Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics (2020) 31:16859–16866

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-020-04242-5

SnO2 nanoparticles synthesized with Citrus aurantifolia and their

performance in photocatalysis
P. A. Luque1 · O. Nava1 · C. A. Soto‑Robles2 · H. E. Garrafa‑Galvez1 · M. E. Martínez‑Rosas1 ·
M. J. Chinchillas‑Chinchillas1 · A. R. Vilchis‑Nestor3 · A. Castro‑Beltrán4

Received: 6 June 2020 / Accepted: 12 August 2020 / Published online: 19 August 2020
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
This research presents an alternative tin oxide (­ SnO2) nanoparticles synthesis method using different concentrations of Cit-
rus aurantifolia peel extract as reducing agent. We report the chemical identification protocol for polyphenols in the peels
via FTIR, the characterization of the ­SnO2 nanoparticles by FTIR, XRD, HRTEM, and UV–vis. The ­SnO2 nanoparticles
presented the Sn–O–Sn bond at 640 cm−1 and crystal growth with a clearly tetragonal structure. Depending on the amount
of extract used, hemispherical nanoparticles of different sizes (5–12 nm) and band gap values ranging from 3.02 to 3.44 eV
were obtained. Photocatalytic degradation studies of the synthesized ­SnO2 were carried out using methylene blue under
UV light. The sample with 4% extract of C. aurantifolia showed a degradation rate of about 96% at 120 min. The use of C.
aurantifolia as a reducing agent in the synthesis of S ­ nO2 nanoparticles helps the properties and has control over the mor-
phology of the nanoparticles.

1 Introduction In recent years, metal oxide semiconductors have attracted

One of the main environmental problems is the pollution
caused by the large number of dyes used in the textile, paper,
pharmaceutical and other industries [1, 2]. That is why a
variety of practical strategies have been implemented to
develop viable water treatment technologies such as biologi-
cal methods, photocatalysis, coagulation–flocculation, and
membrane processes, among others [3, 4]. Of these strate-
gies, photocatalysis represents an excellent alternative for
dye degradation due to its simplicity, low toxicity, and high
efficiency [5, 6].
* P. A. Luque
pluque@uabc.edu.mx
* A. Castro‑Beltrán
andres.castro@uas.edu.mx
1
Facultad de Ingeniería, Arquitectura y Diseño-Universidad
Autónoma de Baja California, C.P. 22860 Ensenada, B.C.,
Mexico
2
Tecnológico Nacional de México/IT de Los Mochis,
C.P. 81259 Los Mochis, Sinaloa, Mexico
3
Centro Conjunto de Investigación en Química Sustentable,
UAEM-UNAM, C.P. 50200 Toluca, Mexico, Mexico
4
Facultad de Ingeniería Mochis, UAS, C.P. 81223 Los Mochis,
Sinaloa, Mexico
the attention of the scientific community due to their high
photocatalytic capacity under irradiation with ultraviolet
(UV) light for the degradation of various dyes [7]. Among
the most used photocatalysts are ZnO [8], ­SnO2 [9, 10], ­TiO2
[11, 12], and CuO [13]. One of the materials that has drawn
attention due to its morphology, structure, and optical and
electrical properties is tin dioxide ­(SnO2) [14]; which is pre-
sented as a type n semiconductor with a 3.6 eV band gap
[15]. On the nanometric scale, ­SnO2 exhibits extraordinary
properties due to its high surface-to-volume ratio, which
makes it a useful photocatalyst [16, 17] in applications such
as gas sensors, catalyst support, transparent conduction elec-
trodes, and anode materials for lithium-ion batteries [18].
During the last few decades, a large number of chemical
and physical methods have been developed for the synthe-
sis of these materials. These processes, however, require
high temperatures, high energy, high cost, and large
amounts of organic solvents that are toxic and dangerous
for the environment [19, 20]. Due to the negative impact
of these methods, there is a need to find more ecological,
simple, and less expensive synthesis methods. Recently,
the green synthesis of S ­ nO 2 has attracted the attention
of many researchers because it uses less dangerous and
aggressive materials towards the environment, which are
generally extracts from plants, algae, or microorganisms

