SCE 102 Written Report Wall Footing G2

Republic of the Philippines
UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

University Town, Northern Samar
Web: uep.edu.ph; Email: uepnsofficial@gmail.com
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
1st Semester, S.Y. 2023-2024
SCE 102: Professional Course 2 -

Foundation and Retaining Wall Design
Group 2–Wall Footing
Adongay, Kalilah Marie M.

Catamora, Renzo C.
Delim, Gemma S.
Go, Vladimir Ilich L.
Ledesma, Ma.Annlourdes E.
Mañoza, Jereca C.
Petalbo, Niño Anthony N.
Visaya, Gilli O.
BSCE-4A
Engr. Ric L. Gonzaga, MCE

Instructor/CE Faculty
October 2023
WRITTEN REPORT CONTENTS
1. BACKGROUND OF WALL FOOTING

1.1 - Use of Wall Footing, p.1
1.2 - Common Types of Footing, p.2
1.3 – Construction Methods and Techniques, p.3
1.4 – Footing for Different Wall Types, p.6
2. SOIL PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOR

2.1– Importance of Soil Testing and Soil Types, p.7
2.2 - Bearing Capacity of Soil, p.9
2.3 – Stress in Lower Strata, p.10
2.4 – Settlement of Wall Footing, p.12
2.5 – Uplift of Wall Footing, p.15
3. LOADINGS AND OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

3.1 – Depth of Wall Footing, p.17
3.2 – Footing Size Proportion, p.18
3.3 – Eccentric Loading on Wall Footing, p.20
3.4 – Inclined Loading and Wall Footing on Slopes, p.22
3.5 – Special Considerations
(Waterproofing and Drainage,
Earthquake Resistance and Expansive Soils), p.27
4. WALL FOOTING DESIGN AND SUMMARY

4.1 – Introduction, p.32
4.2 – Footing Width, p.34
4.3 – Footing Thickness, p.35
4.4 – Steel Reinforcement, p.36
4.5 – NSCP 2015 Provision on Footing Design, p.37
4.6 – General Background for Design Method
(Load and Resistance Factor Method), p.39
4.7 – General Wall Footing Design Process
(NSCP 2015, LRFD Method), p.40
4.8 – Footing Design According to American Concrete Institute
(ACI), p.58
4.9 – Sample Problems and Exercises, p.51,57,61,67,71
5. REFERENCES , p.72
SCE 102: Professional Course 2 - Foundation and Retaining Wall Design Group 2
Wall Footing
Background of Wall Footing

1.1 Use of Wall Footing
Wall footings play a crucial role in establishing a solid and durable foundation for any
construction project. These horizontal slabs, made of materials like concrete or stone, extend beyond
the width of a wall to provide essential support, ensuring the stability and longevity of the structure.
By evenly distributing the weight of the wall over a larger area of soil, wall footings prevent any
potential movement or settling of the foundation. Whether it's the strength of reinforced concrete or
the timeless charm of stone masonry and brick wall footing foundations, each type brings its own
distinct qualities to the construction process.
Wall footings are designed based on factors such as the weight of the wall, the type of soil,
and the expected loads. They are typically wider than the wall they support, allowing for a larger
contact area with the soil. The depth of the wall footing is determined by factors such as the soil
bearing capacity and the depth of the frost line. In construction, wall footings are excavated and
prepared before pouring concrete or placing other load-bearing materials. They are an essential
component in building a stable and durable foundation for structures. 1 Economical wall footing can
be constructed provided that the imposed load needed to be transmitted are of small magnitude and
the underlying soil layer is of dense sand and gravels. Therefore, wall footing is best suited for small
buildings. 2
Wall footings are essential in construction projects for several reasons: 3
Load Distribution: Wall footings help distribute the weight of the walls or columns evenly to the soil
or foundation below. By spreading the load over a larger area, they prevent excessive settlement and
ensure the stability of the structure.
Stability: Wall footings increase the stability of a building by providing a wider base for the walls or
columns. This wider base helps resist lateral forces such as wind or seismic loads, reducing the risk
of structural failure.
Soil Bearing Capacity: Wall footings are designed to accommodate the bearing capacity of the soil.
By spreading the load over a larger area, they prevent the soil from becoming overstressed, which
could result in soil failure or settlement.
Structural Integrity: Wall footings play a crucial role in maintaining the overall integrity of a
structure. They help transfer the loads from the walls or columns to the foundation, ensuring that the
building remains structurally sound.
Construction Efficiency: Wall footings are relatively easy to construct, and their design can be
customized to suit the specific requirements of the building. They provide a stable base for the walls
or columns, allowing for efficient construction and ensuring the longevity of the structure.
1
Wall Footing. (2023, August 29). Wikipedia. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_footing
2
Hamakareem, M. I. (2019, June 8). Construction of Wall Footings – Materials, and Dimensions. The Constructor.
Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/construction-wall-footings/760
3
Engineering, S. (2022, July 27). What Are Footings in Construction? - Stronghold Engineering. Stronghold Engineering.
Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://www.strongholdengineering.com/what-are-footings-in-construction
1
Wall Footing
When designing wall footings, factors such as the type of soil, the magnitude of loads, and
local building codes need to be considered. Engineering principles and standards, such as those
provided by the American Concrete Institute (ACI) or the International Building Code (IBC),
provide guidelines for the design and construction of wall footings.
1.2 Common Types of Footing

1. Spread Footing: This is the most basic and
commonly used type of wall footing. It consists of a wider
base that spreads the load from the wall or column over a
larger area of the soil. Spread footings are usually
rectangular or square in shape and can be either shallow or
deep, depending on the soil conditions and the weight of
the structure.
Construction of these footings is both cost-effective
and economical. It works in any soil with efficient load-
bearing capacity. Spread footing comes in various forms
and sizes, including square, round and rectangular. With
stresses applied upward, this footing can operate as an
inverted cantilever.
2. Strip Footing: This type of footing is used when

the load from a wall or column is distributed along a linear
path. Strip footings are long and narrow, running parallel to
the wall or column. They are commonly used in load-
bearing walls or in situations where there are multiple
closely-spaced columns.
The strips of a strip footing, are made of reinforced
concrete. The concrete serves for the compressive forces
and the reinforcing steel for the tensile forces. 4
3. Combined Footing: When two or more columns

are close to each other, a combined footing is used to
support them. It is a single footing that supports multiple
columns, distributing the load between them. Combined
footings can be rectangular, trapezoidal, or any other
suitable shape depending on the arrangement of the
columns.
*Photos are retrieved from Google
4
Staalgoed Handel B.V. (n.d.). Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://www.betonstaal.nl/en/knowledge-centre/strip-
footing-what-is-it/#:~:text=A%20strip%20footing%20is%20a,are%20made%20of%20reinforced%20concrete
2
Wall Footing
Combined footings are provided only when it is absolute necessary, as: 5

a. When two columns are close together, causing overlap of adjacent isolated
footings.
b. Where soil bearing capacity is low, causing overlap of adjacent isolated footings.
c. Proximity of building line or existing building or sewer, adjacent to a building
column.
4. Mat (Raft) Foundation: This is a large, thick

slab of reinforced concrete that covers the entire area
under a building. Mat foundations are used when the
soil has poor bearing capacity or when the loads from
the structure are too heavy for individual footings. They
distribute the load over a larger area to prevent
excessive settlement. Mat foundations are popular in
areas where basements are common.
Construction Methods and Techniques

Wall footing runs along the direction of the wall. The size of the footing and the thickness of
the foundation wall are specified on the basis of the type of soil at the site. The width of
the wall footing is generally 2-3 times the width of the wall.The wall footing can be
constructed from stone, brick, plain concrete, or reinforced concrete.
Construction of Wall Footing Based On Material
Brick Wall Footing
Masonry foundation may be constructed from concrete block or brick masonry units. The
concrete block masonry foundation is commonly used as it is cost effective and its
unattractive appearance would not be visible. The masonry foundation should be able to
adequately support weight of the structure and lateral loads imposed by soil adjacent to
foundations. It should be sufficiently durable to withstand aggressions from soil and ground
water. Masonry foundation is either constructed from masonry units only (plain masonry
foundation) or reinforced with steel bars to increase ultimate load carrying capacity.
Different types of masonry foundations, their construction and uses are discussed.
General Procedure
 In the case of brick walls, the footing consists of several courses of bricks, the lowest
course being usually twice the breadth of the wall above.
 The increased base width of the wall footing is obtained through the provision of 5cm
offsets on either side of the wall.
 The depth of each course can be one brick or multiples of brick thicknesses.
5
Mishra, G. (2017, September 27). Combined Footing Design With Example and Types of Combined Footing. The
Constructor. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/foundations/combined-
footing-design-with-example/8/?amp=1
3
Wall Footing
 The base of the footing wall rests on a plain concrete footing which projects 10 to 15
cm beyond the last brick offset as shown in Fig. 1.
 The width at the base shall not be less than the width of the supported wall plus 30
cm.
Stone Masonry Wall Footing

The construction of stones bonded together with mortar is called stone masonry. Stone
masonry footing is a structural foundation constructed to support walls.The purpose of
stone masonry foundation is to support structural walls and transfer load to the soil beneath
it. It should serve its purpose without settlement or sinking. The load exerted on stone
masonry footing should be vertical.
Properties of Stones for Footing

Stones should possess the following properties otherwise they will be disqualified for the
construction of stone masonry footing:
 The stone should durable
 Free from cracks
 Free from cavity
 It need to be hard and tough
Examples of stones which are desirable for stone masonry footing construction include
granite, hard laminated stand stone and limestone, and bluestone.
General Procedure
 Stones need to be adequately wetted before they are laid in the foundation. This
measure is considered to prevent water absorption which detrimentally affect the
mortar.
 The thickness of stones should be one fourth of their width
 If it is possible, the width of each stone used for the construction of footing first
course should match the stone masonry footing width. If such stones are not
obtainable, then joints can be provided and it is acceptable.
4
Wall Footing
 In the case of stone masonry walls, the offsets could be 15 cm with the heights of the
course as 30 cm. Therefore, the size of offsets is slightly more than that of the brick
wall footings.
 The depth of the concrete should not be less than 15 cm.
 By and large, the lean concrete mix proportions is 1:4:8 (1 Cement : 4 Fine
aggregate : 8 Coarse aggregate) or 1 : 5 : 10 ( 1 Cement : 5 Fine aggregate : 10
Coarse aggregate) mix
Concrete/ Reinforced Concrete Wall Footing

If the load on the wall is heavy or the soil is of low bearing capacity, reinforced
concrete strip footing can be provided.
The thickness of the strip can be reduced towards the edge to effect economy. 6
6
Hamakareem, M. (2019), Construction of Wall Footings – Materials and Dimensions.
5
Wall Footing
Footing for Different Wall Types

