Medicinal plants in Saudi Arabia hold considerable economic value due to their

use in traditional medicine, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and herbal products. Saudi

Arabia is rich in biodiversity, and its diverse ecosystems harbor numerous plant
species with medicinal properties. Some of the economically valuable medicinal
plants in Saudi Arabia include:

1. Black Seed (Nigella sativa): Black seed, also known as black cumin, is
highly valued for its medicinal properties in Saudi Arabia and the wider
Middle East region. Its seeds and oil are used in traditional medicine to treat
various ailments, including respiratory disorders, digestive issues, and
inflammatory conditions. The demand for black seed products has led to
commercial cultivation and processing in Saudi Arabia.
Black seed, scientifically known as Nigella sativa, is a flowering plant native to
Southwest Asia, including regions of the Middle East, Mediterranean, and North
Africa. It belongs to the Ranunculaceae family and is commonly referred to by
various names such as black cumin, black caraway, or kalonji.

The black seed plant produces small black seeds that have been used for culinary,
medicinal, and cosmetic purposes for thousands of years. These seeds have a
distinct flavor that is slightly bitter and peppery, and they are often used as a spice
in cooking, particularly in Middle Eastern and Indian cuisines. The seeds are
sometimes dry-roasted or ground into powder before use to enhance their flavor.

In addition to its culinary uses, black seed has a long history of use in traditional
medicine across various cultures. The seeds contain bioactive compounds,
including thymoquinone, which is believed to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory properties. In traditional medicine, black
seed has been used to treat a wide range of ailments, including respiratory
disorders, digestive issues, skin conditions, and inflammatory diseases.

Today, black seed and its oil extract are popular dietary supplements and herbal
remedies in many parts of the world. They are available in various forms, including
capsules, oils, extracts, and teas, and are used for their potential health benefits.
Research into the medicinal properties of black seed is ongoing, and while some
studies support its traditional uses, more scientific evidence is needed to fully
understand its therapeutic potential.

Overall, black seed (Nigella sativa) is a versatile plant with culinary, medicinal,
and cosmetic applications, valued for its distinctive flavor and potential health
benefits.

Myrrh (Commiphora spp.): Myrrh is a resin obtained from the Commiphora

trees native to Saudi Arabia and other parts of the Arabian Peninsula. It has
been used for centuries in traditional medicine for its antiseptic, anti-
inflammatory, and analgesic properties. Myrrh resin is used in the production of
herbal remedies, cosmetics, and incense, contributing to the local economy.

Myrrh is a resin obtained from trees of the genus Commiphora, which belong to
the Burseraceae family. These trees are native to arid regions of the Middle East,
Africa, and the Indian subcontinent. Myrrh has been used for various purposes for
thousands of years, including in religious rituals, traditional medicine, perfumery,
and incense.
Here are some key points about myrrh:

1. Resin Production: Myrrh is produced when the bark of certain Commiphora

trees is intentionally wounded, allowing the resin to seep out and harden upon
exposure to air. The resin forms droplets or tears, which are collected by scraping
them off the tree.

2. Aromatic Properties: Myrrh has a distinctive aroma that is earthy, balsamic, and
slightly sweet. This aromatic quality has made myrrh a prized ingredient in
perfumery and incense making for centuries. It is often used as a base note in
fragrances, adding depth and complexity to scent compositions.

3. Traditional Medicine: Myrrh has a long history of use in traditional medicine,

particularly in ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Greece, and Rome. It has been
valued for its purported medicinal properties, including as an antiseptic, anti-
inflammatory, analgesic, and wound-healing agent. Myrrh resin was traditionally
used topically to treat wounds, ulcers, and skin infections, as well as orally for
various internal ailments.

4. Religious and Cultural Significance: Myrrh holds significant religious and

cultural importance in many traditions. In ancient times, it was used in religious
ceremonies and rituals as incense and offerings. In Christianity, myrrh is one of the
gifts that the Three Wise Men presented to the infant Jesus, symbolizing its value
and significance.

5. Commercial Uses: Myrrh is still used today in various commercial products,

including herbal remedies, oral care products, cosmetics, and aromatherapy oils. It
is often included in formulations for its purported health benefits and aromatic
properties.

Commiphora myrrha, called myrrh,[1] African myrrh,[1] herabol myrrh,[1] Somali

myrrhor,[1] common myrrh,[3] is a tree in the Burseraceae family. It is one of the
primary trees used in the production of myrrh, a resin made from dried tree sap.
The tree is native to the Arabian peninsula (Oman, Yemen) and
to Africa (Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia, Northeast Kenya).[4] It is called 'mur' (‫)المر‬
in Arabic, meaning bitter. It famously comes from Mecca, so it is called 'Mur
Makki'.[citation needed
Commiphora myrrha is very spiny and it grows to a height of about 5 m (16 ft).
[5]
Its short, hairless, thick, and flaky trunk has two layers of bark. The upper layer
is silvery, whitish, reddish, or bluish-grey and has a papery-texture. Underneath it,
the bark is green and performs photosynthesis.
Due to this species' high variability, Commiphora myrrha can be difficult to
distinguish from other species within the Commiphora genus.[6] The leaves
of Commiphora myrrha are a greyish-green colour with a papery texture.[5] The
plant's leaves may come in an oblong or oval shape and are between 6-44mm long,
and 3-20mm wide.[5][7] Each leaf alternates and consists of three leaflets in a
pinnately compound arrangement.[5]
The plant's yellow-red flowers are dioecious and are arranged in a panicle
inflorescence.[5][7] The flowers of the common myrrh are very tiny and are oval
shaped. The male flowers are only 3-4mm long and flower early. Its smooth,
brown fruit is about the same size as the flowers, and is shaped like an egg.

