRED

7.2.1 AMOUNT OF MOISTURE REMOVED

The amount of moisture removed from a given quantity of fresh food products to
bring the moisture content to a safe storage level in a specified time was calculated
using the following equation described. [96]

Mw = Mp ( Mi - Mf) / (100-Mf) [96]

Mp = Initial mass of the tomatoes (kg)

Mi = Initial moisture content (% wet basis)

Mf = Final moisture content (% wet basis)

The quantity to be dried determines the drying space, and in this case, since the
dryer has three trays and was for experimental purposes, an initial amount of 5 kg was
to be considered for designing the dryer. Hence, the product must be dried in a batch
from its initial moisture content on a wet basis.

Quantity of heat required to remove the moisture (Ea) in KJ

Ea = MpCTΔT+ MWLV [96]

CT = Specific heat capacity of tomatoes (3.676KJ/kgK)

ΔT= Change in temperature of the drying chamber 30℃ to 60℃

LV = Latent heat of vaporization of water at s.t.p 2257 KJ/kg

67
 Figure 7.2.1.1 Quantity of heat required

The heat required to remove water from a product considers drying as a two-stage
process, where the first one is raising the temperature of the wet material to the desired
level at which the moisture is being removed. The second stage is evaporating the
moisture from the product as the water starts to evaporate after the product is warmed
up to the drying temperature.

The obtained value does not consider the heat lost through the walls of the dryer or
the heat leaving the dryer through the chimney.

Power = Quantity of heat/ time (sec)

Power = Ea/td [96]

Where Ea = quantity of heat required to remove the moisture in KJ

Td = time of drying

Table 7.2.1.1 Details of tomato

Food Mi Mf Amount of Specific heat Quantity of Power (P)

Product moisture capacity of heat required to (KJ/hr)
removed the product remove the
( In 5 kg ) moisture (Ea)
( KJ )
Tomato 95 30 4.642857 3.98 11,075.9 692.246

68
 Figure 7.2.1.2 Power required

7.2.2 TOTAL ENERGY REQUIRED E

The total energy required for drying is given as,

E = Ma(H2-H1) [96]

Where; Ma = mass flow rate of air, kg / sec = 23.875 Kg/hr

H2 = Enthalpy of warm air, KJ / kg dry air = 60.394 KJ/Kg dry air

H1 = Enthalpy of ambient air, KJ / kg dry air = 30.184 KJ/Kg dry air

E = (23.875/3600) *(60.394 - 30.184)

E = 1387.24 KJ/hr

7.2.3 COLLECTOR ORIENTATION AND TILT ANGLE

The flat plate solar collector should be tilted and oriented in a way that it
receives maximum radiation. The collector performs well when it is oriented
perpendicular to the sun. The optimal tilt angle varies according to the season. As a
general rule, the optimum tilt angle is equal to the degree of latitude of the site. For this
design, since the test location is Nagpur (Latitude 14o21‟N and longitude 79o08‟E), a
collector tilt angle of 10o was considered. This was to help avoid the accumulation of
rainwater on the collector during rainy periods.

The Incidence angle θz - Angle of incidence of beam radiation

The solar altitude angle αa - Used to determine the length of the shadow

69
The slope β - Angle of inclination of collector

The surface azimuth angle ɣ - Used to determine the orientation of the collector

The solar azimuth angle ɣS - Used to determine the orientation of the collector

Figure 7.2.3.1 Illustration of angles [5]

Figure 7.2.3.2 The angle of incidence of beam radiation at 12 PM

70
 Figure 7.2.3.3 The Angle of Incidence of Beam Radiation at 12 PM

7.2.4 SOLAR COLLECTOR

Solar collectors are used to convert direct and diffuse radiation from the sun into
thermal energy. It is a special kind of heat exchanger that transforms solar energy to
heat. Energy is transferred from a distant source of radiant energy to a fluid. For
applications requiring less than 80°C, flat plate collectors are widely used. Flat plate
collectors are mechanically simpler and require little maintenance than the
concentrating type of collectors.

Generally, flat plate collector designs consist of three major parts. These are
transparent cover, absorber plate and insulation. The transparent cover, also called
glazing, is where the solar energy passes through the collector. Using a transparent
cover reduces heat loss and helps to obtain higher temperatures. Glass is the common
transparent cover for collectors, but some plastics also have desirable characteristics.
Although plastics can transmit as much solar radiation as glass and resist impact stress
better than glass, it allows more thermal energy loss than glass.

The absorber plate is made from a material that rapidly absorbs heat from the
sun‟s rays. It is usually made from black painted metal sheets. Insulation should be used
at the backside of the absorber to minimize heat loss. The material chosen as an
insulator should be stable at high temperatures, i.e., it should not break down at high
temperatures. In order to reduce heat loss from the sides of the collector, it should be

71
incorporated into a box. Collector boxes should be strong enough to resist loads
imposed by wind and need to be sealed to exclude water.

7.2.5 SIZING THE COLLECTOR

The daily average insolation of Nagpur is taken to be (Placeholder) MJ/m2 /day.
Collector efficiency of a typical flat plate at an ambient temperature of 30°C and I =
(placeholder) W/m2 to be between 25% and 45%. The collector efficiency is influenced
by factors such as temperature, airflow rate, insolation, type of transparent material,
absorber plate and insulation used. To achieve an optimal design, an average value of
collector efficiency of 35% was considered a design parameter. As a result,

Figure 7.2.5.1 Solar irradiance

Daily expected energy production by the collector = 2941.65 KJ/m2/hr * 0.35

= 1029.57 KJ/m2/hr

For considering 1.5 days of drying total energy produced will be,

= 12354.94 KJ/m2

Total energy required for drying is 11,075.9 KJ/m2

Collector Area = 11075.9/12354.94= 0.896475418 m2

Collector area to be 1 m2, the length and width of the dryer were calculated to be 1.640
m and 0.610 m, respectively.

72
7.2.6 INSULATION
Insulation plays a vital role in the efficiency of a solar dryer. Insulation traps the
heat energy received by the solar radiation, and as a result, higher dryer temperatures
inside a dryer is attained. Insulation also provides safety to a solar dryer and reduces the
drying time, and increases the solar dryer's efficiency.