 Load-Bearing Wall
Strip footing is that in which a continuous strip of concrete is placed below the load
bearing walls. It spreads the weight of the load-bearing wall evenly across the total area
of the soil. It is commonly used as foundation for load-bearing walls; and when soil has
good bearing capacity. It is preferred for low rise to medium-rise residential buildings.
Here a strip of concrete runs below the entire length of the wall, thereby distributing the
load from the wall to the ground. This offers better stability to the building. For this
reason, the width of the footing should be at least twice the width of the wall. 7
 Retaining Wall
To prevent the whole retaining wall and backfill from sliding down the slope, it is vital
that retaining barriers not settle or lean too far into the soil below them. An effective
retaining wall should have a foundation buried in the ground, built from compacted
earth, and a layer of sand and gravel at least 150 millimetres thick.
The base material should extend past its front and rear edges by at least one foot.
When constructing a dry-laid stone barrier, the foundation may need to be as broad as
the barricade is high, and you may need to place the most stable stones at the bottom.
All these steps will keep the barrier stable, increasing the contact area between the
building components and increasing friction and the overall strength. 8
7
ViyaCons, (2020), Strip Foundation/Strip Footing.
6
8
Lian S.,(2018), Behind The Wall: The Essential Guide To Retaining Wall Standards And Best Practices
Wall Footing
Soil Properties and Behavior
1. Importance of Soil Testing and Soil Types
Importance of Soil Testing
One of the major goals in any successful construction project, is to have confidence that
the structure you intend to build, will sit on a solid foundation.Nobody wants their building
project to end up like the Leaning Tower of Pisa, do they? To avoid this from happening to
your construction project, as well as other potentially fatal risks, soil testing should be done
after you purchase the land and before you begin building. Soil testing is one of the most
crucial considerations to make during any building project, yet it is also the most
disregarded. The type of soil on a site, will determine the building foundation, therefore, soil
testing is the cornerstone of any geotechnical investigation.Remember, construction, and
other building projects, are by nature highly disruptive processes and require activities that
may shift the soil and disrupt the surrounding environment. 9
What is Soil Testing?
Soil testing, to put it simply, is a scientific instrument for assessing and analysing the
soil's intrinsic physical and technical features as well as its carrying capacity. The sort of
foundation to be built is determined by soil testing for construction. Before beginning
building, get your soil analysed to see how stable the project will be.Soil testing provides a
number of advantages, including determining the type of foundation required, avoiding
resting foundations on poor soil or at insufficient depth, identifying corrosive soil,
determining the possibility of soil liquefaction after an earthquake, and so on.10
What Role Does Soil Testing Play in Construction?
 As previously said, soil testing aids in the construction of a building's foundation. If

the soil hasn't been examined, the foundation can develop flaws and corrosion,
affecting the building's strength and stability.
 The depth and length of the pillars that will be placed into the earth to establish the
building's foundation are also determined by soil testing.
 The water table level, as determined by soil testing, indicates potential difficulties
with the degree of humidity inside the foundation and the building's foundation.
 Soil testing can be used to evaluate the soil's water table level.
 Soil testing results are used to identify the potential of foundation difficulties as well
as the optimum construction methods to adopt. 11
9
From “The answer is in the soil: The importance of testing and analysing soil properties,” by Douglas Partners Pty Ltd.,
2022 (https://www.douglaspartners.com.au/news/soil-testing)
10
Adopted from “Why Is Soil Testing Important For Construction?” by falconlaboratory, PowerShow.com.
(https://www.powershow.com/view0/94d6d0-
OTVjZ/Why_Is_Soil_Testing_Important_For_Construction_powerpoint_ppt_presentation)
11
ibid
7
Wall Footing
Soil testing can be divided into two key components: Field soil sampling & Analysis of
laboratory tests
Field sampling & analysis involves the collection of soil samples and documentation
of other data, including existing soil strata and bearing capacity (for determining the
suitability and amount of tolerable load on the soil). Engineers will also document the
existence of any other factors that may affect the long-term stability of the designed
foundations, e.g., trees, drainage, slope, depth to rock, existing structures, etc.
Laboratory testing is integral to geotechnical analysis and will help to determine things
like the soil's capacity to swell and shrink, its moisture content, soil permeability, dispersion,
strength, consolidation, and direct shear.12
Soil Types
Every house has a foundation, and every foundation must be constructed efficiently,
safely and correctly so it will last. The materials that make up the building block and the
process of building it are equally important; however, one thing that’s often overlooked is
the soilsupporting them because even foundations need a solid foundation. Each type of
soil has different properties that affect foundations differently. Generally, soil will be more
stable the more rock and compacted sand/gravel it contains.
THE TYPES OF SOILS13
1. Peat – Peaty soil is usually dark brown or black and is easily compressible because
of how much water it can hold. However, during the summer it becomes extremely dry and
can even be a fire hazard. It is very poor subsoil and not ideal for support, as foundations
are most stable on soil that does not shift or change structure.
2. Clay – Clay is made up of tiny particles so it stores water well, but because of its
tight grasp on water it expands greatly when moist and shrinks significantly when dry. When
clay is moist, it is very pliable, and can easily be moved and manipulated. These extreme
changes put a great deal of pressure on foundations, causing them to move up and down,
and eventually crack, making clay a poor soil for support. Classified as plastic or reactive,
which means it may swell or shrinkby varying degrees depending on dry or wet conditions
3. Silt – Silty soil can be smooth to the touch and retains water longer because of its
smaller particles. However, because of its tendency to retain moisture it is cold and drains
poorly. This causes the silty soil to expand, pushing against a foundation and weakening it,
making it not ideal for support. Include combinations of sand and silt.
12
From “The answer is in the soil: The importance of testing and analysing soil properties,” by Douglas Partners Pty Ltd.,
2022 (https://www.douglaspartners.com.au/news/soil-testing)
8
13
Adopted from “How to test Soil for building construction,” by Sadanandam, A, The Constructor.
(https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/types-of-soil-tests-construction/12679/)
Wall Footing
4. Sand/Gravel – Sand/gravel has the largest particles of the different soil types. It is
dry and gritty to the touch and does not hold moisture because of the large openings, but
drains easily. When compacted and moist it holds together fairly well, and if compacted
these make for good soils to support a foundation because of their non-water-retaining
properties. However, when moist, the particles will lose their friction and can be washed
away, which can leave gaps beneath the foundation.
5. Loam – Loam is the ideal soil type: typically it’s a combination of sand, silt and clay.
It is dark in color and soft, dry and crumbly to the touch. Loam is great for supporting
foundations because of its evenly balanced properties, especially how it maintains water at
a balanced rate. Loam is a good soil for supporting a foundation, as long as no
miscellaneous soils find their way onto the surface.
2. Bearing Capacity of Soil

Bearing Capacity of Soil: The bearing capacity shall be based (a) on shearing strength
capacity of soil as well as (b) on the permissible settlement of foundation. These
information for a particular site shall be based on site investigations and experimental
results. In the absence of such data the safe bearing capacity of some of the types of soil
may be taken as given in Table 16.1 for rough guidance. 14
14
Adopted from R.C.C. Structures - I (pp. 47-48). (https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/31044/1/Unit-16.pdf)
9
Wall Footing
Depth of Foundation: The depth of foundation below the ground level shall be at least 0.5 m
except in case of stable rock available at ground level. The variation in depth may be due to
(i) availability of adequate bearing capacity, (ii) effect of shrinkage and swelling of clayey
soils, (iii) effect of frost and temperature changes in silty and sandy soil, (iv) depth of scour,
proximity to pond, ditches and filled up ground, Iv) mass movement of soil to sloping
ground, etc.15
The types of bearing capacity of soil
The most commonly used types of bearing capacity of soil are ‘ultimate bearing
capacity’ and ‘allowable bearing capacity’.
The ultimate bearing capacity of soil is the maximum vertical pressure that can be
applied to the ground surface, at which point a shear failure mechanism develops in the
supporting soil.In essence, the ultimate soil bearing capacity test identifies the maximum
amount of load the soil can take before it fails, or gives way completely. This figure isn’t
used on its own in the foundation design process, as it’s also important to consider how soil
will settle under pressure, which could affect its ability to support a structure. 16
The allowable bearing capacity of soil is the amount of load the soil can take without
experiencing shear failure or exceeding the allowable amount of settlement. This is the
figure that is used in the design of foundations.The allowable bearing capacity is always
lower than the ultimate bearing pressure because it takes into account the settlement of
soil, not just the load required to cause shear failure.17
Typical soil bearing capacity values
Here are a few of the typical values you might see for the safe bearing capacity of different
soils:
3. STRESS IN LOWER STRATA
The stress in the lower strata of a wall footing is a crucial consideration in geotechnical
engineering, as it directly impacts the stability of the foundation and the underlying soil.
When designing a wall footing, engineers need to calculate and evaluate the stress
distribution in the soil layers beneath the footing to ensure that it remains within acceptable
limits to prevent soil failure and excessive settlement. Here are the key factors and
considerations:18
15
ibid
16
From “Bearing Capacity of Soil - Types and Calculations,” by Lees, A.,2021, Tensar.
(https://www.tensar.co.uk/resources/articles/what-is-the-bearing-capacity-of-soil)
17
ibid
Retrieved from “Nonlinear Analysis of Stress and Strain in Soils,” by Duncan, J.M., and Chang, C.Y., 1970.
10
18
Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers.
Wall Footing
1. Load Distribution: The stress in the lower strata of a wall footing is primarily determined
by the load applied to the footing. This load includes the self-weight of the wall, any
superimposed loads (e.g., structures, live loads), and the weight of the footing itself. The
load distribution is not uniform across the entire width of the footing; it typically creates a
stress distribution that is highest directly beneath the center of the footing.
2. Footing Dimensions: The size and shape of the footing, including its width, length, and
depth, play a significant role in determining the stress distribution in the soil. A wider
footing will distribute the load over a larger area, resulting in lower stresses compared to
a narrower footing with the same total load.
3. Soil Properties: The properties of the soil layers beneath the footing, such as their
cohesion, friction angle, and compressibility, affect how the stress is distributed. Soils
with higher strength and stiffness can withstand higher stresses without excessive
settlement or failure.
4. Depth of Foundation: The depth of the wall footing relative to the depth of the lower
strata of soil is critical. Deeper foundations distribute the load to deeper and more stable
soil layers, which can reduce stress levels in the lower strata.
5. Bearing Capacity: Ensure that the calculated stress in the lower strata is within the
allowable bearing capacity of the soil. The allowable bearing capacity is determined by
factors such as the type of soil, the factor of safety, and the ultimate bearing capacity of
the soil.
6. Settlement Analysis: Apart from stress, consider settlement analysis to ensure that the
anticipated settlement of the foundation is within acceptable limits. Excessive settlement
can lead to structural problems.
7. Consideration of Soil Layers: When analyzing stress in the lower strata, it's essential to
consider the layering of soils beneath the footing. Different soil layers may have varying
properties, and their behavior under load should be analyzed accordingly.
To calculate the stress in the lower strata of a wall footing, engineers typically use soil
mechanics principles and geotechnical engineering methods, including Terzaghi's bearing
capacity equations, Boussinesq's equations, or numerical methods like finite element
analysis. These methods help in estimating the distribution of stress and ensuring the
safety and stability of the foundation and underlying soil. Consulting a geotechnical
engineer or specialist is often necessary to perform these calculations accurately and
ensure that the design meets safety standards and codes.19
Boussinesq Theory for Stresses

The most common theory for elastic estimations of changes in soil stress is Boussinesq
theory. A simple way to illustrate this is to consider point loading as shown in Figure 13. The
diagram on the left shows some basic geometric parameters, the equations on the right
show the various stress types (normal or shear) and directions.
19
ibid 11
Wall Footing
Most engineers are interested in the increase in the vertical stress component, i.e.,
the ∆p or deviator stress increase with the application of the load. As long as the ground is
reasonably homogeneous and the elastic limit is not breached, elastic solutions such as
Boussinesq and its relative Westergaard are very useful in computing stress changes in
soils, which in turn are useful for analyses such as consolidation and other settlement
estimates.20
4. Settlement of wall footing
Have you noticed cracks in your interior walls or sticking doors and/or windows? If
you have, your house may be a victim of settlement.
WHAT IS SETTLEMENT?
Settlement is the downward movement of the ground (soil) when a load is applied to
it. The load increases the vertical effective stress exerted onto the soil. This stress, in turn,
increases the vertical strain in the soil. This increase in vertical strain causes the ground to
move downward. In fact, most buildings settle over time. However, most building settlement
occurs during the first few years after construction, unless there are changes in the
drainage patterns around the building, severe changes in weather, or other external factors.
Ongoing building settlement is uncommon.
TYPES OF BUILDING SETTLEMENT
UNIFORM SETTLEMENT
During uniform settlement, the entire foundation settles at a constant rate. Usually,
there is no, or very minor, cracking during uniform settlement.
Adopted from “Soils in Construction (5th ed.),” by Warrington, D. C., 2015, Waveland Press, Inc.
20
12
Wall Footing
DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
Differential settlement commonly occurs as a result of the non-uniform movement of

the underlying soils (soil settlement at different rates). This type of settlement can result
in cracking to the foundation, exterior cladding, and interior finishes. Additionally, with a pier
and beam foundation system, each individual pier may settle at a different rate, which is
different than the settlement that would occur to a slab foundation.
WHAT CAUSES SETTLEMENT OF SOILS?
Settlement occurs from soil consolidation due to a reduction in voids or spaces

between soil particles due to applied loads or changes in moisture content. The loss of
moisture in soils causes consolidation. As the moisture takes up volume in the soil, and
when the moisture is expelled, the soil loses volume and consolidates. In the opposite
circumstance, when there is a buildup of moisture in the soils, smaller clays and silts, which
were previously used to fill the voids between larger soil types and provide additional
structural support, will drain downwards in the ground when the moisture eventually
subsides. This will cause the supporting soil to lose its load-bearing capabilities.
TYPICAL CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT
 Weak bearing soils

 Addition to an existing house
 Improperly backfilled soils / poor compaction
 Irregular rainfall or drought
 Poor drainage around the house
 Changes in the groundwater table
 Mature trees growing close to the house
 Seepage from a plumbing leak or swimming pool
 Pumping of oil or water out of the nearby ground
HOW DO YOU KNOW IF YOUR HOUSE HAS EXPERIENCED SETTLEMENT?