Resin:
From the stem of Commiphora myrrha, its oleoresin oozes from incisions in the
bark and dries into small clumps of sap.[8][9] The resin's fragrance and its medicinal
properties come from the various classes of terpenoids it contains.[10] Additionally,
the common myrrh tastes sour, bitter, and aromatic.

Distribution and habitat

Native to eastern and northeastern Africa and the Arabian peninsula, this plant
grows on slopes and valleys in desert regions with open Vachellia.[6][7][8] It grows at
an elevation of approximately 250 to 1,300 m (820 to 4,270 ft) with a yearly mean
rainfall of about 23 to 30 cm (9.1 to 11.8 in). It does best in thin soil, primarily in
areas with limestone.

History:
Myrrh extracted from Commiphora myrrha was a precious commodity in the
ancient world, as it was used to create perfumes and incense.[8] Myrrh was
traditionally used in the ancient world as an insect repellent, incense for religious
rituals and in embalming the dead.[7][8] Physicians also took advantage of its
medicinal properties, treating it for several ailments, including wounds, diseases
such as leprosy and syphilis, and to help with digestion and menstruation.
Medicinal Properties:
It is anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-pest and can be used for fumigation or oral use.
[10]
It has been used as an astringent, antiseptic, anti-parasitic, anti-viral anti-
tussive, emmenagogue, and anti-spasmodic agent. It was commonly included in
mixtures used to treat worms, wounds, and sepsis. It is also a potent treatment
for gingivitis, canker sores, sore throat, boils, arthritis, and acne.[12] Due to its
medicinal properties, it is imagined as a potential preventative and therapeutic
agent for several diseases, including COVID-19.[10]
Modern use:
Resin from Commiphora myrrha continues to be an important source of myrrh,
which is a key ingredient that adds flavour to meat products, desserts, soft drinks,
gum, and sweets.[6] Moreover, its use as a fragrance in incense has extended to
other cosmetic products, such as mouthwash,[7] soaps, and perfumes.

Frankincense (Boswellia spp.): Like myrrh, frankincense is another resinous

extract derived from Boswellia trees native to Saudi Arabia and the surrounding
regions. It has been used in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory,
analgesic, and wound-healing properties. Frankincense resin is also valued for its
aromatic properties and is used in perfumes, incense, and religious rituals.
Frankincense, also known as olibanum (/oʊˈlɪbənəm/),[1] is an aromatic resin used
in incense and perfumes, obtained from trees of the genus Boswellia in
the familyBurseraceae. The word is from Old French franc encens ('high-quality
incense').[2]There are several species of Boswellia that produce true frankincense:
[3]
Boswellia sacra (syn. B. bhaw-dajiana, syn. B. carteri), B. frereana, B.
serrata (B. thurifera, Indian frankincense), and B. papyrifera. Resin from each is
available in various grades, which depends on the time of harvesting. The resin is
hand-sorted for quality.

Entomolgy:
The English word frankincense derives from the Old French expression franc
encens, meaning 'true incense', maybe with the sense of 'high quality incense'.[4]
[2]
The adjective franc in Old French meant 'noble, true', in this case perhaps 'pure';
although franc is ultimately derived from the tribal name of the Franks, it is not a
direct reference to them in the word francincense.[5]
The word for frankincense in the Koine Greek of the New
Testament, λίβανος, líbanos (or λιβανωτός, libanōtós), is cognate with the name
of Lebanon (Greek: Λίβανος); the same can be said with regard to Arabic,
Phoenician, Hebrew,[6] and Vulgar Latin: lĭbănus.[7] This is postulated to be
because they both derive from the word for 'white' and that the spice route went
via Mount Lebanon (Koinē Greek: Λίβανος, romanized: Libanos).[6] Medieval
Latin: olibanum derived from λίβανος or libanus. The leading "o" may have come
from Latin: oleum, lit. 'oil', or from the Greek article o- or Arabic article al-.
[8]
Other names include Arabic: ‫اللبان‬, romanized: al-
lubān, Persian: ‫کندر‬, romanized: kondor, Syriac:
romanized: busmin, Hebrew: ‫לבונה‬, romanized: ləvonā, Bengali: লোবান,
ধুনো, romanized: lōban, dhunō, Somali: foox, Classical Latin: tūs.[9]

Description:
The trees start producing resin at about eight to 10 years old.[10] Tapping is done
two to three times per year with the final taps producing the best tears because of
their higher aromatic terpene, sesquiterpene and diterpene content. Generally
speaking, the more opaque resins are the best quality. Cheap resin is produced in
the Horn of Africa, which is the Roman Catholic Church's major source.[11]
The main species in trade are:

 Boswellia sacra: South Arabia.[12]: 10

o Boswellia bhaw-dajiana (older spelling Boswellia bhau-
dajiana): Horn of Africa.[13]: 487 It is a synonym of Boswellia
sacra
o Boswellia carteri (older spelling Boswellia carterii): Horn of
Africa, Nubia.[12]: 10 It was long considered an independent
species,[14]: 138 but in the 1980s it was determined to be a
synonym of Boswellia sacra.[15][13]
 Boswellia serrata (synonym Boswellia thurifera, Indian frankincense):
India.[12]: 10
 Boswellia papyrifera: Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan.[12]: 10
 Boswellia frereana: Horn of Africa.[12]: 10 The resin is less bitter and the
fragrance of incense is less "heavy" than Boswellia sacra.[13]: 497 Contains
no boswellic acids.[12]: 19
Other notable species:

 Boswellia occulta:[16] Horn of Africa. In 2019, it was discovered that

Somali harvesters considered Boswellia occulta to be the same species
with Boswellia carteri even though their shapes are different, and sold
resins from both species as the same thing. However, the chemical
compositions of their essential oils are completely different.[17]
Recent studies indicate that frankincense tree populations are declining, partly
from overexploitation.[18][19] Heavily tapped trees produce seeds that germinate at
only 16% while seeds of trees that had not been tapped germinate at more than
80%. In addition, burning, grazing, and attacks by the longhorn beetle have
reduced the tree population.[20] Conversion (clearing) of frankincense woodlands to
agriculture is also a major threat.[21]

Chemical Compostion:
here are some of the chemical compounds present in frankincense:

 acid resin (6%), soluble in alcohol and having the formula C20H32O4[22]
 gum (similar to gum arabic) 30–36%[22]
 3-acetyl-beta-boswellic acid (Boswellia sacra)[23]
 alpha-boswellic acid (Boswellia sacra)[23]
 incensole acetate, C21H34O3[24]
 phellandrene[22]
 olibanic acid[25]
Among various plants in the genus Boswellia, only Boswellia sacra, Boswellia
serrata and Boswellia papyrifera have been confirmed to contain significant
amounts of boswellic acids.[12]: 10 [12][26]

History:
Frankincense has been traded on the Arabian Peninsula for more than 5,000 years.
[26]: 5
Frankincense was also traded from the Horn of Africa during the Silk
Road era.[27] Greek historian Herodotus wrote in The History that frankincense was
harvested from trees in southern Arabia. He reported that the gum was dangerous
to harvest because of winged snakes[28] that guard the trees and that the smoke from
burning storax would drive the snakes away.[29][30] Pliny the Elder also mentioned
frankincense in his Naturalis Historia.[31][32]
Frankincense was reintroduced to Western Europe by Frankish Crusaders,[citation
needed]
and other Western Europeans on their journeys to the Eastern Roman
Empire where it was commonly used in church services. Although
named frankincense, the name refers to the quality of incense brought to Western
Europe, not to the Franks themselves.[2]
Southern Arabia was an exporter of frankincense in antiquity, with some of it
being traded as far as China. The 13th-century Chinese writer and customs
inspector Zhao Rugua wrote that Ruxiang or xunluxiang (Chinese: 乳香 rǔ
xiāng/ 薰陸香 xūn lù xiāng) comes from the three Dashi states (Chinese: 大
食 dàshí - Caliphate (Arab Muslims)) of Maloba (Murbat), Shihe (Shihr),
and Nufa (Dhofar), from the depths of the remotest mountains;[33] the trunk of the
tree is notched with a hatchet, upon which the resin flows out, and, when hardened,
turns into incense, which is gathered and made into lumps; it is transported on
elephants to the Dashi ports, then on ship to Sanfoqi; which is why it was known
as a product of Sanfoqi.[34]
In Christian tradition, frankincense is one of the gifts given by the Biblical Magi to
Jesus at his nativity as described in the Gospel of Matthew.[3

Production:
Thousands of tons of frankincense are traded every year to be used in religious
ceremonies as incense in thuribles and by makers of perfumes, natural medicines,
and essential oils. It can be inhaled or applied to the skin for its supposed health
benefits. In the Horn of Africa, frankincense is harvested in
the Bari and Sanaagregions: mountains lying at the northwest of Erigavo; El
Afweyn District; Cal Madowmountain range, a westerly escarpment that runs
parallel to the coast; Cal Miskeed, including Hantaara and Habeeno plateau and a
middle segment of the frankincense-growing escarpment; Karkaar mountains or
eastern escarpment, which lies at the eastern fringe of the frankinscence
escarpment.[36][19] In Dhofar, Oman, frankincense species grow north of Salalah and
were traded in the ancient coastal city of Sumhuram, now Khor Rori.[37]

Etological Status:
In 1998, the International Union for Conservation of Nature warned that one of the
primary frankincense species, Boswellia sacra, is "near threatened". Frankincense
trees are not covered by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, but experts argue that Boswellia species meet the
criteria for protection. In a 2006 study, an ecologist at Wageningen University &
Research claimed that, by the late-1990s, Boswellia papyrifera trees in Eritrea
were becoming hard to find. In 2019, a new paper predicted a 50% reduction
in Boswellia papyrifera within the next two decades. This species, found mainly in
Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan, accounts for about two-thirds of global frankincense
production. The paper warns that all Boswellia species are threatened by habitat
loss and overexploitation. Most Boswellia grow in harsh, arid regions beset by
poverty and conflict. Harvesting and selling the tree's resin is one of the only
sources of income for the inhabitants, resulting in overtapping.

Health Benefits:

The use of Boswellia resin for spiritual and medicinal purposes dates back to
ancient civilizations. Numerous compounds of different chemical categories are
identified in the resin; the pharmacological actions of Boswellia resin are attributed
to the complementary effects exerted by these compounds. Some clinical studies
have weakly demonstrated the effectiveness of frankincense resin in some disease
conditions like asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel diseases,
osteoarthritis and relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, however more studies are
necessary.[38][39] The essential oil obtained from the oleogum resin of Boswellia
serrata showed antimicrobial activities.[40][41] A 2022 study[42] stated that
"frankincense oil has a weak inhibitory effect against MRSA and MDR-P.
aeruginosa"; and in vivo studies on animals revealed that frankincense oleogum
resin exhibits neuroprotective activity.