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16860
[21]. Many of the extracts used for this type of synthe-
sis come from the leaves, fruits, husks, barks, seeds, and
roots, since they have large amounts of polyphenols, fla-
vonoids, proteins and/or sugars, which act as reducing and
stabilizing agents at same time [22, 23].
The Citrus aurantifolia peel extract has a high content
of flavonoids (apigenin, hesperetin, kaempferol, nobiletin,
quercetin and rutin), flavones, flavanones, naringenin, trit-
erpenoids, and limonoids [24], which help in the synthe-
sis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles. Some authors
have reported on the use of lemon and leaves extracts to
obtain different types of nanoparticles, such as Ag:CdO
nanocubes [25], ZnO [26], Ag [27, 28], and Au [29]. At
present, very few studies on the biosynthesis of ­SnO2 nan-
oparticles have been carried out using plant extracts, for
example, aqueous extracts of Papaya leaves [30], Ameri-
can persia [31], Litsea cubeba [32], and Aspalathus lin-
earis [33] have been used for the synthesis of this material
with photocatalytic applications.
It is worth mentioning that, to date, the study on the
green synthesis of S­ nO2 nanoparticles using C. auranti-
folia peel extracts has not been reported for use in the
degradation of methylene blue (MB). Therefore, in this
work, we study the presence of organic compounds in the
extracts used as a reducing agent, in addition to the study
of the biosynthesis of S­ nO2, varying the concentration of
C. aurantifolia peel extract, for its evaluation in the pho-
tocatalytic degradation of MB.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Materials
In the synthesis of the nanoparticles of S
­ nO2, tin chloride
­(SnCl2·2H2O) is used as the tin precursor (Sigma-Aldrich
Co, Mexico), in addition to C. aurantifolia peel extracts
(reducing agent) and deionized water.
2.2 Preparation of Citrus aurantifolia peel extracts
For the preparation of extracts, three different amounts
(0.5, 1 and 2 g) of C. aurantifolia peel were weighed and
dissolved in 50 ml of water to obtain samples of 1, 2,
and 4% (weight–volume) of fruit peel in aqueous medium.
They are left under stirring for 2 h at room temperature.
They are then placed in a water bath at 60 °C for one hour,
as the process of extracting the reducing agents from the
C. aurantifolia peel. Finally, they are filtered to obtain the
extract free of chunks and impurities.
13
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Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics (2020) 31:16859–16866
2.3 Synthesis of ­SnO2 nanoparticles
In the biosynthesis of ­S nO 2, 2 g of the Sn precursor
­(SnCl2·2H2O) is dissolved in 42 ml of each of the C. auran-
tifolia peel extracts (1, 2 and 4%). After this, the samples are
placed in a 60 °C water bath until they have a pasty consist-
ency. They are then calcined at 400 °C for 60 min. Lastly,
the samples are pulverized in a mortar, then stored for use
and/or testing.
2.4 Photocatalytic activity
The photocatalytic activity under irradiation with ultraviolet
(UV) light of the biosynthesized ­SnO2 nanoparticles was
analyzed to determine the degradation of MB, a water con-
taminant. The photocatalytic experiment was carried out in
a closed stainless steel reactor that contains an Hg lamp as
a UV light source, with an intensity of 10 W and a dose of
18 mJ/cm2.
To initiate photocatalytic degradation, 100 mg of the pho-
tocatalyst ­(SnO2) was first added to 100 ml of a MB solu-
tion, which had a concentration of 15 mg/l (15 ppm) and a
neutral pH (optimal concentration for photocatalytic tests
[34]). Subsequently, the solution was mechanically stirred
for 30 min in the dark to guarantee an adsorption–desorption
equilibrium with the MB. The solution was then irradiated
by UV light, and 2 ml were taken at 10 min intervals for 2 h
for measuring.
The MB concentration was determined by measuring the
intensity of absorption through a UV–Vis spectrophotometer
in a wavelength range of 400–800 nm.
2.5 Characterization
To know the functional groups present in the materials,
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used.
The spectra were obtained by manipulating a Spectrum Two
(Perkin Elmer) with horizontal attenuated total reflectance
(HATR) at room temperature (20 °C) in transmittance mode
and with a resolution of 0.5 cm−1.
The ­SnO2 was also characterized via X-ray diffraction
(XRD), in order to study its crystalline structure, at 30 kV,
10 mA, at a 2θ range of 10°–70°, with exposure to Cu K-α
radiation with a wavelength of 1.5406 Å. Other techniques