The most common evidence that settlement has occurred is:
EXTERIOR CRACKING
Usually indicated by vertical cracks in poured foundations, or stair-step cracking in
brick or CMU walls. The cracks on exterior walls usually originate from the ground. Larger
13
cracks generally indicate ongoing settlement.
Wall Footing
INTERIOR CRACKING
Usually indicated by semi-horizontal or 45-degree angle cracks. Cracks are typically

found at the corners of windows at doors, where the building has the most stress and is
usually due to the foundation shifting. These cracks can also form from heaving, which is
the upward movement of soil, the opposite of settlement.
SAGGING FLOORS
Sagging floors generally occur when a house was built with a pier and beam foundation
system. The individual piers will settle at different rates, resulting in the floors that sag at the
location of the settled pier.
STICKING WINDOWS AND DOORS
Windows and doors that are hard to open or stick may be a sign of settlement. Check for
scrape marks on the floor or the door jamb, or a misaligned latch, which are signs that
settlement may have occurred.
HOW DO YOU REPAIR AND/OR STOP SETTLEMENT?
HELICAL PIERS
Helical piers are typically used to jack up spread footings. The piers are typically spaced
approximately every five feet and are driven in the ground until sound soil or bedrock is
reached.
SLAB LEVELING
Slabs that have settled can be leveled by the use ofmudjacking or polyurethane foam.
Mudjacking is the use of flowable concrete or grout and polyurethane foam is a closed cell
foam. In both uses, holes are drilled in the settled slab and the flowable fill is pumped
through. The pressure exerted through the pumping process raises the slab as well as
consolidating the soil to prevent future settlement. Polyurethane foam is typically more
expensive than mudjacking; however, it is typically stronger, has a longer life span, will not
retain moisture, and the slab can be utilized sooner.
PIER AND BEAM
If your house is on a pier and beam system that has settled, the piers will need to be
leveled. This will effectively lift the sagging floors as well. To accomplish this, the use of
14
Wall Footing
hydraulic jacks, sitting on a strong foundation, will be needed to lift the house around the
settled pier. Metal shims can then be placed between the pier and the beam. 21
5. Uplift of wall footing
In case uplift occurs, a part of the foundation base does not participate in transferring pressure to soil.
Such phenomenon can be allowed for under the foundation of columns that are loaded with moments
resulting from live loads, with the exception of dynamic loads. 22
Uplift wall footings and constructive structure drawing details that includes a detailed view of free
auto-cad file with layer- wall core polystyrene base material thickness of layer of wall of to the base
of concrete of thickness and concrete chain with rebar steel rod details and stirrup for chain frame
details, Hollow for fastening and assembly with round so or post-tensioning provided with steel plate
and reinforcement rod square and much more of wall details.23
What Uplift pressure means?

An uplift pressure is any pressure exerted beneath a structure (e.g. A retaining wall) that has the
potential to raise the structure higher relative to its surroundings.
Most common uplift pressures come from water pressures present around the structure.
Permitting flow through a permeable stratum will reduce the hydrostatic pressure in the
water due to energy losses.
21
https://vertexeng.com/insights/differential-settlement-in-buildings/, Differential Settlement in Buildings (2015), C.
Doug Day
22
https://help.autodesk.com/view/RSAPRO/2024/ENU/?guid=GUID-87365592-5BAB-438F-9F5F-6CF153028583,
Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis Professional 2024
23
https://cadbull.com/detail/85588/Uplift-wall-footings-and-constructive-structure-drawing-details-dwg-file
15
Wall Footing
Diagram represending Uplift = U
However, some of this water will remain under any impermeable structure and produce
forces vertically to the structure (see picture below).
The excess pore water pressure remaining will produce an uplift beneath the structure and
an uplift of the whole structure can occur.
However, if the structure has sufficient deadweight or appropriate anchorage system
(Eurocode 7 check required) the uplift pressures will be balance and no failure will occur.
How to Calculate Uplift Pressures.

Calculating Uplift pressures is much easier than you thought
Pore water pressure "u" is :
u = γwH
γw = Unit weight of water = 10 kN/m3
H = Height = in metres (m)
Since pore water pressure acts equally in all directions ( hydrostatic pressure) uplift
pressure equals the pore water pressure but at the underside of an impermeable structure.
Uplift Water Pressure = Pore Water Pressure (kN/m2)24
16
24
https://www.structuresinsider.com/post/definition-of-uplift-pressures-in-soil-
mechanics#:~:text=An%20uplift%20pressure%20is%20any,pressures%20present%20around%20the%20structure.
Wall Footing
LOADINGS AND OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
I. Depth of Wall Footing
A wall footing behaves similarly to a cantilever beam, where the cantilever

extends out from the wall and is loaded in an upward direction by the soil pressure.
When a wall carries a uniformly distributed line load, wall sections along the length of
the wall behave equally. Consequently, the design of the footing can be based on a strip
1-m wide along the length of the wall. Moreover, the depth of the footing is influenced by
factors like frost depth and soil conditions.
The minimum depth at which a foundation should be placed depends on the soil
profile, structural requirement, ground water condition, and so on. The following factors
should be generally be taken into consideration in determining the depth of foundations.
a. Depth of top soil, rubbish fill, if any.
b. Depth of poor surface deposit such as peat, muck, or sanitary land fill
c. Location of ground water table and its seasonal fluctuation
d. Depth to poor or better underlying strata
e. Depth of adjacent footings if any.
If the subsoil near the ground surface

consists of heterogeneous fill of uncertain
properties or compressible soil like peat,
muck etc. the foundation should,
preferably, be taken below the fill. It is also
desirable that the foundation be taken
below the zone of seasonal fluctuation of
water table where the soil is not subjected
to seasonal volume changes due to
alternate wetting and drying. For this, the
foundation is generally placed 1-2 m below ground surface. However, if the water table
fluctuates over a great depth, it may not be economical to take the foundation to be the
desired level. The foundation may then be placed at some convenient depth and the
design done for the highest position of the water table. The depth of the foundation is
also influenced by the location of underground facilities below the building. In case
17
Wall Footing
where a stiff clay is underlain by a softer material, the foundation should be placed as
high above as possible so that the pressure bulb may be restricted within the stiff clay. 25
According to ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete that
the minimum footing depth of footing above bottom reinforcement shall not be less than
6 in. for footings on soil, nor less than 12 in. for footings on piles. Width of footing is
26
established by dividing the total service load by the allowable net soil pressure.
National Building Code minimum requirements for Group of Dwelling (Section

708) the minimum thickness of foundation footings on dwelling units should be 250 mm.
While the minimum depth below the ground of foundation footings on dwelling units is
said to be 600mm deep. 27
II. Footing Size Proportion
Wall footings are provided below load

bearing walls or a row of columns in building
frame. Even if the column loads vary a little, the
longitudinal extent of the footing normally
ensures a uniformly distributed load below the
footing.28The lower the bearing capacity of the
soil, the wider the footing needs to be. If the soil
is very strong, the footing isn't even strictly
necessary just the soil under the wall would be enough to hold the building up.29
Wall footing runs along the direction of the wall. The size of the footing and the
thickness of the foundation wall are specified on the basis of the type of soil at the site.
The width of the wall footing is generally 2-3 times the width of the wall.30 They form a
long, narrow continuous foundation, with the width small compared to
25
Adopted from Theory and Practice of Foundation Design (171), N.N. Som and S.C. Das. 2006.
26
Retrieved from Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-95) and Commentary (ACI 318R-95), by
the American Concrete Institute.
(https://myyardimci.weebly.com/uploads/1/6/3/4/16347790/building_design_code_english.pdf)
27
From National Building Code of the Philippines. 1977
28
Adopted from Theory and Practice of Foundation Design (171), N.N. Som and S.C. Das. 2006.
29
From “Concrete Footings – Building Footings for Foundations & more”, by Brent Anderson, 2020
(https://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/footing_fundamentals/footing_dimensions.htm)
30
See “Construction of Wall Footings – Materials, and Dimensions”, by The Constructor, 2009
(https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/construction-wall-
footings/7609/#:~:text=The%20size%20of%20the%20footing,plain%20concrete%2C%20or%20reinforced%20concrete.)
18
Wall Footing
the length, as illustrated.
Section 1202 of the National Building Code that it shall be of the appropriate type,
of adequate size, and capacity in order to safely sustain the superimposed loads under
seismic or any condition of external forces that may affect the safety or stability of the
structure.31
The economics are determined by a number of factors. Wall footings are usually
employed in load-bearing masonry construction where there is a fairly consistent load
applied to the ground in all main walls of the building. Regulations require a minimum strip
thickness of 150 mm with a projection from the face of the masonry equal to the thickness
of the footings. The footing can fail either in bending or in shear. A shear failure is more
likely where the footing has been widened and reinforced. Generally, reinforcement is
avoided by proportioning the thickness of the footing so that a 45-degree line from the base
of the masonry lies just inside the extremity of the footing.32
19
31
See National Building Code of the Philippines. 1977
32
From Foundation Design, by A. Hodgkinson. 1986, Architectural Press Ltd.
Wall Footing
III. Eccentric Loading on Wall Footing
The eccentric loading on a wall

footing is a critical concept in structural
engineering and construction. It refers to
the situation where the vertical load
applied to a wall is not perfectly centered
over the geometric center of the footing,
but instead, it is offset from the centerline.
This eccentricity creates a moment (a
turning force) in addition to the vertical
load, which can have significant
implications for the design and stability of
the footing.
Eccentric loading causes the

eccentricity between the center of the
column or wall and center of the footing.
Due to this, linear pressure is formed
below the footing. Subsequently there is a
decrease in contact pressure linearly from
toe to heel of the footing. So, design of eccentric footingtakes consideration of maximum
andminimum pressure. When minimum pressure is negative, there is an uplift of footing
slab from the soil due to soil uplift pressure.33
Eccentric loading, depending on the ratio of M* and N*, produces two possible
pressure distributions:
 the entire footing sustains pressure from the subsoil

 only part of the footing sustains the subsoil pressure
In the above discussion, the self-weight of the footing is included in the loading. For
footings with prismatic cross-section, the subsoil pressure due to the self-weight is
uniformly distributed. Also, for an eccentric loading, an asymmetrical footing may be
proportioned to produce a uniformly distributed subsoil pressure.
20
33
Adapted from “What Is Eccentric Footing? All You Need To Know,” by a Guest Author, 2022
(https://gharpedia.com/blog/what-is-eccentric-footing/)
Wall Footing
For the wall footing illustrated in Figures 11.2(4)a and b, the axial load and moment
per unit length of the wall are N*(kN/m) and M*(kNm/m), respectively. The breadth of the
footing (L) may be determined for a unit length (i.e. bw = 1 m) of the wall by imposing two
conditions.34
Condition 1:
The first condition occurs when, under the
self-weight of the footing, the design force
N* (which includes the self-weight of the
wall), the superimposed loads, plus the
design moment M* – the maximum pressure
on the subsoil at point B is
𝑓𝐵 = 𝑞𝑓 Eq. 1
in which 𝑞𝑓 is the allowable soil bearing