Uses:
The Egyptians cleansed body cavities in the mummification process with
frankincense and natron. In Persian medicine, it is used for diabetes, gastritis and
stomach ulcer.[45] The oil is used in Abrahamic religions to cleanse a house or
building of bad or evil energy—including used in exorcisms and to bless one's
being (like the bakhoor commonly found in Persian Gulf cultures by spreading the
fumes towards the body).
The incense offering occupied a prominent position in the sacrificial legislation of
the ancient Hebrews.[46] The Book of Exodus (30:34–38) prescribes frankincense,
blended with equal amounts of three aromatic spices, to be ground and burnt in the
sacred altar before the Ark of the Covenant in the wilderness Tabernacle, where it
was meant to be a holy offering—not to be enjoyed for its fragrance. Scholars have
identified frankincense as what the Book of Jeremiah (6:20) relates was imported
from Sheba during the 6th century BC Babylonian captivity.[47] Frankincense is
mentioned in the New Testament as one of the three gifts (with gold and myrrh)
that the magi "from the East" presented to the Christ Child (Matthew 2:11).
In traditional Chinese medicine, frankincense (Chinese: 乳香 rǔ xiāng) along with
myrrh (沒藥 mò yào) are considered to have anti-bacterial properties and blood-
moving uses.[citation needed] It can be used topically or orally, also used in surgical and
internal medicine of traditional Chinese medicine. It is used to relieve pain, remove
blood stasis, promote blood circulation and treat deafness, stroke, locked jaw, and
abnormalities in women's menstruation.

Essential Oil:
The essential oil of frankincense is produced by steam distillation of the tree resin.
The oil's chemical components are 75% monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes,
and ketones. Contrary to some commercial claims, steam distilled frankincense oils
do not contain the insufficiently volatile boswellic acids (triterpenoids), although
they may be present in solvent extractions. The chemistry of the essential oil is
mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, such as alpha-pinene, Limonene, alpha-
Thujene, and beta-Pinene with small amounts of diterpenoid components being the
upper limit in terms of molecular weight.[48][49][50][51]
Essential oils can be diluted and applied to skin or the fragrance can be inhaled

4. Miswak (Salvadora persica): Miswak is a type of chewing stick made from the
twigs of the Salvadora persica tree. It has been used for centuries in Islamic culture
as a natural toothbrush and oral hygiene aid. Miswak sticks are commercially
traded and have economic significance in Saudi Arabia and other countries where
they are popular.

The genus was named by the French botanist Laurent Garcin in 1749 after a
Spanish apothecary, Juan Salvador y Bosca. The type specimen was collected in
Persia, hence the species name persica.

Description:
Salvadora persica is a small tree or shrub with a crooked trunk,[3][need quotation to
verify]
typically 6–7 metres (20–23 ft) in height.[1] Its bark is scabrous and cracked,
whitish with pendulous extremities. The root bark of the tree is similar in colour to
sand, and the inner surfaces are an even lighter shade of brown. It has a pleasant
fragrance, of cress or mustard, as well as a warm and pungent taste. The leaves
break with a fine crisp crackle when trodden on. The tree produces small red edible
fruits, juicy but pungent, in clusters.

Distribution and ecology:

The plant is native to the Middle East and Africa,[4] and is found on desert flood
plains, riverbanks, and grassy savannahs.[1] It has high tolerance for salty soilsand
can tolerate as little as 200 millimetres (7.9 in) or less of mean annual rainfall, but
it prefers ready access to groundwater.

History and use:

Salvadora persica stick, known as miswak, is popular for teeth cleaning

throughout the Arabian Peninsula, Iranian Plateau, as well as the wider Muslim
world.[1][5]
Toothbrushes made from roots and small branches of about 3-5 mm diameter have
been used for over 1000 years, especially by Islamic populations in India, Arabia
and Africa. Several agents occurring in the bark and wood have been suggested as
aids in prevention of dental caries[cavities], such as antimicrobial agents that
suppress bacterial growth and the formation of plaque.[1]
The fresh leaves can be eaten as part of a salad and are used in traditional
medicine.[3] The flowers are small and fragrant and are used as a stimulant and are
mildly purgative.[3] The berries are small and barely noticeable; they are eaten both
fresh and dried.[3] The wood of the Salvadora persica can be used for charcoal and
firewood.[6] In Namibia, the mustard bush is used as drought-resistant fodder for
cattle. The seeds can be used to extract a detergent oil.[4]
As of 2009, Botanic Gardens Conservation International has a total of
eight Salvadora persica plants in conservation.[7]

5. Senna (Senna alexandrina): Senna is a medicinal plant native to Saudi Arabia

and other parts of the Middle East. Its leaves and pods contain compounds with
laxative properties, making it a valuable ingredient in herbal laxatives and dietary
supplements. Commercial cultivation of senna contributes to the pharmaceutical
and herbal products industry.
Senna (Senna alexandrina) is a medicinal plant belonging to the legume family
(Fabaceae) native to North Africa, including Egypt, Sudan, and the Arabian
Peninsula. It is commonly known as senna or Alexandrian senna. Senna has been
used for centuries as a natural laxative and is one of the most widely used herbal
remedies for constipation.
Here are some key points about Senna (Senna alexandrina):

1. Laxative Properties: Senna contains compounds called anthraquinones,

particularly sennosides A and B, which have a powerful laxative effect. These
compounds stimulate contractions in the colon, leading to increased bowel
movements and the expulsion of waste material. Senna is considered a stimulant
laxative, meaning it promotes bowel movements by directly acting on the muscles
of the intestines.