implemented to know the characteristics of the material, spe-
cifically its morphology and structure, were the high-resolu-
tion transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) through a
JEOL-2100 200 kV with a LaB6 filament. Consequently, the
samples were dispersed for analysis in isopropyl alcohol, and
then placed on copper gratings, coated with a carbon film,
to dry in ambient conditions and then carry out the studies.
Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics (2020) 31:16859–16866
Finally, Ultra Violet–Visible spectroscopy (UV–Vis) is used
for the band gap study, where 50 mg of ­SnO2 nanoparticles
are suspended in 5 ml of water. For analysis of these sam-
ples, a wavelength scan of 190–700 nm was performed on a
Perkin Elmer UV/VIS Lambda 365 spectrophotometer.
3 Results and discussions
3.1 Citrus aurantifolia peel extracts
3.1.1 Peel extract FTIR
The presence of polyphenols can be seen in the FTIR spectra
in Fig. 1, which yielded a very clean spectrum and well-
defined signals. The atomic interaction was found between
3500 and 3050 cm−1, a broad band that results from the ten-
sion in O–H bonds, due to the high content of the hydroxyl
groups that act as hydrogen bonds [35]. In turn, there was
the presence of the C–O tension band at approximately
1020 cm−1, with a high and well-defined intensity, consist-
ent with that reported in the literature for polyphenolic com-
pounds [36], as well as the presence of two bands between
1640 and 1455 cm−1, characteristic of annular elongation
due to the presence of C=C bonds. Finally, the torsion vibra-
tions of the C–OH bond resulted in a bandwidth at approxi-
mately 660 cm−1, which is useful for identification as it is
consistent with the literature [28].
3.2 SnO2 nanoparticles
3.2.1 SnO2 FTIR
Figure 2 shows the FTIR analysis, in the wavelength range
of 4000–400 cm−1, for the ­SnO2 nanoparticles synthesized
from different amounts of extract. The obtained FTIR results
Peel extract of Citrus aurantifolia
Intensity (A.U.)
C=C
C=C
O-H
OH
Peel extract of
Citrus aurantifolia
C-O
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000
-1
Wavenumber (cm )
Fig. 1  FTIR of the Citrus aurantifolia peel extract
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
16861
Sn-O-Sn
SnO2-4%
Intensity (A.U.)
SnO2-2%
SnO2-1%
O-H Organic compounds
1800-850
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
-1
Wavenumber (cm )
Fig. 2  FTIR spectrum of the synthesized S
­ nO2 nanoparticles
were satisfactory to differentiate between concentrations
based on the difference in signal intensity. Such differen-
tiation was seen through the characteristic stretching band
made by the vibrations of the Sn–O–Sn bond of S ­ nO2, from
670 to 570 cm−1; the characteristic Sn–O–Sn bond is iden-
tified at 640 cm−1 [37, 38]. While the signals observed in
the range of 1720–1250 cm−1 refer to vibrations possibly
of the –OH, CO, and CH modes of the organic molecules,
present in the C. aurantifolia peel extracts, which are found
on the surface of the synthesized nanoparticles, because
while increasing the percentage of extract, the absorption
bands in that range also increase. After heat treatment, the
organic molecules stabilize on the surface of the S ­ nO2 NPs
and function as a capping agent [39].The absorption band at
approximately 3400 cm−1 corresponds mainly to the stretch-
ing vibration of the hydroxyl group (–OH) [40].
3.2.2 SnO2 XRD
The XRD patterns of all biosynthesized ­SnO2 samples at
different concentrations of C. aurantifolia peel extract are
shown in Fig. 3. These materials do not have other crystal-
line phases that do not correspond to those of ­SnO2; there-
fore, we have structurally pure tin oxide materials, observing
through this characterization technique, with the main peaks
with 2θ values of 26.68°, 33.94°, 37.97°, and 51.88°, which
correspond to the first crystal planes (110), (101), (200), and
C-OH (211) [41, 42]. These indicate the formation of S ­ nO2 with
tetragonal structure in the rutile phase, according to JCPDS
file No. 41-1445 [43].
3.2.3 Morphological study
500
Making use of TEM analysis, the study of the morphology
of the ­SnO2 samples can be seen in Fig. 4. Here, all samples
maintained a quasi-spherical nanoparticle shape and, as the
13
16862
JCPDS file No. 41-1445
(110)
(101)
(211)
(200)
Intensity (A.U.)
SnO2-4%
(200)
(002)
SnO2-2%
SnO2-1%
10 20 30 40 50
2 theta (°)
Fig. 3  XRD patterns of the synthesized S
­ nO2 nanoparticles
percentage of extract used increased, less agglomeration is
observed (images with a scale of 50 nm). Furthermore, the
average diameter was of 9.81, 7.85, and 5.77 nm for the