Quantity of heat lost per unit area = (T1-T2)K1/X1

= (T2-T3)K2/X2

= (T3-T4)K3/X3

= U(T1-T4) [96]

Where,

K1 and K3 = Heat transfer coefficient for mild steel = 46W / moC

K2 = Heat transfer coefficient for wool fiber = 0.04W / moC

X1, X2 and X3 = the respective thickness of mild steel and wool fiber

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient

T1 = Temperature of internal part of cabinet = 60oC

T4 = Temperature of external part of cabinet = 30oC

X1 = X3 = 1.5 mm

X2 = 50 mm

7.2.7 DRYING CHAMBER

The drying chamber is an enclosed structure where drying takes place. It
consists of trays for putting in the product to be dried. There should be means for
loading and removing the material to be dried at the drying chamber. A door usually
provides this at the backside of the dryer. The drying chamber should be insulated and
well-sealed in order to contain the heated air without any leaks.

73
7.3 THE FAN/BLOWER DESIGN
7.3.1 MASS FLOW RATE OF AIR (KG/S)
The mass flow rate (in kg/sec) of the air was given as,

[96]

Where Ea = the quantity of heat required to evaporate the H2O

Cpa = Specific heat capacity of air (1.005KJ/kgK)

Td = Theoretical time taken for drying (16 hours)

The mass flow rate for the dryer of the above specification was calculated to be 23.87
Kg/hr.

7.3.2 VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE VA (M3 /S) [96]

Where; ⍴a = density of air at 60oC = 1.2754 kg/m3

The volumetric flow rate is calculated and found to be 18.71 m3/hr

7.3.3 DETERMINATION OF THE BATTERY SIZE

BATTERY SPECIFICATION:

Total Current to be supplied = 2.639 Amp

Total 1.12A current is required per hour with a fan and a nichrome wire as a heater
element

Total Capacity of battery = 21.121 Amp-Hr

The total capacity of the battery is estimated to be 21.121 Ah or 21121 mAH

7.3.4 MACHINE COMPONENTS DESIGN

1) The photovoltaic module collects solar energy to electrical energy to run a fan.
2) Solar charge controller - Solar charge controller regulates the power supply
from the solar panel to the battery and a fan. The solar charge controller can run
on 12 volts and 6 amp of current
3) Battery (DC 12v) - It is used for storing energy from a solar panel.
4) Switch- The switch is used for fans' on/off purpose. Solar Panel-It is used to
absorb sunlight to generate energy

74
5) Fans (DC 12v 1.8A) are used to create airflow, which deals with forced
convection.
6) Nichrome Wire - It can provide some amount of energy when connected to a
battery for drying food products faster, and it can also work as a backup heating
element.
7) Inside Glass is used to enclose the system so that there is no air leakage.
8) Mirror -It is used for the reflection of sunlight as per the changing direction of
the sun.
9) 6. Aluminum Net Tray - To keep the desired product inside the used system
10) Briefcase- For making model portables.

Figure 7.3.4.1 Dimensions of solar dryer

In this chapter, a detailed discussion on the design and electrical
components is done. Also, the working model of a solar dryer required design
calculation of a solar dryer, i.e. solar collector, trays, angle of inclination of a
collector surface, calculations for the fan to be used to get required airflow
inside a solar dryer is explained in detail.

75
 CHAPTER 8
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN OF
HYBRID SOLAR DRYER

76
 CHAPTER 8
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN OF
HYBRID SOLAR DRYER
This chapter discusses the design and a detailed cad model of a hybrid solar
dryer containing the design of solar collector, drying chamber, trays and holding stand.
The cad model was made on the platform called Onshape. Onshape is a cloud-based
computer-aided design (CAD) software. Using web-based servers, software users can
collaborate on a single model, editing and interacting simultaneously. The program is
intended for many industries looking to design products, machine parts, industrial
equipment, etc. [97]

Figure 8.1 Isometric view of designed hybrid solar dryer

77
THE CAD MODEL CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING PARTS:

8.1 SOLAR COLLECTOR

The solar collector has the dimension of width 610 mm and length of 1640 mm.
solar collector was placed at an angle of 22 degrees with respect to a horizontal surface
(i.e. earth surface). Glass material was used for the solar collector. The advantage of
using glass is that it collects both beam and diffuse radiation and is easy to manufacture.

Figure 8.1.1 Solar Collector

8.2 DRYING CHAMBER

The drying chamber consists of the chimney, the glass roof, the glass walls, the
trays, and the floor. The walls and base of the dryer are mainly made up of glass and
aluminium sheets. The side and front walls of the drying chamber are made up of glass
having a thickness of 4 mm. The base of the drying chamber is made up of an
aluminium sheet of a thickness of 2 mm and is painted black with Black Acrylic Paint to
trap more solar radiation. At the front side of the drying chamber, some portion is cut of
the dimensions of a fan to be used for the air inlet. Similarly, a hole is generated for the
air vent at the back. For uniform flow rate inside a chamber, a fan is oriented such that
the axis is parallel to the collector surface.

78
 Figure 8.2.1 Drying Chamber

8.3 TRAYS

The drying tray is usually made up of a wire mesh, or a wood Tray is used to
place the food products to be dried. An aluminium net is used to make trays for solar
dryers. The trays are arranged at a vertical distance of 70 mm to each other. Each tray
has a dimension of 622 mm × 498 mm. Aluminium possesses excellent qualities for
heat transfer.

Figure 8.3.1 Trays

79
8.4 STAND

The stand is made to support the dryer with the help of steel rods; the length of
the rods is 800 mm, so that the height of the dryer increases. As a result, the air having
less dust is circulated in a dryer. A stand consists of 4 legs having a diameter of 8 mm
and having a length of 800 mm and 1400 mm, respectively.

Figure 8.4.1 Stand

80
Figure 8.4.2 Front View, Top View, Side View, back view of a solar dryer

81
.
Earlier in the literature review, the various types of dryers and their design were
studied, and a common type of construction model was observed where the collector
surface is kept flat on the surface. In this model, the solar collector surface is placed at
an inclination of 22°C so that to get the higher temperature inside a dryer and improve
airflow inside a dryer. Also, the sidewalls of a dryer are made up of glass instead of
aluminium sheets to absorb some amount of absorption.

1. Aluminium is used to make the bottom of the collector surface of a dryer.

Aluminium is an excellent absorbing material for a collector surface. Also, a nichrome
wire is used to provide some amount of required heat to dry a food product.