2. Traditional Medicine: Senna has a long history of use in traditional medicine

systems, including traditional Arabic, Ayurvedic, and Unani medicine. It has been
used to alleviate constipation, promote regularity, and cleanse the bowels. Senna
leaves and pods are often prepared as herbal teas, powders, or liquid extracts for
medicinal use.

3. Pharmaceutical Applications: Senna is commonly used as an active ingredient in

over-the-counter laxative products and herbal supplements. It is available in
various forms, including tablets, capsules, syrups, and teas, for the relief of
occasional constipation. Senna-based laxatives are considered safe and effective
when used as directed, but prolonged or excessive use may lead to dependency and
electrolyte imbalances.

4. Other Uses: In addition to its use as a laxative, Senna has been investigated for
its potential therapeutic effects in other conditions, such as irritable bowel
syndrome (IBS), hemorrhoids, and intestinal parasites. However, more research is
needed to fully understand its efficacy and safety for these purposes.

5. Cultivation and Harvesting: Senna is cultivated commercially in several

countries, primarily for its medicinal properties. The leaves and pods are harvested
when the plant reaches maturity, typically after one to two years of growth. After
harvesting, the leaves and pods are dried and processed to produce commercial
Senna products for the pharmaceutical and herbal medicine industries.

Overall, Senna (Senna alexandrina) is a widely used medicinal plant valued for its
laxative properties. Its effectiveness in relieving constipation has made it a popular
choice for promoting digestive health and bowel regularity. However, it should be
used with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional to avoid
potential side effects and complications.
6. Arabian Jasmine (Jasminum sambac)**: Arabian jasmine is a fragrant flowering
plant cultivated for its aromatic flowers, which are used in traditional medicine,
perfumery, and aromatherapy. The production and export of jasmine flowers and
essential oils contribute to the economy, particularly in regions where jasmine
cultivation is prevalent.

Overall, the economic value of medicinal plants in Saudi Arabia encompasses

various sectors, including healthcare, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and exports.
Sustainable harvesting, cultivation, and utilization of these plants can contribute to
economic growth while preserving the country's natural heritage.

In Saudi Arabia, medicinal plants hold significant economic value due to their
traditional, cultural, and commercial importance. Here's a detailed overview of the
economic aspects associated with medicinal plants in the Kingdom:

1.Traditional and Cultural Use: Medicinal plants have been an integral part of
traditional healing practices in Saudi Arabia for centuries. They are deeply
ingrained in the culture and heritage of the region, with many indigenous
communities relying on herbal remedies for treating various ailments. This cultural
significance contributes to the economic value of medicinal plants as they are
sought after for their therapeutic properties.

2.Biodiversity Richness: Saudi Arabia boasts diverse ecosystems ranging from

deserts to mountainous regions, each harboring unique flora, including numerous
medicinal plant species. The country's rich biodiversity provides a vast reservoir of
plant-based remedies, many of which have not been fully explored or utilized
commercially. Exploiting this biodiversity sustainably can unlock economic
opportunities in the herbal medicine industry.

3.Market Demand: There is a growing demand for natural and traditional

medicines globally, including in Saudi Arabia. As people increasingly seek
alternatives to conventional pharmaceuticals, the market for medicinal plants and
herbal products expands. This demand creates economic opportunities for
businesses involved in cultivation, processing, and marketing of medicinal plants
and their derivatives.

4. Research and Development: Investment in research and development (R&D) to

study the medicinal properties of native plant species is essential for unlocking
their economic potential. Universities, research institutions, and government
agencies in Saudi Arabia are actively involved in botanical research aimed at
identifying bioactive compounds, assessing efficacy, and developing innovative
herbal products. R&D initiatives contribute to the economic value of medicinal
plants by generating knowledge, intellectual property, and commercial
opportunities.

5. Commercialization and Export: Saudi Arabia has the potential to commercialize

its medicinal plant resources both domestically and internationally. Local
companies can develop value-added products such as herbal supplements,
cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals for the domestic market and export. Expanding the
export of medicinal plants and herbal products can contribute to foreign exchange
earnings and economic growth.

6. Sustainable Harvesting and Cultivation: Sustainable harvesting and cultivation

practices are crucial for preserving the natural habitat of medicinal plants and
ensuring their long-term availability. Initiatives promoting sustainable wild
harvesting, cultivation in controlled environments, and conservation of endangered
species enhance the economic value of medicinal plants by ensuring a steady
supply chain and protecting biodiversity.

7. Regulatory Framework: Establishing clear regulatory frameworks for the

cultivation, harvesting, processing, and marketing of medicinal plants is essential
for the sustainable growth of the herbal medicine industry in Saudi Arabia.
Regulatory measures ensure product quality, safety, and efficacy, bolstering
consumer confidence and market competitiveness.

8. Tourism and Cultural Heritage: The medicinal plants of Saudi Arabia not only
contribute to the economy through commercial activities but also attract tourists
interested in traditional healing practices and herbal medicine. Ecotourism
initiatives highlighting the country's botanical wealth and indigenous healing
traditions can generate revenue and promote cultural exchange.