samples with 1, 2, and 4% of extract (images at 20 nm scale),
respectively. The decrease in size, with respect to the per-
centage of C. aurantifolia, is due to the number of molecules
that interact in the ­SnCl2·2H2O reduction process [44].
In the images with a 5 nm scale, it is possible to distin-
guish an interplanar distance of 0.18 nm corresponding to
the (211) plane of the rutile phase in the ­SnO2 NPs [45].
Finally, the crystal planes of the NPs can be observed
in the SAED analysis, based on the JCPDS file 21-1250,
showing rings 1, 2, 3, and 4, corresponding to the rutile
phase [45]. This analysis is reinforced by the data obtained
through XRD (Fig. 3).
3.2.4 Band gap
The biosynthesized ­SnO2 nanoparticles were analyzed via
UV–Vis and the TAUC model [46] to calculate their optical
band gap using the following equation:
(𝛼hv)2 = A(hv − Eg )
where α is the absorption coefficient, hv is the energy of
the photon, A is a constant, and Eg is the band gap of the
material. The UV–Vis spectra of the ­SnO2 NPs, as shown in
Fig. 5, show an absorption at a wavelength of 250–290 nm,
characteristic of this material [47]. In addition, the optical
band gaps of the ­SnO2 nanoparticles were obtained in a
range 3.02–3.44 eV. These values are very similar to those
reported in the literature for the green synthesis of S ­ nO2
nanoparticles [48–50]. The variation in the percentage
of the extract generated a change in the optical band gap.
These values are directly associated with the decrease in
nanoparticle size (see Fig. 5) due to the effect of quantum
13
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Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics (2020) 31:16859–16866
confinement [51]. It should be mentioned that the values
obtained are very close to those of bulk ­SnO2 (3.6 eV) [52],
which suggest that the synthesized materials can be used in
photocatalytic applications.
3.3 Photocatalytic activity
(310)
(301)
(112)
In Fig. 6, the photocatalytic degradation of MB and the deg-
(202)
radation rate constants (K) under UV irradiation of the dif-
ferent ­SnO2 samples are shown. Figure 6a shows that, before
starting with UV light irradiation, MB molecules underwent
adsorption of 8, 21, and 50% for the ­SnO2 with 1, 2, and
60 70 80
4% extract of C. aurantifolia, respectively. This is because,
during the S ­ nO2 synthesis, the extract was functionalized
on the surface of the S ­ nO2 nanoparticles. After irradiating
the samples with UV light for 120 min, degradations of 64,
75, and 96% were observed for the ­SnO2 with 1, 2, and 4%
extract, respectively. The values of the degradation rate con-
stants (K) are shown in Fig. 6b, with approximate values of
0.0075, 0.0097, and 0.0206 for the S ­ nO2 with 1, 2, and 4%
of the extract, respectively. It is worth mentioning that the
sample that presented both the highest photocatalytic yield
and the K is the one that contains 4% of extract, attributes
to it having had a higher MB adsorption and a smaller parti-
cle size when compared to the other samples, which caused
an increase in efficiency in the photocatalytic degradation.
Therefore, these results are very good, compared to other
works reported in the literature that used other extracts for
the synthesis of ­SnO2 [53].
3.4 Photocatalytic degradation mechanism
A schematic representation of the process of photocatalytic
degradation of MB under UV irradiation using S ­ nO2 nano-
particles as a photocatalyst is shown in Fig. 7.
The process of photocatalytic degradation of this work is
best modeled using the Langmuir–Hinshelwood mechanism,
where the mechanism requires adsorption of the dye before
it begins to degrade [54]. Therefore, the process of adsorp-
(1) tion of the MB molecules on the surface of the photocatalyst
was attributed not only to the physical absorption, but also to
the chemical adsorption that originated from the π–π inter-
action between the MB molecules and the aromatic rings
present in the C. aurantifolia extract. The adsorption pro-
cess increases the concentration of MB molecules near the
photocatalytic surface, which is a prerequisite for improving
photocatalytic activity.
The photocatalytic degradation of MB begins when the sur-
face of the ­SnO2 nanoparticles is irradiated with UV light and
generates an electron–hole pair. The electron (e−) travels from
the valence band (VB) to the conduction band (CB), produc-
ing a gap ­(h+) in the VB. The ­h+ reacts with a water molecule
­(H2O) to form a hydroxyl radical (­ OH·), while the e− reacts
Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics (2020) 31:16859–16866 16863