capacity35
Condition 2:
The second condition is when there is no uplift at A or
𝑓𝐴 = 0 Eq. 2
Note that for Condition one, we can write
𝑁∗ 𝑀∗
1.2𝜌𝑤 𝐷 + + − 𝑞𝑓 = 0 Eq. 3
𝐿 𝐿2
from which
0.5
𝐿 = (6𝜌 (2.24√(5𝑁 ∗2 − 144𝑀∗ 𝐷 + 120𝑀∗ 𝑞𝑓 ) − 5𝑁 ∗ ) Eq. 4
𝑤 𝐷−5𝑞𝑓 )
where 1.2 is the load factor for self-weight of the footing, 𝜌𝑤 is the unit weight of the footing
and D is the overall depth of the footing.
34
Adapted from Reinforced & Pre-stressed Concrete (p. 260-264), by Y. C. Loo & S. H. Chowdhury, 2010, Cambridge
University Press
35
ibid
21
Wall Footing
For Condition two, we have
𝑁∗ 𝑀∗
1.2𝜌𝑤 𝐷 + + =0 Eq. 5
𝐿 𝐿2
from which
8.3×10−3
𝐿= (2.24√(5𝑁 ∗2 + 144𝑀∗ 𝐷) − 5𝑁 ∗ ) Eq. 6
𝜌𝑤 𝐷
The design L is the larger of the two values from Equations 4 and 6. Note that D is unknown
at this stage of the design process, but it can be computed by considering the shear
strength of the concrete footing. The effective depth for shear consideration (𝑑𝑜 ) may be
estimated using an Equation, which is reproduced below
3 𝐴𝑠𝑡
𝑉𝑢𝑐 = 𝛽1 𝛽2 𝛽3 𝑏𝑤 𝑑𝑜 𝑓𝑐𝑣 √𝑏 Eq. 7
𝑤 𝑑𝑜
Similar to one-way slabs, wall footings may be designed as beams of a unit width.
Considering the limit set in from an Equation we may take
𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝐷 2 𝑓′𝑐𝑡.𝑓
= 0.20 ( 𝑑 ) Eq. 8
𝑏𝑤 𝑑𝑜 𝑓𝑠𝑦
in view of the fact that footing design is governed by shear and that the required bending
steel is usually less than the minimum value specified in AS 3600-2009 (the Standard).
Substituting Equation 8 into Equation 7 leads to 36
3 0.20𝐷2 𝑓′𝑐𝑡.𝑓
𝑉𝑢𝑐 = 𝛽1 𝛽2 𝛽3 𝑏𝑤 𝑑𝑜 𝑓𝑐𝑣 √ Eq. 9
𝑑2 𝑓𝑠𝑦
IV. Inclined Loadings &Wall Footing on Slopes
Inclined loads on a wall footing and wall footings on slopes are related concepts, but
they involve different considerations and challenges in structural engineering and
foundation design. For inclined loads on a wall footing, it introduces an additional
complexity to structural engineering and foundation design. Unlike vertical loads that act
directly downward, inclined loads are forces that act at an angle relative to the vertical axis.
These loads can originate from a variety of sources, including wind forces, sloping terrain,
or structural elements such as beams or columns that are not aligned with the vertical.
36
ibid
22
Wall Footing
Figure 1: Footings with Inclined Loads37
In this scenario, the primary focus is on loads that are applied at an angle relative to
the vertical axis. These loads can result from various sources, such as wind forces, inclined
structural members, or dynamic forces. We must analyze how inclined loads are distributed
across the footing and how they affect the stability and settlement of the foundation.
The focus is on analyzing the structural response to the inclined loads, considering
factors like shear, moment, and deformation. We must design the foundation to withstand
the specific load angles and magnitudes. This may involve using appropriate reinforcement
and bearing capacity calculations. While drainage considerations are important, they may
not be as critical as in wall footings on slopes, as the primary concern is load distribution.
Meanwhile. a wall footing on slopes presents unique challenges and considerations

in the field of civil engineering and construction. Unlike typical wall footings that are installed
on level ground, wall footings on slopes must contend with the added complexity of uneven
terrain. This situation can arise when building on hilly or sloping landscapes, and it requires
special attention to ensure the structural integrity and stability of the wall and its foundation.
37
23
[Footings with Inclined Loads]. (n.d.). [PowerPoint]. Retrieved October 4, 2023. https://slideplayer.com/amp/5691039/
Wall Footing
Figure 1: Foundation Wall on Slopes38

Here, the primary concern is the effect of a sloping terrain on the footing. While there
can be inclined loads as well, the primary consideration is the uneven ground and the need
to support the wall on sloping or uneven surfaces. The primary challenge is dealing with the
varying elevation of the slope. The footing must be designed to adapt to the changing
ground level and provide stability while accommodating the slope's gradient.
Another concern is ensuring that the footing and retaining wall (if applicable) can
resist the forces generated by the sloping terrain, including lateral earth pressure and
potential erosion. Designing footings on slopes requires considerations related to leveling
the foundation, addressing differential settlement, and providing stability against sliding or
overturning due to the sloping terrain. Proper drainage and erosion control are essential to
prevent water accumulation and slope instability. Designing effective drainage systems is a
critical aspect of foundation design in this scenario.
Generally, it’s most economical to place wall footings at a constant elevation. If the
site or finished grade slopes along the length of the wall, however, the footing may end up a
considerable distance below finished grade. This is clearly not economical, as it requires
extra excavation and material. Two other options are therefore preferred: 39
 Slope the footing with the site so its depth below the finished grade is nearly
constant along its length; or
38
[Foundation Wall on Slopes]. (2018). [Animated]. Retrieved October 4, 2023.
https://underconstruction.placemakers.co.nz/foundation-walls-slopes/
39
Adapted from “Sloped vs Stepped Footings,” (2022)
(https://erkrishneelram.wordpress.com/2015/01/17/sloped-vs-stepped-footings/)
24
Wall Footing
 Step the footing so its depth below finished grade is not excessive at any point along
its length.
SLOPED FOOTING
The sloped footing option may seem appealing because of the simple geometry and
apparent ease in formwork construction. It does, however, create the following construction
issues:
 Vertical wall bars above the footing will have different lengths, creating major
challenges in the fabrication plant and on the job site. Two of these—managing the
inventory and placing the bars in their correct locations— can be eased by detailing
the bars with variable lap splice lengths. This will, however, increase the quantity of
vertical reinforcement;
 Horizontal reinforcing bars in the lower portion of the wall will also have different
lengths because they are interrupted by the sloped footing. If constant length
horizontal bars are used at the wall base, they can be fanned out, but this will create
a variable vertical spacing of the reinforcing bars;
 Sloped footings will require trapezoidal formwork. This will require modifications to
standard rectangular formwork;
 A sloped footing could be unstable, particularly on a very steep slope; and
 Concrete placement and finishing could be difficult, and a stiff concrete mixture might
be required to prevent the concrete from flowing downhill, which may lead to
segregation. Alternatively, the top of the form may have to be closed.
Because of these challenges, most engineers and contractors prefer to use stepped
footings instead of sloped footings.40
CONSIDERATIONS FOR STEPPED FOOTINGS
 The top surface of footings shall be level. The bottom surface of footings shall be
permitted to have a slope not exceeding 1 unit vertical in 10 units horizontal (10-
percent slope). Footings shall be stepped where it is necessary to change the
elevation of the top surface of the footing or where the surface of the ground slopes
more than 1 unit vertical in 10 units horizontal (10-percent slope).
40
ibid
25
Wall Footing
 As with any aspect of a design, cost should be considered before a system is

selected. If the slope of the finished grade is less than 2 ft (0.6 m) for a 20 to 30 ft (6
to 9 m) long wall, a lower but constant bottom bearing elevation may be more
economical than a stepped footing. For a very long wall, however, even a 1 ft (0.3 m)
variation in the site elevation may make a stepped footing more economical.
Communication with the contractor during the design phase regarding the number
and length of steps can be very helpful.
 It’s generally more cost effective to minimize the number of steps. This minimizes the
number of wall sections to be detailed and formed. Before deciding on the footing
step locations, however, consider the horizontal distance between them. Distances
should preferably be multiples of available or standard form lengths.
 Before completing a design, it’s a good idea to communicate with area formwork
contractors. The horizontal runs should be dimensioned in 2 or 4 ft (0.6 or 1.2 m)
increments to conform to standard plywood or form system dimensions. Unless the
site slopes drastically, try to keep a minimum horizontal run of 10 ft (3 m) for each
step, if possible.
 Keep the detailing simple. Avoid using Z-shaped bars. Their geometry may make it
necessary to slant the riser out of plane to meet cover requirements for the treads.
The use of sloped or stepped footings depends on site conditions, finished grade
elevations, finished wall slope, and various reinforcing bar placement and construction
issues. Regardless of the footing system selected, the engineer is required to follow the
design requirements of Section 15.9 in ACI 318-08. Section 15.9.1 requires that the
angle of slope or depth and location of steps be such that the design requirements are
satisfied at every section. Additionally, Section 15.9.2 requires footings designed as a
unit to be constructed to ensure they act as a unit.41
In summary, both inclined loads on a wall footing and wall footings on slopes involve
non-standard foundation conditions, the primary difference lies in the nature of the
challenge. Inclined loads focus on load distribution and structural response to off-vertical
forces, while wall footings on slopes deal with adapting to uneven terrain and providing
stability on sloping ground. Both scenarios require careful engineering analysis and
design to ensure the safety and performance of the foundation and the overall structure.
41
ibid
26
Wall Footing
V. Special considerations (Waterproofing & Drainage, Earthquake Resistance

and Expansive Soils)
Waterproofing & Drainage
Figure 1. Footing Drainage42
In most areas, building codes require at least a damp proofing coating for below
grade structures, however, a more durable waterproofing coating is typically not much more
in cost and provides greater protection. Depending on the water table of the construction
site and the potential of water under pressure (hydrostatic pressure) code may require a
waterproofing system with an adequate drainage system to move water away from the
foundation.
The first and perhaps most important line of defense against water intrusion is a
proper drainage system to divert water from foundation walls and the foot of the foundation.
Whether it is simply just aggregate allowing water to drain down instead of being forced into
foundation walls or a more elaborate drainage system, diverting water away from a
43
structure is an integral part of most waterproofing solutions.
42
[Footing Drainage]. (2012). [Animated]. Retrieved October 5, 2023. https://designingyourperfecthouse.com/home-
remodeling/footing-drain
43
Adapted from “Below Grade Waterproofing & Drainage,” by Innovative Waterproofing Solutions, 2019,
(https://www.waterproofingredefined.com/post/foundation-waterproofing-drainage)
27
Wall Footing
Foundation waterproofing is an essential aspect of ensuring the integrity of a building

or structure. It is the process of protecting the substructure, most importantly
the foundation, from water damage by sealing or coating it with waterproof materials.
Without proper foundation waterproofing, a building’s substructure can become weakened
and damaged, leading to costly repairs and even structural failure. 44
Foundations are made of reinforced

concrete, which is not waterproof and
where cracks can easily develop.
Concrete is usually capable of keeping
the water out however, vapor and
moisture can still penetrate. When
designing the foundation waterproofing,
it’s crucial to consider these factors:
 Location
 Topograhy
 Water Table Conditions
 Depth of the Foundation
Figure 1. Foundation Waterproofing (Below-Grade Walls)45
For a country like the Philippines, where it’s wet season for at least half of the year
and often experiences heavy typhoons, installing a foundation waterproofing is always a
smart decision.46
Earthquake Resistance
In foundation design, it is important to evaluate the seismic hazards of the site, which
involve the probability, intensity, and duration of earthquake ground motions. The seismic
hazards depend on the location, distance, and characteristics of the active faults in the
region, as well as the local soil conditions and topography. The seismic hazards can be
44
Adapted from “Complete Guide to Foundation Waterproofing,” by Voltite Waterproofing Solutions, 2023,
(https://voltitews.com/blog/foundation-waterproofing/)
45
[Foundation Waterproofing (Below-Grade Walls)]. (n.d.). [Animated]. Retrieved October 5, 2023.
https://www.resisto.ca/en/guide/foundation-waterproofing-below-grade-walls/
28
46
Adapted from “Complete Guide to Foundation Waterproofing,” by Voltite Waterproofing Solutions, 2023,
Wall Footing
quantified by using seismic maps, codes, and standards that provide parameters such as
the peak ground acceleration, spectral response, and design base shear. The seismic
hazards affect the foundation choice and depth by influencing the seismic forces and
displacements that the foundation and the structure have to withstand and accommodate. 47
Consider the basic recommendations for earthquake-resistant buildings:
 it is necessary to reduce the connections of foundations with the soil – the source of
seismic effects;
 side faces of the foundations in contact with the soils accumulate (contribute to an
increase the value) horizontal seismic effects on the foundation, leading to its
displacement. In this connection, it is advisable leave an air gap to reduce these
effects;
 reducing friction between the base of the foundation and the soils reduces the
transmission of horizontal seismic effects on the foundation and at exceeding of the
friction resistance contributes to the slippage of the seismic wave under the
foundation;
 protection of the foundation by a trench is effective and depends on the depth, size
and location of the trench closer to the building, from wave length, type of
foundation.48
Expansive Soils
Anyone planning to construct foundation for new buildings on expansive soil, some
special considerations should account in design and constriction which are somewhat
different from construction on normal soils. In the preliminary design of a building to be
constructed on expansive soil, the swelling potential should be considered and the
acceptance limit of cracking, may be structural or nonstructural, should be set at this time. 49
47
Adapted from “How do you choose the appropriate foundation type and depth for different soil conditions
and seismic zones?,” n.d., (https://www.linkedin.com/advice/0/how-do-you-choose-appropriate-foundation-
type)
48
Adapted from “Design of Base and Foundation for the Earthquake-Resistant Building,” by E. Barmenkova,
2019, (https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/661/1/012093/pdf)
49
Adapted from “Selection of Foundation and Structural System for Expansive Soil,” by Rajib, 2020, (https://www.civil-
29
engg-world.com/2020/01/07/selection-of-foundation-and-structural-system-for-expansive-soil/footing/)
Wall Footing
Figure 1. Strip Footing
Wall footing should be designed to safely support structural or nonstructural walls