In conclusion, the economic value of medicinal plants in Saudi Arabia is

multifaceted, encompassing traditional knowledge, biodiversity conservation,
research and development, commercialization, and regulatory considerations.
Harnessing the potential of medicinal plants can stimulate economic growth,
promote sustainable development, and preserve the rich cultural heritage of the
Kingdom.
Preliminary catalogue of some of the economically important plants in Saudi
Arabia

A. Medicinal plants

Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. Euphorbiaceae

An extract of leaves is used for treating bee stings.
Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae
Crushed roots are used on scorpion bites to ease irritation.
Achillea biebersteinii Afan. Compositae
An infusion form its leaves is used for the treatment of itching.
Adenium obesum (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. Apocynaceae
Its sap is used for treating dislocations, painful joints, swellings etc.
Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex Schults Amaranthaceae
A paste made from its inflorescence is used for treating bruises.
Ambrosia maritima L. Compositae
Plant extract is used to relieve spasms.
Anastatica heirochuntica L. Crucifereae
A solution of dried plant and water is used by women to ease childbirth.
Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) DC. Boraginaceae
 A solution obtained from boiling the whole plant in water is taken as tea to
relieve fever.
Artemisia sieberi Besser Compositae
The whole plant is used as a smoke inhalant to treat various diseases.
Leaves are used as an anthelmintic.
Astragalus atropilosus (Hochst.) Bunge Papilionaceae
Mixture of dried leaves and animal fat is applied to relieve backpain.
Calligonum comosum L’Herit Polygonaceae
Dried stems and leaves are used against toothache
Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl. Apocynaceae
Its berries are eaten for colic, menstrual pain
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Cucurbitaceae
Leaves, seeds and roots are used to treat insect bits and colic.
Clematis simensis Fresen. Menispermaceae
Fresh leaves are used as a poultice to treat rheumatic pain.
Conyza incana Willd. Compositae
The smoke of burned leaves are used to repel insects, also used for relieving
muscular pain.
Cynomorium coccineum L. Cynomoraceae
The fleshy part of the plant is eaten as a laxative.
Dracaena ombet Kotschy & Peyr Agavaceae
Resin used for treating haemorrhage, skin infections.
Ecbolium virde (Forssk.) Alston Acanthaceae
Its leaves are used for treating skin rashes.
Euphorbia schimperiana Scheele Euphorbiaceae
An extract of leaves and roots is used as a laxative
Euryops arabicus Steud. Compositae
The leaves and stems are used for treating wounds.
Geranium trilophum Boiss. Geraniaceae
A mixture of ground plant and water is applied on the body to relieve pain.
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Papilionaceae
Mixture of powdered rhizome and water or olive oil is used for treating
muscle pain.
Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br.
Chewing the leaves of this plant will prevent the ability of the tongue to
taste sweet.
Haploplyllum tuberculatum (Frossk.) Fiori Rutaceae
Leaves are used as a sedative. The juice of leaves is used to strengthen weak
muscles.
Indigofera articulata Gouan Papilionaceae
 Soaked roots are chewed to relieve toothache
Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae
Leaves(“Henna”) is widely used by women as a dye.
Matricaria aurea (Loel.) Sch.-Bip. Compositae
Inflorescence is used for making a tea for all stomach ailments.
Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Labiatae
Fresh leaves with tea is taken to relieve stomach-ache and head-ache
Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori Moringaceae
Oil from the seeds is used to relieve headaches, fever
Nepeta deflersiana Schweinf. Labiatae
A mixture of leaves extract and tea is taken orally to ease stomach problems
Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae
An extract from leaves is used for treating bronchitis, and coughs.
Ocimum basilicum L. Labiatae
Crushed fresh leaves are placed on bruises to avoid infection.
Plectranthus barbatus Andr. Labiatae
The juice of crushed fresh leaves is used as a deodorant.
Pluchea arabica (Boiss.) Qaiser & Lack Compositae
The whole plant is used for treating boils, skin sores
Polycarpaea repans (Forssk.) Aschers. et Schweinf. Caryophyllaceae
Crushed plant is applied as an antidote against snake bites.
Psiadia punctulata DC. Compositae
Branches and stems are boiled with water and used to relieve muscle pain.
Rhazya stricta Decaisne Apocynaceae
Whole plant is used for improving bad breath, chest pain, skin rash.
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae
Leaves and roots are used to treat bad breath, toothache etc.
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae
Leaves are used to cure rheumatism and abdominal colic.
Salvadora persica Garc . Salvadoraceae
Stems are used as toothbrush.
Sansevieria ehrenbergii Schweinf. ex Baker Agavaceae
Juice from the leaves is used for treating blisters
Seidletzia rosmarinus Bunge ex Boiss. Chenopodiaceae
Its leaves are used as a cleansing agent.
Senecio asirensis Boulos et Wood Compositae
A decoction made from its leaves is used for treating fevers.
Senna italica Miller Caesalpiniaceae
A solution made from boiling the leaves in water is used for treating
constipation and stomach cramps.
Sisymbrium irio L. Cruicifereae
A solution obtained from boiling the seeds in water is used to relieve cold
and fever.
Tamarindus indicus L. Caesalpiniaceae
Fruits are used as a laxative.
Tephrosia apollinea (Delile) Link Papilionaceae
Ground leaves are used to treat cough.
Teucrium polium L. Labiatae
Juice from fresh leaves is applied on cuts and abcesses
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. Solanaceae
Pounded leaves and roots are used as a poultice.
Ziziphus spina-christi(L.)Desf. Rhamnaceae
Fruits and seeds are used against dandruff, headache