Fig. 4  Morphological study of

the ­SnO2 samples

with oxygen (­ O2) dissolved in water to form the superoxide

HO− + h+ → OH⋅
radical ­(O2·). The O
­ 2· then reacts with H
­ 2O and forms more
·
­OH . These two radicals are highly oxidizing species that react
e− + O2 → O⋅2
with MB molecules resulting in efficient degradation, produc-
ing ­H2O and carbon dioxide (­ CO2) as reaction by-products
[34]. The different reactions that occur during the process of O⋅2 + H2 O → OH⋅
photocatalytic degradation are shown below:
Methylene blue molecule + OH⋅ , O⋅2 → CO2 + H2 O
SnO2 + hv → e− + h+

H2 O + h+ → OH− + H+

13

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16864 Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics (2020) 31:16859–16866

Fig. 5  Band gap studies of the

synthesized ­SnO2 nanoparticles

100 a SnO2-1% b SnO2-1%

90 SnO2-2% SnO2-2%
Concentration (%)

Concentration (%)

80 SnO2-4% SnO2-4%
70
60
50
Degradation
Kapp(min-1)

40 Dark rate constants 0.0

20
30 6
0.0
20 0.0 09
07 7
5
10
SnO -1% SnO -2% SnO -4%
2 2 2
0
-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

Fig. 6  a MB photocatalytic degradation and b degradation rate constants of the ­SnO2NPs

4 Conclusions synthesis method is simpler and less toxic, leaving less

This work details the synthesis of S
­ nO2 NPs through green
chemistry via the use of C. aurantifolia extract. The size
and homogeneity of the S ­ nO2 NPs were influenced by the
amount of extract used during the synthesis. The photo-
catalytic activity presented 96% of MB degradation within
120 min; a better degradation ratio than that of NPs from
others studies that use different synthesis methods. This
residues and contaminants, in addition to being effective
for the production of NPs of S ­ nO2 of high purity and with
good photocatalytic properties. With this investigation,
the state of the art of the subject is enriched, because the
extract of C. aurantifolia has not been reported for the
biosynthesis of ­SnO2 NPs.

13

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Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics (2020) 31:16859–16866
Fig. 7  Schematic representation of the photocatalytic degradation of
the MB dye, using S ­ nO2 nanoparticles as a photocatalyst under UV
irradiation
Acknowledgements The authors appreciate the support of the
PRODEP with official number 511-6/2019-9670.
Funding Authors thank CONACYT for financial support (Grant No.
295075 Infrastructure, Grant 4940 National Problems) and the Autono-
mous University of Baja California for Project Number 676.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflicts of interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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