and transmit and distribute the loads to the soil in such a manner that the load-bearing
capacity of the soil is not surpassed. In addition to avoiding excessive settlement and
rotation and maintain sufficient safety against sliding and overturning.
thickness of the foundation wall are specified on the basis of the type of soil at the site and
loading conditions. Reinforcement area and distribution is carried out based on the
requirements of ACI 319-19.50
In order to mitigate the potential for expansive soils, either a soils report shall be
submitted to the Grading Division for review and approval or the building footings shall be
designed in accordance with the following requirements: 51
NEW CONSTRUCTION
1. Depth of footings below the natural and finish grades shall not be less than 24 inches
for exterior and 18 inches for interior footings.
2. Exterior walls and interior bearing walls shall be supported on continuous footings.
3. Footings shall be reinforced with four ½-inch-diameter deformed reinforcing bars.
Two bars shall be placed within 4 inches of the bottom of the footings and two bars
within 4 inches of the top of the footing with a minimum concrete cover per ACI 318,
Section 20.6.1.3.
50
Adapted from “Analysis and Design of RC Wall Footing Based on ACI 318-19,” n.d.,
(https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/analysis-design-wall-footing/38457/)
51
Adapted from “Foundation Design for Expansive Soils,” by the Department of Building and Safety, 2017,
(https://www.ladbs.org/docs/default-source/publications/information-bulletins/building-code/foundation-
design-for-expansive-soils-ib-p-bc2017-116.pdf?sfvrsn=459beb53_20)
30
Wall Footing
4. On-grade concrete floor slabs shall be placed on a 4-inch fill of coarse aggregate or
on a 2-inch sand bed over a moisture barrier membrane. The slabs shall be at least
3 ½ inches thick and shall be reinforced with ½-inch-diameter deformed reinforcing
bars. Reinforcing bars shall be spaced at intervals not exceeding 16 inches each
way.
5. The soil below an interior concrete slab shall be pre-saturated to a depth of 18
inches prior to placing the concrete.
6. All drainage adjacent to footings shall be conducted away from the structure by a
minimum 3-foot-wide apron sloped at no less than 2 percent and draining into an
approved non-erosive device.
7. Allowable foundation and lateral pressures for footing design shall not exceed the
values shown in Table 1806.2. 52
EXISTING FOOTINGS
Existing residential buildings which are being remodeled or added onto may utilize
the existing footings to support the proposed construction in lieu of compliance with the
53
requirements specified above provided the following conditions are met:
1. The total value of the remodeling project, including any additions, must not exceed
50% of the replacement value of the existing building.
2. The project shall be limited to the existing single-family dwellings being enlarged or
remodeled using the existing footings. All new footings must comply with all
requirements contained in this information bulletin.
3. For other than one-story additions, the civil or structural engineer of record shall
prepare a statement to be included on the plans, stating that the engineer has
inspected the supporting soils on the site and is knowledgeable of the soils in the
area. The statement shall also include the following information:
a. The type of soil on the site and the estimated classification of expansiveness.
b. The structural adequacy and condition of existing footings.
4. All drainage adjacent to existing footings shall be conducted away from the
structure.54
52
ibid
31
53
ibid
54
ibid
Wall Footing
WALL FOOTING
FOOTING DESIGN AND SUMMARY
Introduction
thickness of the foundation wall are specified based on the type of soil at the site. The width
of the wall footing is generally 2-3 times the width of the wall. 55
The wall footing can be constructed from stone, brick, plain concrete, or reinforced
concrete. Economical wall footing can be constructed provided that the imposed load
needed to be transmitted are of small magnitude and the underlying soil layer is of dense
sand and gravels. Therefore, wall footing is best suited for small buildings.56
Figure 1 Masonry Wall Footing. Source: The Constructor

What to Design for?
Outputs of Wall Footing Design
Footing Width (B) Footing Thickness (hf) Steel

Reinforcement
Spacing (S) Number of Bars

(N)
Figure 2 Derived Values from Wall Footing Design
55
From "Construction of Wall Footings-Materials, and Dimensions," by M. I. Hamakareem,
(https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/construction-wall-footings/7609/).
56
ibid
32
Wall Footing
Just like in any design processes, two main things are considered, the serviceability and the
economy. Thus, the continuous wall footing is designed to support a structure amidst the
various service loads it carries, primarily, the dead loads and live loads; considerations of
seismic and flood loads are indispensable as footing rely on geotechnical and hydraulic
factors as well.
In the design process, there comes a dilemma in fostering a balance between the
material use and the design strength. Greater load capacity signifies more materials, hence
an addition also to the expenses and a relapse on the additional dead load.
With that comes the necessity to derive the least dimension of the footing and least
area of reinforcement that will cater to the total required strengths. The footing dimensions
derived from the meticulous and cyclic design process are the width and the thickness.
 Footing Width
It is expected for the sake of economy and safety that a strip footing for a
storey building using a 225 mm thick block should have a footing width, B of (3 x
225) = 675 mm and footing depth, D of 225 mm. For a bungalow, using a 150 mm
thick block should have a footing width, B of (3 x 150) = 450 mm, and footing depth,
D of 150 mm.57
The reason for this is the shear plane but this is strictly applicable to soils that
have good bearing capacity (≥75 kNm-2 for bungalows and ≥100 kNm-2 for 2-story
to medium-rise buildings. Figures 3 to 5 show the different shear planes on the
footing of a block wall produced by a 225 mm thick block. Figure 3 shows when B =
3D. Figure 4 shows when B ˂ 3D while Figure 5 shows when B ˃ 3D. 58
Figure 3. Shear plane when B (675)=3D(3x225). Source: Mycivillinks
57
Adapted From "Why Strip Footing Width Should be Three (3) Times its Depth on Firm Soil," by M. Ethelbert,
(https://mycivillinks.com/why-strip-foundation-width-should-be-three-3-times-its-depth-on-firm-soil/).
58
ibid
33
Wall Footing
Figure 4 Shear plane when B (600)<3D(3x225). Source: Mycivillinks
Figure 5 Shear plane when B (675)>3D(3x225). Source: Mycivillinks
Due to the fact that the shear plane of concrete is at 45°, it is very important that Figure 3
should be strictly adopted if one does not intend to reinforce the footing. From Figure 3 we
can see that the shear plane of the block load would not have an effect on the footing as
the area under the shear plane is adequate to resist the shear force. Figure 4 should not be
adopted as it may not be economical. Figure 5 should not be used if one would not
reinforce the footing. Using Figure 5 without reinforcing the footing would cause the footing
to fail in shear due to inadequate area to resist shear force. Even though one may initially
adopt Figure 3, if one does not supervise manual excavation properly, one may get Figures
4 and 5. It is necessary that foundation excavations are properly controlled. Likewise, the
casting of footing concrete should be properly monitored to ensure that the expected
thickness is achieved.59
59
ibid
34
Wall Footing
 Footing Thickness
The footing has to withstand pressure applied by the soil as well. If the
footing’s thickness is inadequate, the footing on either side of the column will bend
due to the soil applying uplift pressure on it. This effect is called ‘Applied bending
moment’. You can see this effect in this FEA result here (refer fig 6). To prevent this
result, the thickness of the plate is increased (refer fig 7).60
Figure 6 Insufficient Footing Thickness. Source: Lesics
Figure 7 Increased Footing Thickness. Source: Lesics
Why is the footing thickness consideredas the most important part in design?
The thickness of a footing in foundation is important because it needs to be
able to withstand the bending and shear forces induced due to the applied loads. The
minimum thickness of the footing should meet the design requirements, but it can
always be increased. Without reinforcement, the thickness of the footing should be at
least as great as the distance it projects next to the wall2. If the footing is too wide and
not thick enough, it will experience a bending force that could crack the concrete.
35
60
From "What are Footings, and why are they Used?," by N. Karande, 2022 (https://www.lesics.com/design-aspects-of-
footing-and-its-types.html).
Wall Footing
 Steel Reinforcement
It’s important to realize that concrete is artificial rock. It’s an extremely
complex topic and entire books and careers have been devoted to just the science of
concrete. But concrete shares something in common with most natural stone. When
mixed and placed correctly, concrete is extremely strong in compression. It can take
thousands of pounds of pressure per square inch to shatter or crack concrete. 61
But concrete only has about one-tenth the amount of strength in tension than
it has when you compress or squeeze it. Tension is a bending force. Put a wood
toothpick in your hands and snap it in half. That’s tension because you’re bending
the wood until it fails. On a microscopic scale, however, one side of the toothpick is
in tension as it’s stretching, but the other side is being compressed. This fact is
important with respect to the placement of reinforcing steel.62
Steel is a magical building material, especially the round reinforcing steel rods
you might discover on a construction site. These steel rods are easy to work with and
they have incredible tensile strength. The average steel bar you’d find on a
construction site might require 40,000 pounds of pulling force before you rip a piece
of it in half.63
Where should the reinforcing steel rods be located in a footing?

The placement of the steel is very important. In a footing, you want the steel in
the lower third or so of the concrete. If the footing fails because of poor soil, it’s going
to want to stretch along the bottom of the footing while the top is being compressed.
Figure 8 Reinforced Concrete Wall Footing
The steel reinforcement is designed usually in terms of the bar spacing and
the number of bars. Spacing simply means the uniform distance between the
61
Adapted From "Reinforcing Steel in Footings," by T. Carter, (https://www.askthebuilder.com/reinforcing-steel-in-
footings/).
36
62
ibid
63
ibid
Wall Footing
reinforcing bars. This value is usually derived for the main bars distributed across the
span of the wall’s length as it is impossible to determine the total number of bars
when the total wall perimeter is not given. On the other hand, for the longitudinal or
transverse bars, both the spacing and the number can be calculated as it is only
distributed along the span of the footing width.
NSCP Provision on Footing Design
37
Wall Footing
64
According to statement in305.2, footings shall be designed to
1.) Minimize differential settlement.
Differential settlement is the term used in structural engineering for a
condition in which a building's support foundation settles in an uneven fashion, often
leading to structural damage. All buildings settle somewhat in the years following
construction, and this natural phenomenon generally causes no problems if the
settling is uniform across the building's foundation, or all of its pier supports. But
when one section of the foundation settles at a faster rate than the others, it can lead
to major structural damage to the building itself. 65
Uneven foundation settling—differential settlement—is best prevented by

careful analysis of the soil before a building foundation is constructed. The best soils
for building foundations are nonexpansive—meaning that they contain little clay or
silt content. Ideally, the building site will be native soil rather than a site artificially
filled with outside soil.66
Figure 9 The Leaning Tower of Pisa.