B. Edible plants

Amaranthus graecizans L. Amaranthaceae

Edible part: Cooked leaves and stems
Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae
Edible part: Cooked young stems and leaves
Apium graveolens (L.) Lag. Umbelliferae
Young leaves and stems
Avena sativa L. Gramineae
Grains
Beta vulgaris L. Chenopodiaceae
Cooked roots
Capparis spinosa L. Capparaceae
Young, fresh fruits are used to make pickles.
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medicus Cruciferae
Young leaves and stems
Celtis africana Burm. f. Ulmaceae
Fresh fruits
Chenopodium album L. Chenopodiaceae
Fresh leaves and young shoots
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Chenopodiaceae
Fresh young leaves and stems
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. Cucurbitaceae
Dried and cooked seeds
Cynomorium coccineum L. Cynomoraceae
 Fleshy stem
Cyperus esculentus L. Cyperaceae
Tuberous roots
Diplotaxis erucoides (L.)DC Cruciferae
Fresh leaves and stems
Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. Gramineae
Grains
Eruca sativa Mill. Cruciferae
Young and fresh leaves
Ficus cairica L. Moraceae
Ripe fruits
Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart. Palmae
Fresh pericarp of the fruit
Lactuca serriola L. Compositae
Young green leaves
Malva parviflora L. Malvaceae
Young stems and leaves
Malva verticillata L. Malvaceae
Fresh leaves
Mentha longifolia L. Labiatae
Fresh leaves
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae
Ripe fruits
Origanum syriacum L. Labiatae
Fresh young branches
Panicum miliaceum L. Gramineae
Grains
Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. Gramineae
The flour from the ground seeds
Phoenix dactylifera L. Palmae
Ripe fruits
Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae
Fresh young branches
Ranunculus muricatus L. Ranunculaceae
Fresh leaves and stems
Raphanus sativus L. Cruciferae
Tuberous roots
Rumex vesicarius L. Polygonaceae
Fresh leaves
Scorzonera papposa DC. Compositae
 Whole plant eaten raw.
Sesamum indicum L. Pedaliaceae
Dried, ripe seeds
Sisymbrium irio L. Cruciferae
Fresh, young leaves
Sonchus oleraceus L. Compositae
Tender branches
Sorghum vulgare Pers. Gramineae
Flour from ground seeds
Tamarindus indica L. Papilionaceae
Ripe fruits
Tripleurospermum auriculatum (Boiss.) Rech. f Compositae
Fresh leaves
Urtica pilulifera L. Urticaceae
Fresh young leaves
Urtica urens L. Urticaceae
Young stems and leaves
Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. Rhamnaceae
Fresh, ripe fruits

C. Aromatic Plants
(plants with aromatic foliage)

Achillea bibersteinii Afan. Compositae

Achillea fragrantissima (Forssk.) Sch.-Bip. Compositae
Ambrosia maritima L. Compositae
Artemisia judaica L. Compositae
Artemisia sieberi Besser Compositae
Basilicum polystachion (L.) Moench Labiatae
Chrysanthemum coronarium L. Compositae
Cymbopogon commutatus (Steud.) Stapf. Gramineae
Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. Gramineae
Ducrosia anethifolia (DC.) Boiss. Umbelliferae
Lavandula spp. Labiatae
Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. Labiatae
Meriandra benghalensis Benth. Labiatae
Micromeria spp. Labiatae
Ocimum spp. Labiatae
Origanum syriacum L. Labiatae
Pegolettia senegalensis Cass. Compositae
Pulicaria glutinosa Jaub. & Spach. Compositae
Pulicaria guestii Rech. F. & Rawi Compositae
Pulicaria incisa (Lam.) DC. Compositae
Pulicaria jauberti Gamal-Eldin Compositae
Pulicaria schimperi DC. Compositae
Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae
Scutellaria arabica Jaub. & Spach Labiatae
Tagetes minuta L. Compositae
Tanacetum santolinoides (DC.)Fein. & Fer. Compositae
Teucrium spp. Labiatae
Thymus decussatus Benth . Labiatae