2. The fan is attached to the dryer perpendicular to the surface of the collector so
that air, if flown throughout the dryer instead of the air passing through the bottom
surface when the fan is connected to the wall.

3. The stand was designed for a dryer of a height 800mm and 1400 mm (leg for
an inclined surface). So that less amount of dust is flown through the dryer. Also, the
dryer is made for domestic purposes. It is essential to make a good height of dryer as it
is used on Terrence.

4. The holes in the cabinet were generated to make the arrangement of the air
inlet and air outlet. A Hole for air inlet is generated at the lower front side of a cabinet.
Also, an air outlet is made at a height compared to an air inlet to get the effect of air
convection resulting in a higher flow rate of air.

5. The solar dryer is connected to a dryer. The solar panel is used to run a fan
capable of providing 41 CFM of airflow inside a dryer.

Thus, the dryer is designed in such a way that the air circulation in a dryer is
uniform and should be able to attain higher temperatures.

82
 CHAPTER 9
COMPUTATIONAL
ANALYSIS

83
 CHAPTER 9
COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS
In this chapter, a discussion is done on the simulation of the designed hybrid
solar dryer. Mainly two types of simulations are performed, i.e. flow and convective
heat transfer simulations. And results were analyzed and discussed. Simulations were
performed on the SimScale platform.

SimScale is computer-aided engineering (CAE) software product based on cloud

computing. SimScale was developed by SimScale GmbH and allowed computational
fluid dynamics, finite element analysis and thermal simulations. The cloud-based
platform of SimScale allows users to run more simulations, and in turn, iterate more
design changes than traditional local computer-based systems. It has features like the
Finite element analysis module, Computational fluid dynamics module, Thermal
module. Simsclae can import various types of part geometries (i.e. file format)

9.1 PRE-PROCESSOR

9.1.1 GEOMETRY CREATION:

1) Firstly, the negative volume of a solar dryer was generated on the onshape
platform for the simulation. The resulting shape was paralleled. After the generation of
the model, a model was imported into a simscale workbench.

2) After the geometry is successfully imported, choose which type of simulation

to carry out. Two types of simulation are carried out on a model.

Figure 9.1.1.2 CFD Model

84
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW SIMULATION

1. Assigning the material: In this step, the material was assigned to a model, i.e.
air.
2. Assigning Initial condition: initial conditions like gauge pressure, velocity,
kinetic energy, specific dissipation rate was assigned.
3. Assigning boundary condition
a. Velocity inlet: the face for velocity inlet was selected after assigning a
flow rate of 0.00663 kg/s.

Figure 9.1.1.3 Velocity Inlet

b. Velocity outlet: the face for the velocity outlet was selected after
assigning a flow rate of 0.00663 kg/s.

Figure 9.1.1.4 Velocity Outlet

85
 4. Creating mesh: After assigning the boundary condition, a hex element core
mashing was generated with the fineness of 6.4 using the mesh function.

Figure 9.1.1.5 Mesh

5. Simulation Run: After successfully generating the mesh, the simulation was run
for 1000 seconds and completed successfully.

CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER SIMULATION

1. Assigning the material: In this step, the material was assigned to a model, i.e.
air.
2. Assigning Initial condition: initial conditions like gauge pressure, velocity, turb.
Kinetic energy, specific dissipation rate was assigned.
3. Assigning boundary condition
a. Velocity inlet: the face for velocity inlet was selected after assigning a
flow rate of 0.00663 kg/s.

86
 b. Velocity outlet: the face for the velocity outlet was selected after
assigning a flow rate of 0.00663 kg/s.

c. Natural convection inlet/outlet: Additive radiative source was assigned

the value of 322W/m2, and the face for a radiative source was assigned.

Figure 9.1.1.6 Natural convection inlet

4. Creating mesh: After assigning the boundary condition, a hex element core
mashing was generated with the fineness of 6.4 using the mesh function.
5. Simulation Run: After successfully generating the mesh, the simulation was run
for 1000 seconds and completed successfully.

87
9.2 POSTPROCESSOR:

9.2.1 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW SIMULATION

An incompressible flow simulation was performed, and found out the average
velocity inside a dryer was found to be 7.781 in/sec, and maximum velocity of 16.19
in/sec. Velocity variation was fairly uniform. At the air inlet and the air, the outlet flow
rate was maximum, and the airspeed at the midpart of a dryer was good compared to the
edges of a dryer.

Figure 9.2.1.1 Velocity Variation(Side View)

88
9.2.2 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER SIMULATION

Figure a and b shows the velocity variation and temperature within the dryer. (I)
The maximum temperature achieved inside a dryer was 63.75, the ambient temperature
was considered to be 30°C. So, the rise of 33.75 °C was observed.

Figure 7.2.1.3 Velocity Variation

Figure 9.2.1.4 Temperature Variation

89
 Table 9.2.1.1 Computational Data

Figure 9.2.1.5 Velocity variation inside a dryer (old model)

In an earlier designed model (Figure 9.2.1.5), the fan was kept parallel to the
sidewalls of a dryer, and a simulation was run for 1000 seconds. The result shows that
most of the airflow was through the base of the dryer. To improvise this issue in this
new design, the fan is connected perpendicular to the collector base, and the simulation
was run for 1000 seconds. The result shows that a velocity variation was good and
thought the cabinet of dryer that resulted in good drying of food materials.

90
CHAPTER 10
ECONOMIC
ANALYSIS

91
 CHAPTER 10
ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS OF SOLAR DRYER

In this chapter, an economical analysis of a designed solar dryer, payback

period, components of a solar dryer to be used, including their prices, were discussed.
Also, the available solar dryers in the market available are listed below.

10.1 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF DRIED FOOD PRODUCTS

The price of agricultural production depends on the method by which it is

produced and brought up. For example, in the case of tomatoes found in markets, there
are usually 3 types that are predominantly found; them being fresh tomatoes, dried
tomatoes, packed dried tomatoes. The prices of them being approx. 30 INR for a
kilogram of fresh tomatoes, 150 INR per kilogram for dried tomatoes, and 250-300 INR
per kilogram of packed and dried tomatoes. The conclusion is that the increasing price
per kilogram of agricultural produce is convincing and easy to transport packaging and
increased shelf life.

Figure10.1.1 Dried Tomatoes [98]

Figure10.1.2 Fresh Tomatoes [98]

92
 Figure10.1.3 Packed Dried Tomatoes [98]

The selling price of a dried food product is 2-3 times more than the non-dried
food products. The life of dried food products increases dramatically. For example, 15
days of non-dried food product to on an average of 18 months of a dried food product.
The dried food is supplied to the countries where agriculture production is less from
countries such as India.