Source: Alexander Hassenstein/DigitalVision/Getty Images
2.) Minimize effects of expansive soils

Expansive soil or swelling soil are those soil that has the tendency to
increase in volume when water is available and decrease in volume if the water is
removed. The characteristic feature of swelling and shrinkage of the soil with respect
to water is due to the presence of a clay mineral montmorillonite. Among all the clay
64
From National Building Code of the Philippines (2015 Edition) by Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines,
Inc..2015, Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines.
65
From "Differential Settlement: Uneven Settling of a Building's Foundation," by J. Rodriguez, 2019
(https://www.liveabout.com/differential-settlements-
844692#:~:text=Uneven%20foundation%20settling%E2%80%94differential%20settlement%E2%80%94is%20best%20pr
evented%20by%20careful,that%20they%20contain%20little%20clay%20or%20silt%20content.).
66
ibid
38
Wall Footing
minerals, montmorillonite has the largest specific surface. Due to the chemical
properties and the structure of the mineral, a large amount of water and other
exchangeable ions can easily enter between the layers causing the layers to be
separated. Because of the affinity for water, clay soil containing montmorillonite
minerals are susceptible to substantial volume change.67
Before designing foundation on expansive soil, we should follow certain
recommendations. This are-
o The safe bearing capacity value should not exceed 50 kN/.
o Minimum depth of foundation should be 2 m.
o The bottom of the foundation trench should be filled with sand or murrum or
broken stones. Sand filling on sides of trench is also recommended.
o Reinforced concrete bands should be used at the foundation, plinth and lintel
levels.
General Background for Design Method
For this procedure, we will adopt the generic NSCP design process anchored on the
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method.
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) is similar to plastic design in that
strength, or the failure condition is considered. Load factors are applied to the service
loads, and a member is selected that will have enough strength to resist the factored loads.
In addition, the theoretical strength of the member is reduced by the application of a
resistance factor.68
The governing principle is
o Factored Load ≤ Factored Strength
o (load x load factors) ≤ resistance x resistance factor
Specifically, NSCP provides the following specifications for design strength.69
67
Adapted From "Foundation in Expansive Soil," by K. Singh, (https://www.engineeringcivil.com/foundation-in-
expansive-soil.html).
68
From Steel Design (Fifth Edition) by W. Segui. 2013, Global Engineering: Christopher M Shortt.
39
69
Wall Footing
General Wall Footing Design Process (NSCP 2015, LRFD Method)

1.) Assume footing thickness.
2.) Solve for effective depth (d).
3.) Solve for footing width (B) with regard to soil bearing capacity.
4.) Solve for ultimate/factored load (Pu).
5.) Solve for ultimate strength/soil pressure (q u).
6.) Check safety for shear and derive “d” value according to checking.
7.) Compare initial/assumed dimension to required dimension. Adjust if necessary.
8.) Design of reinforcing bars
8.1.) Check safety for moment
8.2.) Steel ratio (p)
8.3.) Steel area (As)
8.4.) Spacing (S) of main bars
8.5.) Number (N) of shrinkage/temperature bar
In computing the footing thickness, considerations should be made on the minimum
footing thickness and the concrete cover. Footing thickness must cater to a concrete cover
of 75mm as stipulated in the NSCP 2015. The footing thickness varies per floor but the
minimum is 200 mm. 70
70
ibid
40
Wall Footing
Minimum effective
depth is 150 mm.
Wall footing is
permanently in contact
with ground. Thus, cc is
75 mm.
41
Wall Footing
From this, the formula for the effective depth is

d = hf -(bar diameter/2)-75 mm
42
Wall Footing
3.) Solve for footing width (B) with regard to soil bearing capacity.
The bearing capacity of your soil will help you determine if you need a shallow
foundation or deep foundation. Soil strength directly under the footing, where loads are
concentrated, is crucial to foundation performance.71
The design strength specification from NSCP provision 414.5.1.1 states
Φ Bn ≥ Bu72
This means that the design bearing strength on the left side of the equation should
be greater than the factored bearing load which is derived from the weight of footing, soil,
and service loads acting on the structure. In other term,
Maximum bearing ≥ soil bearing capacity
Thus,
Wfooting+W soil+ [P/(Bx1m)] ≤ Soil Bearing Capacity
From this checking process, the unknown, B or footing width can be solved.

The NSCP provided a list of load combinations.
71
Adapted From "Bearing Capacity of Soil-Why Soils Matter," by B. Anderson, 2020
(https://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/footing_fundamentals/why_soils_matter.htm).
43
72
Wall Footing
In the case that only the dead load and live load are the only service loads considered, the
second combination governs and controls as long as D is less than 8 times the L. 73
As such, it is usually the case that we use the following formula in solving the
factored loads.
Pu = 1.2D + 1.6L
5.) Solve for ultimate strength/soil pressure (q u).

Using the formula for stress, Force/Area,
qu= Pu/ A;
A = B x 1m; considering 1m strip of the wall footing
73
From Steel Design (Fifth Edition) by W. Segui. 2013, Global Engineering: Christopher M Shortt.
44
Wall Footing
Per ACI 318, two separate shear checks are required:
 One check recognizes that the footing may fail in shear as a wide beam along a
critical section at a distance d from the column face in each direction. This is called
“beam shear” or “one-way shear” as it resembles the shear check in a concrete
beam.
 The second check considers that the column may penetrate, or punch, the footing.
This is called “punching shear” or “two-way shear” and occurs not along a straight
plane, but along a 3D plane at a distance d/2 all around the column, being “d” the
effective depth of the rebars from the extreme compression fiber.
The two checks include the calculation of the concrete shear strength, the calculation
of the shear acting at the critical plane described above, and then the comparison of both.
Usually the shear strength is provided by the concrete only, otherwise a special and
expensive shear reinforcement would be necessary. The footing thickness could be
affected by the controlling shear ratio. The figure below shows schematically the critical
sections for shear. 74
Figure 10 Critical Section for Shear. Source: ASDIP
In order for the wall footing to be safe in shear, the following formula for checking
muts be used.
𝑉𝑢 1
= Φ √𝑓′𝑐
𝐴𝑢 6
Where,
𝑉𝑢 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑚
𝐴𝑢 = 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
In this formula, the dimension, d, critical shear distance from the face of support will
be solved.
45
74
From "Footing Design: How to Check the Shear Capacity per ACI 318," by J. Encinas,
2021(https://www.asdipsoft.com/footing-design-how-to-check-shear-capacity-per-aci-318/).
Wall Footing
7.) Compare initial/assumed dimension to required dimension. Adjust if necessary.

Upon getting the value of d from the safety checking of shear, it needs to be
compared with the d value derived from the assumed thickness. The following should be
satisifed.
dshear ≤ dassumed
Otherwise, the dimesion gap must be added to the initial thickness (h f) and the
method from the first steps will be redone, now with the increased hf value.
When the thickness hf and the effective depth d already satisfy the bearing and shear
requirements, then the reinforcement design can already be derived for the wall footing.
46
Figure 11 Typical Wall Footing Reinforcement. Source: Structure Point
Wall Footing

Overturning moments are those applied moments, shears, and uplift forces that seek
to cause the footing to become unstable and turn over. Resisting moments are those
moments that resist overturning and seek to stabilize the footing. These overturning checks
are performed for overturning about each edge of the footing. This is important for footings
with eccentric pedestals where the vertical loads will have different stabilizing effects for
each face.75
The NSCP stipulated that the critical section for moment is calculated from the face
of the wall hence, L distance to the edge of the footing.76
Thus, the illustration becomes
75
From "Footing Stability and Overturning Calculations,"
(https://risa.com/risahelp/risafoundation/Content/3D_2D_Only_Topics/Footing%20Stability%20and%20Overturning.ht
m).
47
76
Wall Footing
From this, the simplified equation for moment

𝑀𝑢 ≤ ∅𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓′𝑐𝑤(1 − 0.59𝑤)
For safety, the greater

value of 0.90 shall be
used reduction factor to
be used.
The ultimate moment calculated for distance L from the critical section is calculated
as
𝑞𝑢 𝐿2
𝑀𝑢 =
2
Thus, the value of w can already be solved.

The steel ratio p can be calculated from the derived value of w from the previous
step.
𝑤𝑓′𝑐
𝑝=
𝑓𝑦
After calculating the p value, it will be checked according to the minimum value, the
maximum value is usually not tackled because most of the times, the p value is far less
than the maximum. The minimum value is the greater of the `two proceeding equations
√𝑓′𝑐 1.4
𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑛 = and𝑝min = 𝑓
4𝑓𝑦 𝑦
Therefore,
pmin≤ p ≤ pmax
48
Wall Footing

Solving for the steel area, the following formula is to be used
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑝𝐴𝑔
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑝𝑏𝑑
Minimum steel area of typical steel is calculated as follows:
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.002𝐴𝑔
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.002𝑏ℎ𝑓
The calculated steel area must exceed the minimum.

The spacing is derived by first dividing the solved steel area by the area of the cross
section of the reinforcing bar to get the pieces of bars needed for 1 meter strip. Thus,
𝐴𝑠
𝑁= ;
𝐴𝑏
𝜋
𝐴𝑏 = (𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)2
4
After which, the S value can be calculated using the following formula.
1000
𝑆= ; the 1000 corresponds to the 1000 mm length of strip
𝑁
It is to be noted that the safer spacing for the main bars is the lesser value.
Therefore, in rounding spacing value, it is recommended to round it down.

The shrinkage and temperature bars which in this case are considered longitudinal
bars are also important features of wall footing. They serve the purpose of providing
additional support for volume changes due to temperature changes. Also, they help in
stabilization as they form structural mat for the rest of thereinforcements.
49
Wall Footing
To solve this, the following formula will be utilized:

𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 0.002𝐴𝑔
𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 0.002𝐵ℎ𝑓
Then, the same formula as the ones for main bars number will be applied. Therefore,
𝐴𝑆𝑇
𝑁=
𝐴𝑏
It is to be noted that because the value derived in the process corresponds to the
number of bars, the value should be rounded up to the nearest whole number.
50
Wall Footing
Sample Problem #177
Design the width, thickness, and reinforcement for a footing supporting a load
bearing wall with a total dead load of 100kN/m and live load of 150kN/m. f’c = 24
MPa, fy = 350 MPa, γconcrete = 23.54 kN/m3, γsoil = 18.5 KN/m3. Allowable Soil
Bearng Capacity is 180 kPa. Depth of footing base from soil surface is 1.3 m. Use
16 mm ⌀bars for flexure and 10 mm ⌀ bars for temperature and shrinkage (fy(TS) =
275). Wall thickness is 200 mm.
Given:
D = 100kN/m
L = 150 kN/m
f’c = 24 MPa
fy = 350 MPa
γconcrete = 23.54 kN/m3
γsoil = 18.5 KN/m3
Allowable Soil Bearing Capacity = 180 kPa
Footing Depth = 1.3 m
Bars for flexure = 16 mm ⌀
Bars for temperature and shrinkage = 10 mm ⌀
fy(TS) = 275
Wall thickness = 200 mm
Solution:
51
77
From “Reinforced Concrete Design - Part 12: Design of Wall Footing,” by PRC Review Center by Engr. Perfecto Padilla,
2021 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iSL0Y1i-_aE).
Wall Footing

𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
ℎ𝑓 = 150 + + 𝑐𝑐
2
16
ℎ𝑓 = 150 + + 75
2
ℎ𝑓 = 233 𝑚𝑚
ℎ𝑓 ≈ 250 𝑚𝑚; initial footing thickness. Subject for checking

𝑑 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝑐𝑐 − 2
16
𝑑 = 250 − 75 − 2
𝑑 = 167 𝑚𝑚
3.) Solve for footing width with regard to soil bearing capacity.
𝑊𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = γ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 ℎ𝑓 = 23.54 (0.25) = 5.885 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = γ𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑠 = 18.5 (1.3 − 0.25) = 19.425 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

In order to be safe in bearing,
max 𝜎𝐵 ≤ 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐷+𝐿
𝑊𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝐵𝑥1 ≤ 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
100+150
5.885 + 19.425 + ≤ 180
𝐵𝑥1
250
5.885 + 19.425 + 𝐵𝑥1 ≤ 180
B ≈ 1.616 𝑚 ≈ 1.625 𝑚 ; rounded to the 0.025th

𝑃𝑢 = 1.2𝐷 + 1.6𝐿
𝑃𝑢 = 1.2(100) + 1.6(150)
𝑃𝑢 = 360 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
5.) Solve for ultimate strength/soil pressure (qu).