D. Ornamental Plants
(plants with attractive flowers or shoots)

Abutilon pannosum (G.Forst.) Schltdl. Malvaceae

Adenium arabicum Balf. f. Apocynaceae
Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex Schult Amaranthaceae
Ajuga arabica P. Davis Labiatae
Albuca abyssinica Dryand Liliaceae
Alkanna orientalis (L.) Boiss. Boraginaceae
Allium spp. Liliaceae
Aloe spp. Liliaceae
Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthaceae
Anisotes trisulcus (Forssk.) Vahl. Acanthaceae
Anthemis spp. Compositae
Arundo donax L. Gramineae
Asperagus spp. Liliaceae
Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. Liliaceae
Astragalus kahiricus DC. Papilionaceae
Astragalus seiberi DC. Papilionaceae
Astripomoea malvacea (Koltz.) Meeuse Convolvulaceae
Barbeya oleoides Schweinf. Barbeyaceae
Buddleja polystachya Fresen. Loganiaceae
Campanula spp. Campanulaceae
Caralluma spp. Asclepiadaceae
Cenchrus ciliaris L. Gramineae
Cichorium spp. Compositae
Clitoria ternatea L. Papilionaceae
Colutea istria Mill. Papilionaceae
Convolvulus arvensis L. Convolvulaceae
Convolvulus oxyphyllus Boiss. Convolvulaceae
Crinum album (Forssk.) Herbert Amaryllidaceae
Delonix elata (L.) Gamble Caesalpiniaceae
Delosperma harazianum (Defl.) Popp. & Ihl. Aizoaceae
Desmidorchis penicillatus (Defl.) N.E. Br. Asclepiadaceae
Dianthus spp. Caryophyllaceae
Diplotaxis erucoides (L.)DC. Cruciferae
Diplotaxis harra(Forssk.) Boiss. Cruciferae
Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Poir. Salvadoraceae
Dodonaea angustifolia L.f. Sapindaceae
Dracaena ombet Kotschy Agavaceae
Duvalia spp. Asclepiadaceae
Ecbolium virde (Forssk.) Alston Acanthaceae
Ehretia obtusifolia Hochst. Boraginaceae
Ephedra aphylla Forssk. Ephedraceae
Erodium glaucophyllum (L.) L’Her. Geraniaceae
Eulophia petersii (Rchb.f.)Rchb.f. Orchidaceae
Euphorbia ammak Schweinf. Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia cactus Ehrenb. Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia fractiflexa S. Carter & Wood Euphorbiaceae
Euroyps arabicus Steud. Compositae
Ficus spp. Moraceae
Gladiolus spp. Iridaceae
Gypsophila capillaris (Forssk.) C.Chr. Caryophyllaceae
Hibiscus deflersii Schweinf. Malvaceae
Hibiscus vitifolius L. Malvaceae
Horwoodia dicksoniae Turill Cruciferae
Hybanthus enneaspermus (Vent.) Muell. Violaceae
Hypericum spp. Hypericaceae
Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart. Palmae
Huernia spp. Asclepiadaceae
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. Gramineae
Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker-Gawl. Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea sinensis (Desr.)Choisy Convolvulaceae
Iris postii Mouterde Iridaceae
Ixiolirion tataricum (Pall.) Herb. Iridaceae
Jasminum grandiflorum L. Oleaceae
Juncus rigidus Desf. Juncaceae
Juniperus spp. Cupressaceae
Klenia pendula (Forssk.) Sch.-Bip. Compositae
Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forssk.) Decne Asclepiadaceae
Limonium axillare (Forssk.) Kuntze Plumbaginaceae
Limonium carnosum (Boiss.) Kuntze Plumbaginaceae
Limonium cylindrifolium (Forssk.) Verdc. Plumbaginaceae
Lonicera etrusca Santi Caprifoliaceae
Matthiola longipetala (Vent) DC. Cruciferae
Mesembryanthemum forsskalii Boiss. Aizoaceae
Moringa peregrina (Forssk.) Fiori Moringaceae
Nicotiana glauca R. Graham Solanaceae
Nuxia oppositifolia Hochst. Loganiaceae
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae
Oncoba spinosa L. Flacourtiaceae
Opuntia spp. Cactaceae
Pancratium spp. Amaryllidaceae
Pandanus odoratissimus L. Pandanaceae
Pelargonium multibracteatum Hochst. Geraniaceae
Pennisetum setaceum (Forssk.) Chiov. Gramineae
Phragmites australis(Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. Gramineae
Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae
Primula verticillata Forssk. Primulaceae
Prunus korshinskyi Hand.-Mazz. Rosaceae
Rosa abyssinica Lindley Rosaceae
Rumex nervosus Vahl Polygonaceae
Rumex vesicarius L. Polygonaceae
Salix mucronata Tunb. Salicaceae
Salvia spinosa L. Labiatae
Sansevieria ehrenbergii schwinf. ex Bak. Agavaceae
Scabiosa palaestina L. Dipsacaceae
Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf. Amaryllidaceae
Schimpera arabica Hochst. & Steud. Cruciferae
Schouwia purpurea (Forssk.) Schweinf. Cruciferae
Scorzonera spp. Compositae
Senecio asirensis Boulous & Wood Compositae
Senecio hadiensis Forssk. Compositae
Senna alexandrina Mill. Caesalpiniaceae
Senra incana Cav. Malvaceae
Sulcolluma shadhabana (Lavr.) Plowes Asclepiadaceae
Tamarix spp. Tamaricaceae
Tephrosia nubica (Boiss.) Bak. Papilionaceae
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Papilionaceae
Trichodesma trichodesmoides (Bunge) Guerke Boraginaceae
Tulipia biflora Pall. Liliaceae
Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Benth. & Hook. Compositae
Zilla spinosa (L.) Prantl Cruciferae

E. Important Grazing plants

Acacia spp. Leguminosae

Aeluropus littoralis (Gouan) Parl. Gramineae
Anabasis articulata (Forssk.) Moq. Chenopodiaceae
Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. Verbenaceae
Cenchrus ciliaris L. Gramineae
Centropodia forsskalii (Vahl) Cope Gramineae
Cornulaca arabica Botsch. Chenopodiaceae
Deverra triradiata Hochst. ex Boiss Umbelliferae
Diptergium glaucum Decne. Capparaceae
Halopyrum mucronatum (L.) Stapf Gramineae
Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.)Bge. Chenopodiaceae
Hordium murinum L. Gramineae
Horwoodia dicksoniae Turrill Cruciferae
Lasiurus scindicus Henr. Gramineae
Lycium shawii Solanaceae
Panicum turgidum Forssk. Gramineae
Pennisetum divisum (Gmel.) Henr. Gramineae
Rhanterium epapposum Oliv. Compositae
Rostraria pumila (Desf.) Tzvelev Gramineae
Salsola vermiculata L. Chenopodiaceae
Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Gramineae
Stipa capensis Thunb. Gramineae
Stipagrostis drarii (Tackh.) de Winter Gramineae
Stipagrostis plumosa (L.) Munro ex T. Anders. Gramineae
Traganum nudatum Del. Chenopodiaceae
Tribulus macropterus
var. arabicus (Hosni) Thomas & Hemaid Zygophyllaceae
Zygophyllum hamiense
var. mandavillei (Hadidi)Thomas & Chau. Zygophyllaceae