The only downside of increasing the shelf life is that there is a 30% drop in the
nutritional value of food products compared with fresh agricultural produce in dried
food products.

This concludes that moisture content in the food product is inversely

proportional to the shelf life of the food product.

10.2 BILL

Table 10.2.1 Bill of materials

Sr no. Component Material Used Quantity Unit Price Amount

1 Collector Aluminium 11 700 7700
2 Drying Cabinet Aluminium
Glass 30/ft2 1170
3 Tray Aluminium Net 7 32/ft2 809
4 Black Paint 1 275 275
5 Steel Rods Steel 4 513 2052
6 Electric Fan 1 200 200
7 PV Module 1 1800 1800
8 Battery 1 2900 2900
9 ADC Adapter 1 240 240
10 Nichrome Wire Nichrome 1 80 80
11 Solar Charge Controller 1 600 600
Total : Rs. 17925

Material Used Unit price Quantity Amount

Copper 3,150 11 34650

93
 Copper 3,150

Copper 2600 7 18200

The total cost of constructing the dryer was about 18k INR. The components
considered for the cost estimation are collector, drying chamber, trays, steel rods, PV
module, electric fan, black paint, battery, solar charge controller, ADC adapter and
nichrome wire. Purchasing different materials for constructing the dryer was the main
component of the budget requirement. Its individual price is given in the table. have also
used alternative materials, i.e. copper. It is better than Al in many aspects, but the cost is
a minimum 2 to 3 times higher than Al.

The payback period is the time you need to recover the cost of your investment.
[99] Let's take up an example of dried tomato, and it sells for a min price of 250rs per
kg. Usually, farmers can produce 10kg per 3 days, according to the solar dryer, which is
estimated to be around 18k INR. The person can get a return on investment in just 22
days.

10.3 ACTUAL COMPONENTS FOR FABRICATING

Figure10.3.1 Aluminium sheet [100]

Figure10.3.2 Glass [101]

94
Figure10.3.3 Aluminium net [102]

Figure10.3.4 Black paint [103]

Figure10.3.5 Steel rods [104]

95
Figure10.3.6 Electric fan [105]

Figure10.3.7 Solar panel [106]

Figure10.3.8 12V Adapter [107]

96
Figure10.3.9 Solar charge controller [108]

Figure10.3.10 Battery [109]

Figure10.3.11 Nichrome wire [110]

97
 Figure10.3.12 Copper sheet [111]

Figure10.3.13 Copper net [112]

Table 10.3 Components specifications

Sr no. Component Specifications

1 Aluminium [100] 300 X 300 X 2 mm
2 Glass [101] 304.8 X 304.8 X 4 mm
3 Tray [102] 304.8 X 304.8 X 2 mm
4 Black Paint [103] Black Acrylic Paint 300ml
5 Steel Rods [104] Diameter : 8mm
Length : 1000mm
6 Electric Fan [105] Operating Voltage: 12VDC
Power Consumption: 1.44 W
7 PV Module [106] 430 X 670 X 22 mm
50 Watt 12 Volt Mono PERC
8 Battery [109] 255 x 170 x 235 mm
20Ah 12 Volt

98
 9 ADC Adapter [107] 2.1 X 5.5 mm 12 Volt 2 Amp
10 Nichrome Wire [110] 3 mm
11 Solar Charge Controller [108] 150 X 78 X 35 mm
12-24 V 30 Amp

10.4 COMMERCIAL SOLAR DRYERS

A few commercial solar dryers were found that were already fabricated and put
into use. Some of them are as follows:

1. The capacity of this solar dryer was 3kg. The air heating area was found to be
0.5 sq. meter and the operating temperature –was in the range of 50 to 70°C.
Price: - ₹ 4490 [113]

Figure 10.4.1. 3 Kg Dryer [113]

2. The capacity of this solar dryer was 10kg. The air heating area was found to be 2
sq. meters and the operating temperature –was in the range of 50 to 70°C. Price:
- ₹ 14990 [114]

Figure 10.4.2 10 Kg Dryer [114]

99
3. The capacity of this solar dryer was 50kg. The air heating area was found to be
36 sq. meters and the operating temperature –was in the range of 55 to 75°C.
Price: - ₹ 4490. This is a multipurpose Solar Dryer by RUDRA SOLAR
ENERGY [115]

Figure 10.4.3 50 Kg Dryer [115]

4. The capacity of this solar dryer was 10kg. The power for the drying fan was 3W,
and the operating temperature –was in the range of 65 to 75°C.
Price: - ₹ 16000. This Solar Dryer was specially built for mushroom by RUDRA
SOLAR ENERGY [116]

Figure 10.4.4 3 Kg Dryer [116]

5. The capacity of this solar dryer was 20kg. The air heating area was found to be
12 sq. feet and the operating temperature –was in the range of 55 to 60°C. Price:
- ₹ 15000. This Solar Dryer was built with Fan by “ECO”. [117]

Figure 10.4.5 3 Kg Dryer [117]

100
10.5 OTHER LOCATIONS:
have optimised solar dryer in such a way that it should work with max solar
radiation intensity. The compilation lists a few locations where solar dryers would work
with the same efficiency. Surat, Bombay and Calcutta are the prominent ones from
India.

(a)

(b)
Figure 10.5.1 Some major cities location (a)World (b) India

Above is the list of almost similar geographical locations for the test location of
solar dryers, i.e. Nagpur, Maharashtra.

101
 Figure 10.5.2 Peak performance regions [118]

The region between the red lines in figure 10.5.2. the solar dryer is working at
maximum efficiency as the efficiency and performan=nce of this dryer is dependent on
latitude, i.e. the location of the dryer being used

In this chapter, the prices of solar-dried food and fresh foods are also compared
the economical analysis was performed. Bills of the component, list and figures of the
components to be used are also shown a payback period is calculated. Also, the
commercially available solar dryer is discussed.

102
 CHAPTER 11
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

103
 CHAPTER 11
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

11.1 CONCLUSION

Solar is a renewable energy source that can meet several challenges humankind
faces. Solar products convert sunlight into electrical energy either through photovoltaic
(PV) panels or through mirrors that concentrate solar radiation. Solar energy can
generate electricity or be stored in batteries or thermal storage. There are two main
mechanisms involved in the drying process of solar drying: Transferring of moisture
from the interior of the food product of the substance to be dried, and the second is the
evaporation of moisture from the surface to the surrounding air.