𝑃
𝑞𝑢 = 1 𝑥𝑢𝐵
52
Wall Footing
360
𝑞𝑢 = 1 𝑥 1.625
𝑞𝑢 = 221. 54 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Thus, the figure becomes
The critical section for shear from the face of support is the distance “d” in the figure
below.
𝐵−𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 1.625−0.2

= = 0.7125𝑚
2 2
𝑉𝑢 1
≤ ∅ 6 √𝑓′𝑐
𝐴𝑢
𝑞𝑢 (0.7125−𝑑) 1
≤ ∅ 6 √𝑓′𝑐
𝑑𝑥1
221.54(0.7125−𝑑) 1
≤ 0.75 6 √24𝑥106
𝑑𝑥1
Solving for d,
53
𝑑 = 0.189 𝑚
Wall Footing
7.) Compare initial/assumed dimension to required dimension. Adjust if

necessary.
The value of d derived from the assumed thickness = 167 mm
The value of d solved from shear safety check = 189 mm
Because the latter is bigger than the former, then the assumption must be revised.
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 189 − 167 = 22 𝑚𝑚 ≈ 25 𝑚𝑚; rounded
to 25 mm for safer assumption
Redoing the solution,
ℎ𝑓 + 25 𝑚𝑚 = 250 + 25 = 275 𝑚𝑚
Thus,
𝑑 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝑐𝑐 − 2
16
𝑑 = 275 − 75 − 2
𝑑 = 192 𝑚𝑚
𝑊𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = γ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 ℎ𝑓 = 23.54 (0.275) = 6.4735 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = γ𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑠 = 18.5 (1.3 − 0.275) = 18.9625 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

In order to be safe in bearing,
max 𝜎𝐵 ≤ 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐷+𝐿
𝑊𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝐵𝑥1 ≤ 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
100+150
6.4735 + 18.9625 + ≤ 180
𝐵𝑥1
250
6.4735 + 18.9625 + 𝐵𝑥1 ≤ 180
B ≈ 1.617 𝑚 ≈ 1.625 𝑚 ; rounded to the 0.025th
𝑉
Note that there are no changes in 𝑃𝑢 and 𝐴𝑢 due to the same approximate value of B.
𝑢
Therefore, the final footing thickness hf=275 mm and the final footing width (B) = 1.625 m
54
Wall Footing

To be safe in flexure,
𝑀𝑢 ≤ ∅𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 𝑤(1 − 0.59𝑤)
𝑞𝑢 𝐿2
≤ ∅𝑏𝑑 2 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 𝑤(1 − 0.59𝑤)
2
221.54(0.7125)2
𝑥106 ≤ 0.90(1000)(192)2 (24)𝑤(1 − 0.59𝑤)
2
Solving for w,
𝑤 = 0.07384

𝑤𝑓′𝑐
𝑝= 𝑓𝑦
0.07384(24)
𝑝= 350
𝑝 = 5.0633𝑥10−3
Solving for pmin,
1.4 1.4
= 350 = 4𝑥10−3 ; This is chosen because this is the greater value
𝑓𝑦
√𝑓′𝑐 √24
= 4(350) = 3.5𝑥10−3
4𝑓𝑦
Because the computed p value is greater than the minimum value, final steel ratio p
is 5.0633𝑥10−3 .
55
Wall Footing

𝐴𝑠 = 𝑝𝑏𝑑
𝐴𝑠 = 3.5𝑥10−3 (1000)(192)
𝐴𝑠 = 972.15 𝑚𝑚2
Checking for Amax,
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.002𝐴𝑔
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.002(1000)ℎ𝑓
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.002(275)(1000)
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 550 𝑚𝑚2
Because the value As is greater Amin, the final As is 972.15 𝑚𝑚2

𝐴𝑠 972.15
𝑁= =𝜋 = 4.835
𝐴𝑏 (16)2
4
1000 1000
𝑆= = 4.835 = 206.825 𝑚𝑚
𝑁
Thus, we can say S = 200 mm for the 16 mm diameter bar.
𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 0.002𝐴𝑔
𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 0.002𝐵ℎ𝑓
𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 0.002(1625)(275)
𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 893.75 𝑚𝑚2
56
Wall Footing
To solve for the number of bars,

𝐴𝑆𝑇 893.75
𝑁= = 𝜋(10)2 = 11. 389 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑏
4
Rounding to the nearest whole number, the number of 10 mm diameter

temperature and shrinkage bar is 12.
Review Exercise #1: (from Mega Review Center Problem)
A 300 mm concrete wall supports a dead load of 250 kN/m and a live load of
150 kN/m. The allowable soil bearing pressure is 200 kPa. There is a 0.60 m soil at
the top of the footing with unit weight of 16 kN/m³. Assume concrete weighs 24
kN/m³. The total depth of the wall footing is 400 mm with 100 mm steel cover. Use
fc' = 21MPa for concrete and fy = 415MPa for all steel bars.
1. Determine the width of the footing. 2. Solve for the nominal shear stress
acting on the footing.
2. Determine the spacing of 20 mm main reinforcements.
3. Determine the number of 12 mm temperature reinforcements.
57
Wall Footing
78
FOOTING DESIGN ACCORDING TO AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE (ACI)
Introduction
The foundation is an essential
building system that transfers column and
wall forces to the supporting soil.
Depending on the soil properties and
building loads, the engineer may choose
to support the structure on a shallow or
deep foundation system. ACI 318-14
provides design and detailing provisions
for shallow foundations.
Strip/Continuous footings that support walls

Footing Design
Footing design typically consists of four steps:
1. Determine the necessary soils parameters. This step is often completed by
consulting with a geotechnical engineer who furnishes information in a geotechnical
report. Important information that a geotechnical report should include are the:
a) Subsurface profile, which provides physical characteristics of soil, groundwater,
rock, and other soil elements
b) Shear strength parameters to determine the stability of sloped soil
c) Frost depth to determine the bearing level of footing below frost penetration leve
d) Unit weights, which is the weight of soil and water per unit volume, used to
determine the additional load on a footing/structure when backfilled
e) Bearing capacity, which is the maximum allowable pressure that a footing is
permitted to exert on the supporting soil; the size of the footing is based on
allowable loads
f) Predicted settlement, which is the anticipated vertical movement of a footing over
time
g) Liquefaction, which is an important soil characteristic if the building is located in
an active seismic area.
2. Analyze the building’s structure under service loads (ACI 318-14, Section R13.2.6.1)
and factored loads (ACI 318-14, Section 5.3.1) to calculate moments and forces on
the columns and walls at the footing level; the service load analysis is used to
calculate footing bearing areas and the factored load analysis to design the footing.
3. Select the footing geometry so that the soil parameters are not exceeded. The
following are typical parameters:
a) Calculated bearing pressures are assumed to be uniform or to vary linearly;
bearing pressure is measured in units of force per unit area, such as pounds per
square foot
78
The Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook: A Companion of ACI 318-14. (2015) ACI SP-17(14) Volume 1;
9th Ed. A Companion of ACI 318-14. American Concrete Institute - www.concrete.org
58
Wall Footing
b) The effect of anticipated differential vertical settlement between adjacent footings

on the superstructure are considered
c) Footings need to be able to resist sliding caused by any horizontal loads
d) Shallow footings, assumed not to be able to resist tension , should be able to
resist overturning moments from compression reactions only; overturning
moments are commonly caused by horizontal loads
4. Design and detail the footing in accordance with ACI 318-14, Chapter 13. During
this step, the previously selected geometry is checked against strength requirements
of the reinforced concrete sections. The step-by-step structural design process for
concentrically loaded isolated footings follows:
Design Steps:
1. Find service dead and live column loads: ACI 318-14, Section R13.2.6
The footing geometry is selected using service loads.
D = service dead load from column
L = service live load from column
P=D+L
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑃⁄𝑞𝑎𝑙𝑙
For square footings, 𝑙 ≥ √𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑞
For rectangular footings, choose one of the sides from site constraints and calculate
the other such that: 𝑏 × 𝑙 ≥•√𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑞
2. Calculate the design (factored) column load U: ACI 318-14, Section 5.3.1
3. Obtain allowable soil pressure 𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 . Because soil and concrete unit weights are close
(120 and 150 pcf, respectively), the footing self-weight may initially be ignored.
4. Calculate the soil pressure based on initial footing base dimensions:
Square footing: 𝑞𝑢 = 𝑈⁄𝑙 2
Rectangular footing: 𝑞𝑢 = 𝑈⁄𝑙𝑏
5. Check one-way (beam) shear:
The critical section for one-way shear

extends across the width of the footing and is
located at a distance d from the face of a
column or wall, ACI 318-14, Section 8.4.3.2.
The shear is calculated assuming the footing
is cantilevered away from the column or wall
ACI 318-14, Section 8.5.3.1.1.
For masonry walls the area is halfway
between the wall center and the face of the
masonry wall.
NOTE: if the calculated one-way factored shear
exceeds the one-way shear design strength, then
increase the footing thickness. Footings are
typically not designed with shear reinforcement.
59
Wall Footing
6. Calculate the shear critical section, located at a distance of d/2 outside the loaded
area (ACI 318-14, Section 13.2.7.2)
7. Compare Vu to øVn, (ACI 318-14, Section 22.6.5.2).
Note: If the design shear stress is less than factored shear stress, then increase
footing thickness and repeat stress.
8. Design and detail the footing reinforcement. For rectangular footings the reinforcing
must be designed and detailed in each direction. The critical section for moment
extends across the width of the footing at the face of the column. ACI 318-14,
Sections 13.2.6.4 and 13.2.7.1.
(a) Calculate projection, x, from the column face: x=l/2 –c/2, where c is the
dimension perpendicular to the critical section in each direction.
(b) Calculate total factored moment, Mu, at the critical section
(c) Calculate required As. ACI 318-14, Sections 13.3.2.1 and 7.6.1.1, specify a
minimum flexural reinforcement must be met, and 7.7.2.3 specifies a maximum
bar spacing of 18 in.
9. Check the bearing strength of the footing concrete: ACI 318-14, Section 22.8.3.2
10. Calculate the required reinforcement area and choose bar size and number.
11. Choose bar size and spacing:
For rectangular footings, As must be furnished in each direction. Bars in long
direction should be uniformly spaced. Bars in the short direction should be
distributed as follows (ACI 318-14, Section 13.3.3.3):
(i) In a band of width Bs centered on column:
2
#bars in Bs = 𝑙
+1
𝑏
(total # of bars) (round up to an integer)
(ii) Remaining bars should be uniformly spaced in outer portions of footing
(outside the center band width of footing). The remaining bars should satisfy
the minimum reinforcement requirements of ACI 318-14, Section 9.6.1 (refer
to Fig. 11.3.1f).
60
Wall Footing
Sample Problem #2
Design and detail of a continuous footing, founded on stiff soil, supporting a