A solar dryer can secure a higher air temperature for the drying process than
drying in an open-air condition. The drying process can also be shortened by applying a
thermal energy storage facility which will help to supply heat energy during off
sunshine hours. Drying using a solar dryer is efficient since the process takes a shorter
drying period while reducing waste production. Solar dryers are designed in compliance
with international industry standards and norms. The solar dryers that are made find
usability in various industries and sectors.

A comprehensive review of the fundamental principles governing the drying

process with the classification of the practically realized various designs and selection
of solar dryers for drying agricultural and marine products has been presented. A hybrid
solar-energy dryer using a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel to power the heating element
coil and charging the battery, which had a storage energy system, was developed and
constructed with materials readily available in the market. The design of the dryer is
such a way that it is easy to operate and handle. The hybrid solar dryer has a modular
design with several valuable features that have been developed. These features include
an inclined absorber to capture more solar energy, the option to dry the product under
shade or without shade as per requirement, heating of air in-between the trays for
uniform drying in all the trays, and portable as it can be dismantled during the off-
season.

104
 The dryer was placed in the open space free from shade throughout the day and
night of operation. Two heating sources can be used independently or complimentarily,
solar collector and heating coil element. When there is an abundance of solar radiation
with high intensity, sun radiation falling on the glass is being absorbed by the collector
plate painted black and transmitted into the drying chamber through the inlet window by
a forced convection system. This removes the moisture given out in the drying process.
On the other hand, when there is a drop in temperature set, or there is a need to continue
drying in the night to dry the products to their safe level for storage or when the weather
condition is terrible, the thermostat switch on the heater to compliment the drying
process. The photovoltaic solar panels convert solar energy to electricity. The electricity
generated is used to power the heater, fans and the control system and at the same time
charge the battery. The battery serves as a storage bank to store charges used at night or
in bad weather.

The classification depicts that the solar dryer designs may be grouped
systematically according to the dryer's operational temperature ranges, heating
sources/modes, and operational methods. It is difficult to have one criterion for selecting
a solar dryer for a specific region or a product as solar insolation and other parameters
frequently change with geographical location. Design criterion for hybrid solar dryer
used was: Fabrication Cost, Space, and Volume Assembly and Disassembly, Portability,
Ease Of Fabrication, Weight, Corrosion Resistance, Mechanical Properties,
Maintenance, Reliability, Durability, Footprint Area.

The hybrid dryer discussed in the referred papers reports that the literature
review is a prominent practical technology that can be used to dry
various crops under all weather conditions. Temperatures in the drying cabinet can be
expected to range between 40 to 70 ºC. Compared to traditional drying, the hybrid dryer
produces a better quality product and can reduce the drying time by up to 50 to 70 %.
The average collector temperature reached 57.4oC, and that of the dryer reached
63.75oC, while the average ambient temperature was 30.00oC. This indicated that the
temperature in the dryer was raised above the ambient temperature creating a suitable
condition for drying.

105
The reasons which implies the use of domestic hybrid solar dryer are as follows:

 The colour and aroma of the food product dried remains intact.
 Higher drying temperatures than open sun drying result in shorter drying times
and the ability to dry to lower final moisture content.

 Protection of food products from contamination by dust, insects, and rain

showers.

 Independent of weather conditions (i.e.), the operation is not affected by the

weather in any way.

 The drying process is entirely controllable, unlike direct or indirect solar dryers.

 The food product is not exposed to direct sun rays, which reduces the loss of
colour and vitamins.

It was concluded that the hybrid solar dryer could dry high initial moisture
content foods such as tomato, and mango, etc., to the recommended value of moisture
content for safe storage within two days. The solar dryer can be used during any time
and season due to the nichrome wire's heat. Hence, it can provide a means of preserving
agricultural produce harvested in the rainy season. The use of solar dryers to preserve
various crops is an area of growing interest for the agricultural sector and is especially
useful for smallholder farmers. Good quality shelf-stable products were produced using
the hybrid drying method, and which performance was influenced by adequate drying
time by reducing the period of the drying cycle and relatively higher drying
temperature.

It also proved that the efficiency of agricultural solar dryers could be increased
by using a combination of solar and heating element coil powered by photovoltaic (PV)
solar panels, compared to conventional dryers with only solar heating sources.

106
11.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Although being an efficient dryer, there is always scope for further

improvements and developments, such as bridging the communication gap between
solar researchers and food technologists. India is one of the hungriest countries globally,
yet it wastes a massive amount of food. Production of vegetables and fruit approx totals
about 220 million tons a year. About 30% of that never reaches the table. The main
reason for this waste is a lack of storage infrastructure, particularly at harvest time.
Without electricity or electric freezers, farmers have to sell everything immediately,
which inevitably means it is not sold at all. Many agricultural products have high
moisture content, making them vulnerable to microbial and other spoilages due to
biochemical reactions. Therefore drying or dehydration activities must be carried out as
preventive measures to lower the moisture content of the product. Corrosion of tools
used to construct the drier can effect modification and efficiency. Similarly, as for all
the solar-related machines, the initial construction cost is very high, and insulation
issues are present.

Hence some of the suggestions are listed below, which can be used for future
technical improvements:

• A solenoid valve can be attached at both the ends of the recirculation duct and
controlled by a programmable humidity controlled and a humidity sensor, a
display panel, is set behind the solar dryer to display the inside the humidity. It
helps in stopping the entering of air when the amount of moisture in the air
exceeds a specific value as this help in the proper drying of food.

• Using transparent PV module for electricity generation.

• Using Night PV module for electricity generation.

• Drying time can be reduced using the same system with heat storage materials
and also can be accelerated by using sensible or latent heat storage media during
nighttime and low-intensity solar radiation periods.

• River sand can provide absorber material for the dryer.

• Phase change material can be used.

107
 • Copper dust can be used on the solar collector.

• Silica Gel or heat exchanger can be used for recirculation of waste heat.

• The gap on the drying chamber where the backup heater is attached should be
well covered using insulation material when the solar dryer is used with only
solar energy as a heat source.