12 in. concrete wall. The footing is located in Seismic Category D and is 3 ft-0 in.
below finished grade. Exposure to freezing and thawing is not an issue.
61
Wall Footing
62
Wall Footing
63
Wall Footing
64
Wall Footing
65
Wall Footing
66
Wall Footing
Sample Problem #3. (YouTube Vid: The Art of Structure 3 – Tawfik Kettanah)
Design RC Wall footing for the given conditions:

t=20”, DL=26k/ft, LL=20k/ft, bottom of the footing is at 6ft from the grade. fc’=4ksi,
fy=60ksi,bearing capacity 𝑞𝑎 =5k/𝑓𝑡 2 (ksf).
67
Wall Footing
68
Wall Footing
69
Wall Footing
70
Wall Footing
Review Exercise #2 (from Simplified Reinforced Concrete Design: Gillesania) 79
Determine the required width and steel reinforcements of the wall footing
shown. Check also the adequacy of the footing thickness. Use 25mm-diameter main
bars abd 16mm-diameter temperature bars with fy=275MPa. Concrete strength is
25MPa. Use NSCP 2015.
Review Exercise #3 (from Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook)
Design and detail a continuous footing, founded on stiff soil, supporting a 12 in. thick
bearing wall, founded on stiff soil, and subject to loading that includes an overturning
moment. The bottom of the footing is 3ft below finished grade.
79
DIT Gillesania (2013), Simplified Reinforced Concrete Design: 2010 NSCP, Cebu DG Print, Inc. – ISBN 971-
8614-48-8
71
Wall Footing
References
 Footing Design and Summary
Anderson, B. (2020, June 30). Bearing Capacity of Soil-Why Soils Matter. Retrieved October 12, 2023, from
concretenetwork.com:
https://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/footing_fundamentals/why_soils_matter.htm
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, I. (2015). National Structural Code of the Philippines.
Quezon City: Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc.
Carter, T. (n.d.). Ask the Builder. Retrieved October 12, 2023, from askthebuilder.com:
https://www.askthebuilder.com/reinforcing-steel-in-footings/
Encinas, J. (2021, June 15). Footing Design: How to Check the Shear Capacity per ACI 318. Retrieved October
12, 2023, from asdipsoft.com: https://www.asdipsoft.com/footing-design-how-to-check-shear-
capacity-per-aci-318/
Ethelbert, M. (n.d.). Why Strip Footing Width Should be Three (3) times its Depth on Firm Soil. Retrieved
October 12, 2023, from mycivillinks.com: https://mycivillinks.com/why-strip-foundation-width-
should-be-three-3-times-its-depth-on-firm-soil/
Footing Stability and Overturning Calculations. (n.d.). Retrieved October 12, 2023, from risa.com:
https://risa.com/risahelp/risafoundation/Content/3D_2D_Only_Topics/Footing%20Stability%20and%
20Overturning.htm
Hamakareem, M. I. (n.d.). Construction of Wall Footings-Materials, and Dimensions. Retrieved October 12,
2023, from the constructor.org: https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/construction-wall-
footings/7609/
Karande, N. (2022, April 20). Lesics. Retrieved from lesics.cm: https://www.lesics.com/design-aspects-of-

footing-and-its-types.html
Padilla, P. (2021). Reinforced Concrete Design - Part 12: Design of Wall Footing. Retrieved October 12, 2023,
from youtube.com: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iSL0Y1i-_aE
Rodriguez, J. (2019, April 23). Differential Settlement: Uneven Settling of a Building's Foundation. Retrieved
from liveabout.com: https://www.liveabout.com/differential-settlements-
844692#:~:text=Uneven%20foundation%20settling%E2%80%94differential%20settlement%E2%80%
94is%20best%20prevented%20by%20careful,that%20they%20contain%20little%20clay%20or%20silt
%20content.
Segui, W. T. (2013). Steel design Fifth Edition. Stamford: Global Engineering:Christopher M. Shortt.
Singh, K. (n.d.). Foundation in Expansive Soil. Retrieved from engineeringcivil.com:

https://www.engineeringcivil.com/foundation-in-expansive-soil.html
The Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook: A Companion of ACI 318-14. (2015) ACI SP-17(14) Volume 1; 9th
Ed. A Companion of ACI 318-14. American Concrete Institute - www.concrete.org
DIT Gillesania (2013), Simplified Reinforced Concrete Design: 2010 NSCP, Cebu DG Print, Inc. – ISBN 971-
8614-48-8
72
Wall Footing
 Soil Properties and Behavior

1.Douglas Partners (2022). The answer is in the soil: The importance of testing and analysing soil
properties. Douglas Partners Pty Ltd. https://www.douglaspartners.com.au/news/soil-testing
2.Falconlaboratory (n.d.). Why Is Soil Testing Important For
Construction? PowerShow.com.https://www.powershow.com/view0/94d6d0-
OTVjZ/Why_Is_Soil_Testing_Important_For_Construction_powerpoint_ppt_presentation
3. Sadanandam, A. (n.d.). How to test Soil for building construction. The Constructor.
https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/types-of-soil-tests-construction/12679/
4.Hamakareem, M. I. (n.d.). Construction of Wall Footings-Materials, and Dimension. The
Constructor. https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/construction-wall-
footings/7609/#:~:text=The%20wall%20footing%20can%20be,of%20dense%20sand%20and%20gravels.
5. Anderson, B. (2020). BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL - WHY SOILS MATTER. ConcreteNetwork.com.
https://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/footing_fundamentals/why_soils_matter.htm
6. R.C.C. Structures - I (pp. 47-48). https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/31044/1/Unit-
16.pdf
7.Lees, A. (2021). Bearing Capacity of Soil - Types and Calculations. Tensar.
https://www.tensar.co.uk/resources/articles/what-is-the-bearing-capacity-of-soil
8. Duncan, J.M., and Chang, C.Y. (1970) “Nonlinear Analysis of Stress and Strain in Soils.” Journal of
the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, American Society of Civil Engineers.
9.Warrington, D. C. (2015). Soils in Construction (5th ed.). Waveland Press, Inc.
10. Differential Settlement in Buildings (2015), C. Doug Day.
https://vertexeng.com/insights/differential-settlement-in-buildings/
11. Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis Professional (2024), “Position of a Force Resultant (Upift,
Contact Area)” https://help.autodesk.com/view/RSAPRO/2024/ENU/?guid=GUID-87365592-5BAB-438F-
9F5F-6CF153028583
12. From Cadbull, “Uplift wall footings and constructive structure drawing details dwg file
“https://cadbull.com/detail/85588/Uplift-wall-footings-and-constructive-structure-drawing-details-dwg-file”.
13.Writer’s Structures Insider (2020), “Definition of Uplift Pressures in Structures – pressures-in-soil-
mechanics#:~:text=An%20uplift%20pressure%20is%20any,pressures%20present%20around%20the%20struc
ture.
 Background of Wall Footing
Wall Footing. (2023, August 29). Wikipedia. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_footing
Hamakareem, M. I. (2019, June 8). Construction of Wall Footings – Materials, and
Dimensions. The Constructor. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://theconstructor.org/structural-
engg/construction-wall-footings/760
Engineering, S. (2022, July 27). What Are Footings in Construction? - Stronghold Engineering.
Stronghold Engineering. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from https://www.strongholdengineering.com/what-
are-footings-in-construction
Staalgoed Handel B.V. (n.d.). Retrieved October 17, 2023, from

https://www.betonstaal.nl/en/knowledge-centre/strip-footing-what-is-
it/#:~:text=A%20strip%20footing%20is%20a,are%20made%20of%20reinforced%20concrete
73
Wall Footing
Mishra, G. (2017, September 27). Combined Footing Design With Example and Types of Combined
Footing. The Constructor. Retrieved October 17, 2023, from
https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/foundations/combined-footing-design-with-example/8/?amp=1
Hamakareem, M. (2019), Construction of Wall Footings – Materials and Dimensions.
ViyaCons, (2020), Strip Foundation/Strip Footing.
Lian S.,(2018), Behind The Wall: The Essential Guide To Retaining Wall Standards And Best Practices
 Loadings and Other Considerations
Theory and Practice of Foundation Design (171), N.N. Som and S.C. Das. 2006.
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-95) and Commentary (ACI 318R-95), by
the American Concrete Institute.
(https://myyardimci.weebly.com/uploads/1/6/3/4/16347790/building_design_code_english.pdf)
National Building Code of the Philippines. 1977
Theory and Practice of Foundation Design (171), N.N. Som and S.C. Das. 2006
“Concrete Footings – Building Footings for Foundations & more”, by Brent Anderson, 2020
(https://www.concretenetwork.com/concrete/footing_fundamentals/footing_dimensions.htm)
“Construction of Wall Footings – Materials, and Dimensions”, by The Constructor, 2009

(https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/construction-wall-
footings/7609/#:~:text=The%20size%20of%20the%20footing,plain%20concrete%2C%20or%20reinforced%20concrete.)
Foundation Design, by A. Hodgkinson. 1986, Architectural Press Ltd.
“What Is Eccentric Footing? All You Need To Know,” by a Guest Author, 2022
(https://gharpedia.com/blog/what-is-eccentric-footing/)
Reinforced & Pre-stressed Concrete (p. 260-264), by Y. C. Loo & S. H. Chowdhury, 2010, Cambridge University
Press
[Footings with Inclined Loads]. (n.d.). [PowerPoint]. Retrieved October 4, 2023.

https://slideplayer.com/amp/5691039/
[Foundation Wall on Slopes]. (2018). [Animated]. Retrieved October 4, 2023.

https://underconstruction.placemakers.co.nz/foundation-walls-slopes/
“Sloped vs Stepped Footings,” (2022) (https://erkrishneelram.wordpress.com/2015/01/17/sloped-

vs-stepped-footings/)
[Footing Drainage]. (2012). [Animated]. Retrieved October 5, 2023.

https://designingyourperfecthouse.com/home-remodeling/footing-drain
“Below Grade Waterproofing & Drainage,” by Innovative Waterproofing Solutions, 2019,

(https://www.waterproofingredefined.com/post/foundation-waterproofing-drainage)
“Complete Guide to Foundation Waterproofing,” by Voltite Waterproofing Solutions, 2023,

74
Wall Footing
[Foundation Waterproofing (Below-Grade Walls)]. (n.d.). [Animated]. Retrieved October 5, 2023.

https://www.resisto.ca/en/guide/foundation-waterproofing-below-grade-walls/
“Complete Guide to Foundation Waterproofing,” by Voltite Waterproofing Solutions, 2023,
“How do you choose the appropriate foundation type and depth for different soil conditions and
seismic zones?,” n.d., (https://www.linkedin.com/advice/0/how-do-you-choose-appropriate-foundation-
type)
“Design of Base and Foundation for the Earthquake-Resistant Building,” by E. Barmenkova, 2019,
(https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/661/1/012093/pdf)
“Selection of Foundation and Structural System for Expansive Soil,” by Rajib, 2020, ( https://www.civil-engg-
world.com/2020/01/07/selection-of-foundation-and-structural-system-for-expansive-soil/footing/)
“Analysis and Design of RC Wall Footing Based on ACI 318-19,” n.d.,

(https://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/analysis-design-wall-footing/38457/)
“Foundation Design for Expansive Soils,” by the Department of Building and Safety, 2017,
(https://www.ladbs.org/docs/default-source/publications/information-bulletins/building-code/foundation-
design-for-expansive-soils-ib-p-bc2017-116.pdf?sfvrsn=459beb53_20)
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Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

SCE 102: Professional Course 2 -

Adongay, Kalilah Marie M.

Engr. Ric L. Gonzaga, MCE

1. BACKGROUND OF WALL FOOTING

2. SOIL PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOR

3. LOADINGS AND OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

4. WALL FOOTING DESIGN AND SUMMARY

Background of Wall Footing

1.2 Common Types of Footing

2. Strip Footing: This type of footing is used when

3. Combined Footing: When two or more columns

Combined footings are provided only when it is absolute necessary, as: 5

4. Mat (Raft) Foundation: This is a large, thick

Construction Methods and Techniques

Stone Masonry Wall Footing

Properties of Stones for Footing

Concrete/ Reinforced Concrete Wall Footing

Footing for Different Wall Types

Soil Properties and Behavior

1. Importance of Soil Testing and Soil Types

Importance of Soil Testing

What Role Does Soil Testing Play in Construction?

 As previously said, soil testing aids in the construction of a building's foundation. If

THE TYPES OF SOILS13

2. Bearing Capacity of Soil

The types of bearing capacity of soil

Typical soil bearing capacity values

3. STRESS IN LOWER STRATA

Boussinesq Theory for Stresses

4. Settlement of wall footing

TYPES OF BUILDING SETTLEMENT

Differential settlement commonly occurs as a result of the non-uniform movement of

WHAT CAUSES SETTLEMENT OF SOILS?

Settlement occurs from soil consolidation due to a reduction in voids or spaces

TYPICAL CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT

 Weak bearing soils

HOW DO YOU KNOW IF YOUR HOUSE HAS EXPERIENCED SETTLEMENT?

Usually indicated by semi-horizontal or 45-degree angle cracks. Cracks are typically

STICKING WINDOWS AND DOORS

HOW DO YOU REPAIR AND/OR STOP SETTLEMENT?

PIER AND BEAM

5. Uplift of wall footing

What Uplift pressure means?

Diagram represending Uplift = U

How to Calculate Uplift Pressures.

γw = Unit weight of water = 10 kN/m3

H = Height = in metres (m)

Uplift Water Pressure = Pore Water Pressure (kN/m2)24

LOADINGS AND OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

I. Depth of Wall Footing

A wall footing behaves similarly to a cantilever beam, where the cantilever

If the subsoil near the ground surface

National Building Code minimum requirements for Group of Dwelling (Section

II. Footing Size Proportion

Wall footings are provided below load

the length, as illustrated.