A solar drying system, particularly for agro-products and marine products, is

viable, particularly in developing countries where labour costs are low and the cost of
fossil fuel energy is very high. In the future, larger systems could be designed utilizing
solar, thermal, photovoltaic panels combined with wind power.

108
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119
APPENDIX

120
 APPENDIX A

Table A.1 Moisture content in percentage

Moisture Content in Percentage

Sr No. Name of Food Product Mi = Initial moisture Mf = Final moisture

content (% wet basis) content (% wet basis),
i.e. Before drying i.e. After drying

1 Mushroom 92 07
2 Mango powder 83 03
3 Apple 86 23
4 Red bell pepper 92 10
5 Chillies 79 10
6 Potato 80 04
7 Papad 31 10
8 Coriander 88 07
9 Onion 87 04
10 Dates 56 15
11 Amlas 76 03
12 Peaches 89 26
13 Coffee beans 50 11
14 Oregano 60 12
15 Papaya 88 08
16 Guava slices 83 10
17 Banana 74 20
18 Curry leaves 85 08
19 Grapes 81 10
20 Cashew kernel 10 03
21 Fishes 66 15
22 Black currants 82 20
23 Almonds 12 05
24 Blueberries 85 14

121
 25 Cranberries 87 15
26 Strawberries 92 19
27 Raspberries(red) 87 16
28 Pasta, noodles 33 12
29 Cherries 81 19
30 Tomato 95 30
31 Green bell pepper 74 10
32 Pumpkin 90 03
33 Aloe vera 98 16
34 Basil 91 19
35 Neem 69 11
36 Tusli 86 12
37 Apricot 86 22
38 Carrots 87 09
39 Spinach 93 04
AVG 75.083 12.179

Table A.2 Amount of moisture removed

Mp= Initial mass(5 Kg) Mp= Initial mass(7.5 Kg)

Name of Food
Sr No.
Product
Amount of moisture Amount of moisture
removed(Mw) removed(Mw)

1 Mushroom 4.569 6.855

2 Mango powder 4.124 6.186
3 Apple 4.091 6.136
4 Red bell pepper 4.556 6.833
5 Chillies 3.833 5.750
6 Potato 3.958 5.938
7 Papad 1.167 1.750
8 Coriander 4.355 6.532
9 Onion 4.323 6.485

122
10 Dates 2.412 3.618
11 Amlas 3.763 5.644
12 Peaches 4.257 6.385
13 Coffee beans 2.191 3.287
14 Oregano 2.727 4.091
15 Papaya 4.348 6.522
16 Guava slices 4.056 6.083
17 Banana 3.375 5.063
18 Curry leaves 4.185 6.277
19 Grapes 3.944 5.917
20 Cashew kernel 0.361 0.541
21 Fishes 3.000 4.500
22 Black currants 3.875 5.813
23 Almonds 0.368 0.553
24 Blueberries 4.128 6.192
25 Cranberries 4.235 6.352
26 Strawberries 4.506 6.759
27 Raspberries(red) 4.226 6.339
28 Pasta, noodles 1.193 1.790
29 Cherries 3.827 5.741
30 Tomato 4.643 6.964
Green bell
31 pepper 3.556 5.333
32 Pumpkin 4.485 6.727
33 Aloe vera 4.881 7.321
34 Basil 4.444 6.667
35 Neem 3.258 4.888
36 Tusli 4.205 6.307
37 Apricot 4.103 6.154
38 Carrots 4.286 6.429
39 Spinach 4.635 6.953
AVG 3.653 5.479

123
 Table A.3 Quantity of heat required to remove the moisture

Power P in KJ/hr
Ct = Specific
Name of Food heat capacity
Sr No.
Product of product (
KJ / KgK) Quantity of heat required to
remove the moisture (Ea) in KJ
(5 kg)
1 Mushroom 3.89 10,897.75 681.109
2 Mango powder 3.74 9,868.22 616.764
3 Apple 3.64 9,779.28 611.199
4 Red bell pepper 3.81 10,853.49 678.337
5 Chillies 3.25 9,139.33 571.208
6 Potato 3.43 9,448.46 590.529
7 Papad 6.82 3,656.17 228.510
8 Coriander 4.02 10,431.87 651.992
9 Onion 3.95 10,349.32 646.833
10 Dates 0.84 5,569.35 348.085
11 Amlas 3.6 9,032.84 564.552
12 Peaches 3.77 10,173.00 635.813
13 Coffee beans 1.41 5,156.61 322.288
14 Oregano 2.53 6,534.95 408.435
15 Papaya 3.43 10,327.54 645.471
16 Guava slices 3.60 9,693.39 605.837
17 Banana 3.35 8,119.88 507.492
18 Curry leaves 3.65 9,992.55 624.535
19 Grapes 3.60 9,442.61 590.163
20 Cashew kernel 3.82 1,386.78 86.674
21 Fishes 3.68 7,323.66 457.729
22 Black currants 1.76 9,009.88 563.117
23 Almonds 2.20 1,161.53 72.595
24 Blueberries 3.83 9,891.19 618.199
25 Cranberries 3.77 10,124.56 632.785

124
26 Strawberries 3.98 10,767.43 672.965
27 Raspberries(red) 3.73 10,098.01 631.126
28 Pasta, noodles 1.69 2,946.51 184.157
29 Cherries 3.52 9,165.90 572.869
30 Tomato 3.98 11,075.93 692.246
Green bell
31 pepper 3.42 8,537.89 533.618
32 Pumpkin 3.85 10,699.10 668.694
33 Aloe vera 3.34 11,517.31 719.832
34 Basil 3.56 10,565.11 660.319
35 Neem 3.34 7,855.27 490.954
36 Tusli 3.43 10,004.16 625.260
37 Apricot 3.87 9,839.99 614.999
38 Carrots 3.92 10,260.86 641.304
39 Spinach 4.02 11,065.14 691.571
AVG 8,763.14
MAX = 11,517.31

125
 APPENDIX B

Table B.1 Constant values

Isc 1367 W/m2
Φ= 21.1458
β= 15 a= 0.27
ω= 15 b= 0.5

Fig B.1 Formulas for optimum tilt angle calculations [5]

Table B.2 Optimum tilt angle calculations (Part I)

|acos(-tan(ɸ-
Date Day Isc' δ(°) tan(δ) β)tan(δ))| ωst Smax S/Smax
17-Jan 17 1410.193 -20.917 -0.382 1.530 1.422 0.190 0.9997
16-Feb 47 1398.134 -12.955 -0.230 1.546 1.482 0.198 0.9952
16-Mar 75 1379.455 -2.418 -0.042 1.566 1.554 0.207 0.9986
15-Apr 105 1356.422 9.415 0.166 1.589 1.589 0.212 0.9998
15-May 135 1336.148 18.792 0.340 1.607 1.607 0.214 0.9991
11-Jun 162 1324.669 23.086 0.426 1.617 1.617 0.216 0.9996
17-Jul 198 1323.485 21.184 0.388 1.613 1.613 0.215 1.0001

126
16-Aug 228 1335.033 13.455 0.239 1.597 1.597 0.213 1.0006
15-Sep 258 1354.919 2.217 0.039 1.575 1.575 0.210 0.9997
15-Oct 288 1377.955 -9.599 -0.169 1.553 1.505 0.201 1.0002
14-Nov 318 1398.134 -18.912 -0.343 1.534 1.438 0.192 0.9998
10-Dec 344 1409.195 -23.05 -0.425 1.525 1.405 0.187 1.0002

Table B.3 Optimum tilt angle calculations (Part II)

Day Ho Hg Hd Hb Hb*tan(ɸ-δ)
17 25505.9 19635.7 2068.3 17567.4 15852.6
47 29530.9 22667.9 2474.2 20193.7 13672.4
75 34138.5 26262.8 2790.9 23471.9 10236.8
105 38110.4 29341.2 3088.1 26253.0 5451.5
135 40195.0 30932.1 3273.9 27658.1 1136.9
162 40819.2 31422.7 3312.6 28110.1 952.2
198 40568.7 31239.9 3280.0 27959.9 18.5
228 39128.2 30140.5 3151.8 26988.7 3644.6
258 35863.4 27609.5 2908.2 24701.2 8471.1
288 31094.2 23945.7 2512.2 21433.5 12749.2
318 26557.8 20446.9 2152.0 18294.9 15382.7
344 24361.5 18760.8 1968.2 16792.6 16327.5

127
 APPENDIX C

Table C.1 Values

LATITUDE
Φ = 21.1458 NAGPUR
INCLINATION ANGLE WITH RESPECT TO HORIZONTAL
OF SOLAR PANEL = 21.1666

β= 21.1666 COS(β) 0.932534

Fig C.1 Angle of incidence of beam radiation [5]

Table C.2 Angles calculations

β= 0
ω= 15 ω= 0
Day Extra-terrestrial % Variation Declination
Day No. solar flux I'SC in I'SC Angle δ Cos(θz) θz Cos(θz) θz
17-Jan 17 1410.193 0.032 -20.917 0.713 44.543 0.742 42.063
16-Feb 47 1398.134 0.023 -12.955 0.797 37.147 0.828 34.100
16-Mar 75 1379.455 0.009 -2.418 0.885 27.765 0.917 23.564
15-Apr 105 1356.422 -0.008 9.415 0.948 18.601 0.979 11.731
15-May 135 1336.148 -0.023 18.792 0.969 14.287 0.999 2.354
11-Jun 162 1324.669 -0.031 23.086 0.970 14.025 0.999 1.940
17-Jul 198 1323.485 -0.032 21.184 0.970 13.983 1.000 0.038
16-Aug 228 1335.033 -0.023 13.455 0.960 16.240 0.991 7.691
15-Sep 258 1354.919 -0.009 2.217 0.914 23.912 0.946 18.929
15-Oct 288 1377.955 0.008 -9.599 0.828 34.094 0.859 30.745
14-Nov 318 1398.134 0.023 -18.912 0.735 42.665 0.765 40.058
10-Dec 344 1409.195 0.031 -23.050 0.688 46.550 0.717 44.195

128
 Table C.3 Conversion of units
A B C A
44217.000 1.202 0.141 0.103 3600.000 4327.200
44248.000 1.187 0.142 0.104 3600.000 4273.200
44276.000 1.164 0.149 0.109 3600.000 4190.400
44307.000 1.130 0.164 0.120 3600.000 4068.000
44337.000 1.106 0.177 0.130 3600.000 3981.600
44368.000 1.092 0.185 0.137 3600.000 3931.200
44398.000 1.093 0.186 0.138 3600.000 3934.800
44429.000 1.107 0.182 0.134 3600.000 3985.200
44460.000 1.136 0.165 0.121 3600.000 4089.600
44490.000 1.136 0.152 0.111 3600.000 4089.600
44521.000 1.190 0.144 0.106 3600.000 4284.000
44551.000 1.204 0.141 0.103 3600.000 4334.400
KW/m2 KJ/m2
Convert Kilowatt to Kilojoule/hour

Fig C.2 ASHRAE model formulas [5]

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 Table C.4 ASHRAE model calculations
ASHRAE
model ω= 0 at 12 pm For horizontal surface
Day
No. A(KJ/m2h) B C Ibn Id Ib Ig
17 4327.200 0.141 0.103 3578.321 368.567 2655.114 3023.681
47 4273.200 0.142 0.104 3599.754 374.374 2980.596 3354.970
75 4190.400 0.149 0.109 3561.956 388.253 3266.314 3654.567
105 4068.000 0.164 0.120 3440.558 412.867 3368.306 3781.173
135 3981.600 0.177 0.130 3335.113 433.565 3331.778 3765.343
162 3931.200 0.185 0.137 3266.632 447.529 3263.366 3710.894
198 3934.800 0.186 0.138 3266.961 450.841 3266.961 3717.801
228 3985.200 0.182 0.134 3316.582 444.422 3286.732 3731.154
258 4089.600 0.165 0.121 3435.040 415.640 3249.548 3665.188
288 4089.600 0.152 0.111 3426.356 380.325 2943.240 3323.565
318 4284.000 0.144 0.106 3548.950 376.189 2714.947 3091.136
344 4334.400 0.141 0.103 3560.605 366.742 2552.954 2919.696
AVG IT =
3472.440

Fig C.3 IT model formulas [5]

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 Table C.5 IT model calculations (Part I)
Ground
IT reflectivity value
model For tilted surface ρ 0.2 at 12 pm
Day No. Cos(θi) θi rb rd rr IT
17 0.934 20.896 1.259 0.966 0.007 3719.502
47 0.975 12.934 1.177 0.966 0.007 3892.800
75 0.999 2.397 1.090 0.966 0.007 3958.651
105 0.986 9.436 1.008 0.966 0.007 3818.456
135 0.947 18.813 0.948 0.966 0.007 3601.285
162 0.920 23.107 0.921 0.966 0.007 3462.034
198 0.932 21.205 0.932 0.966 0.007 3506.481
228 0.972 13.476 0.981 0.966 0.007 3679.874
258 0.999 2.238 1.056 0.966 0.007 3858.767
288 0.986 9.578 1.148 0.966 0.007 3768.509
318 0.946 18.891 1.237 0.966 0.007 3742.140
344 0.920 23.029 1.284 0.966 0.007 3650.914
AVG IT =
3715.255

Table C.6 IT model calculations (Part II)

at 8 am at 9 am at 10 am at 11 am at 1 pm at 2 pm at 3 pm at 4 pm
Day
No. IT IT IT IT IT IT IT IT
17 2832.674 3362.142 3587.700 3690.170 3689.883 3587.700 3362.142 2832.674
47 3150.919 3583.078 3776.562 3866.171 3866.247 3776.562 3583.078 3150.919
75 3336.619 3688.615 3855.283 3934.697 3934.593 3855.283 3688.615 3336.619
105 3282.515 3577.328 3724.718 3796.881 3796.710 3724.718 3577.328 3282.515
135 3121.523 3379.876 3514.124 3580.913 3580.962 3514.124 3379.876 3121.523
162 3004.160 3248.394 3377.547 3442.284 3442.418 3377.547 3248.394 3004.160
198 3030.648 3285.249 3419.012 3485.710 3485.971 3419.012 3285.249 3030.648
228 3142.904 3434.923 3583.972 3657.425 3657.498 3583.972 3434.923 3142.904
258 3248.421 3589.230 3754.880 3834.538 3834.667 3754.880 3589.230 3248.421

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 288 3066.299 3470.839 3656.196 3742.914 3743.011 3656.196 3470.839 3066.299
318 2889.112 3394.650 3613.359 3712.786 3713.122 3613.359 3394.650 2889.112
344 2715.526 3277.699 3513.629 3620.085 3619.780 3513.629 3277.699 2715.526
AVG IT AVG IT AVG IT AVG IT AVG IT AVG IT AVG IT AVG IT
= = = = = = = =
3060.218 3433.997 3608.118 3690.553 3690.582 3608.118 3433.997 3060.218
AVG IT OF
WHOLE YEAR = 3477.895 KJ/m2h

Table C.7 Solar collector calculations

AVG IT OF AVG IT OF
WHOLE YEAR = 3477.895 KJ/m2h 1384.491 WHOLE YEAR = 3477.895 KJ/m2h
0.966082 KW/m2 692.2455 0.966082 KW/m2
35 % Efficient = 1217.263 KJ/m2h 35 % Efficient = 1217.263 KJ/m2h
Collector Area = 1.13738 m2 Collector Area = 0.56869 m2
For 1 day of drying For 2 days of drying

AVG IT OF AVG IT OF
WHOLE YEAR = 668.17 W/m2 WHOLE YEAR = 668.17 W/m2
2405.412 KJ/m2h 2405.412 KJ/m2h
35 % Efficient = 841.8942 KJ/m2h 35 % Efficient = 841.8942 KJ/m2h
Collector Area = 1.644495 m2 Collector Area = 0.822248 m2
For 1 day of drying For 2 days of drying

Avg Collector
Area 1.043203 m2 Width = 0.6096 m
Collector Area = 1 m2 Length = 1.64042 m

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 APPENDIX D

Table D.1 Insulation

Insulation
Quantity of heat lost per unit area = (T1-T2)K1/X1
= (T2-T3)K2/X2
= (T3-T4)K3/X3
= U(T1-T4)
K1 and K3 = Heat transfer coefficient for mild steel 46 W / moC
K2 = Heat transfer coefficient for wool fibre 0.04 W / moC
X1, X2 and X3 = the respective thickness of mild steel
and wool fibre
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient

o
T1 = Temperature of an internal part of a cabinet 60 C
o
T4 = Temperature of external part of cabinet 30 C
X1 = X3 = 1.5 mm 1.5 mm
X2 = 50mm 50 mm

Table D.2 Fan / Blower Calculations (Part I)

Fan / Blower Calculations

1. Mass flow rate in Kg/s

Mass flow rate = 23.875020 Kg/hr

2. Volumetric flow rate

Volumetric flow rate = 18.719633 m3/hr

31.804858 CFM

133
 Table D.3 Fan / Blower Calculations (Part II)
Total Energy Required (E)

Enthalpy of dry air at 60oC = 60.394 KJ/kg dry air

Enthalpy of dry air at 30oC = 30.184 KJ/kg dry air

E= 0.200351 KJ/s
The total energy required is 0.385346188 KJ/s or 1387.2462768 KJ/hr

Table D.4 Electronics

Electronics

No. of fan required having a volumetric flow rate of 41 CFM

No. of fans required = 1
Current = 0.139 Amp
Power consumed by the fan in 1 hour = 1.66 Watts Power = Current × Voltage
Power consumed fan = 1.66 W

Considering additional system The total power consumed =

losses Power × Hours
Total power consumed in a
day= 15.936 Whr

134
 Table D.5 Nichrome wire
Nichrome Wire
Current = 2.5 Amp
Power Required = 30 Watts
Total Power Required = 31.66 Watts

Table D.6 Battery

Battery Specification
Total Current to be Supplied = 2.639 Amp
Total A current is required per hour with a fan and a nichrome wire as a heater element

Total Capacity of Battery = 21.112 Amp-Hr

The total capacity of the Battery is Estimated to be 21.112 Ah or 21122 mAhr

Sizing of PV Module
A solar panel of specification 50 watts and 12 volts can be used.

135
Dr. Sandeep S. Joshi
Department of Mechanical Engineering
RCOEM, Nagpur
Phone No.: 9860715064
Email id: joshiss@rknec.edu

Purvesh Rode
Department of Mechanical Engineering
RCOEM, Nagpur
Phone No.: 7756988155
Email id: rodepn@rknec.edu

Sangeet Khule
Department of Mechanical Engineering
RCOEM, Nagpur
Phone No.: 8669886072
Email id.: khulesb@rknec.edu

Sannidhya Shegaonkar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
RCOEM, Nagpur
Phone No.: 9370236109
Email id: shegaonkarss@rknec.edu

136