Chapter 5 Fotonic Materials 12112018

Chapter 5
Photonic Materials
17.11.2019
Part 1: History, Definitions and

Introductions
2
17.11.2019
Introductions
• Optics and photonics are technical enablers for many areas
of the economy, and dramatic technical advances have had
a major impact on daily life.
• For example, in the last decade, advances in optical fiber

communications have permitted a nearly 100-fold increase
in the amount of information that can be transmitted from
place to place, enabling a society-transforming Internet to
thrive.
3
17.11.2019
Introductions
• The phrase “optics and photonics” is used throughout this study
to capture light’s dual nature
– as a propagating wave, like a radio wave, but with a frequency that is now a
million times higher than that of a radio wave; and
– as a collection of traveling particles called photons, with potential as a

transformative field similar in impact to electronics.
• Optics and photonics are technical enablers as can be seen in

the laser. A laser provides a source of light that can be
– coherent, meaning that a group of photons can act as a single unit; and
– monochromatic, meaning that the photons can have a well-defined single color.
4
17.11.2019
Introductions
With light:
• High amounts of energy can be precisely directed with low
loss.
• Many different properties of waves (i.e., degrees of freedom

such as amplitude, frequency, phase, polarization, and
direction) can be accurately manipulated.
• Waves can be coherently processed to have high

directionality, speed, and dynamic range.
5
17.11.2019
Definitions
Optics
• the science that deals with the generation and propagation of light—can
be traced to 17th-century ideas of Descartes concerning transmission of
light through the aether, Snell’s law of refraction, and Fermat’s principle
of least time. These ideas were subsequently built upon through the
19th century by Hooke (interference of light and wave theory of light),
Boyle (interference of light), Grimaldi (diffraction), Huygens (light
polarization), Newton (corpuscular theory), Young (interference),
Fresnel (diffraction), Rayleigh, Kirchhoff, and, of course, Maxwell
(electromagnetic fields). The end of the 19th century marked the close
of the era of classical optics and the start of quantum optics.
6
17.11.2019
Definitions
Optics
• In 1900, Max Planck’s introduction of energy quanta marked the first
steps toward quantum theory and an early understanding of atoms and
molecules.
• With the demonstration in 1960 of the first laser, many of the

fundamental and seemingly disconnected principles of optics
established by Einstein, Bose, Wood, and many others were focused
and drawn together.
7
17.11.2019
Definitions
“Electro-optics” and “optoelectronics”
• both terms describing subfields of optics involving the interaction
between light and electrical fields.
• Although John Kerr, who discovered in 1875 that the refractive index of
materials changes in response to an electrical field, could arguably be
regarded as the inaugurator of the field of electro-optics, the term
“electro-optics” first gained popularity in the literature in the early
1960s.
• By 1964 authors from RAND could be found publishing from a group

called the Electro-Optical Group.
8
17.11.2019
Definitions
• In 1965 the Quantum Electronics Council of the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) was formed from IEEE’s Electronic
Devices Group and Microwave Theory and Techniques Group; in 1977
became an IEEE society; and in 1985 took the name Lasers and Electro-
Optics Society, thus legitimizing the use of the name in the professional
field.
9
17.11.2019
Definitions
• The exact origins and limits of the term “optoelectronics” are difficult to
pin down.
• Some claim that optoelectronics is a subfield of electro-optics involving

the study and application of electronic devices that source, detect, and
control light.
• Colloquially, the term “optoelectronics” is most commonly used to refer

to the quantum mechanical effects of light on semiconductor materials,
sometimes in the presence of an electrical field.
10
17.11.2019
Definitions
• Semiconductors started to assume serious importance in optics in 1953,
when McKay and McAfee demonstrated electron multiplication in
silicon and germanium p-n junctions, and Neumann indicated separately
in a letter to a colleague that that one could obtain radiation
amplification by stimulated emission in semiconductors.
• Japan’s Optoelectronics Industry and Technology Development

Association was established in 1980, and the U.S. counterpart is the
Optoelectronics Industry Development Association.
11
17.11.2019
Definitions
• As used in its present sense, the term “photonics” appeared as “la
photonique” in a 1973 article by French physicist Pierre Aigrain.
• The term began to be seen in print in English around 1981 in press

releases, annual reports of Bell Laboratories, and internal publications
of Hughes Aircraft Corporation and in the more general press.
• In 1982, the trade magazine Optical Spectra changed its name to

Photonics Spectra, and in 1995 the International Society for Optics and
Photonics (SPIE) debuted Photonics West, arguably one of the largest
conferences in optics and photonics.
12
17.11.2019
Definitions
• Sternberg defines “photonics” as the “engineering applications of light,”
involving the use of light to detect, transmit, store, and process
information; to capture and display images; and to generate energy.
• However, in the professional literature, “photonics” is used almost

synonymously with the term “optics,” referring equally to both science
and applications.
• The term “photonics” continues to gain popularity today.
• In 2006 Nature Publishing Group established the journal Nature

Photonics, and in 2008 the Lasers and Electro-Optics Society became
the IEEE Photonics Society.
13
17.11.2019
ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
• Photonics can be regarded as one of the key enabling technologies, and
it is commonly combined with micro- and nanoelectronics,
biotechnology or nanotechnology.
• When aiming to develop new photonic components and devices, many

fundamental questions on light-matter interactions need to be
addressed, and providing answers to these questions will open up new
avenues in various fields of science and technology.
• Further advances in photonics will rely on the implementation of new

concepts using novel materials with tailored optical properties.
• Multidisciplinary research is a key factor here, requiring long-term

strategic collaboration.
14
17.11.2019
ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
• This is particularly important in materials research for photonics, since
the selection and combination of different materials and technologies is
generally far from trivial.
• The field of photonic materials is extremely broad, including subfields of

well-established glass and semiconductor materials, polymer materials,
tailored nano and metamaterials, and emerging synthetic biophotonic
materials, just to name a few.
15
17.11.2019
ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
• Optics and photonics, an enabling technology with widespread impact,
exhibits the characteristics of a general-purpose technology, that is, a
technology in which advances foster innovations across a broad
spectrum of applications in a diverse array of economic sectors.
• Improvements in those sectors in turn increase the demand for the

technology itself, which makes it worthwhile to invest further in
improving the technology, thus sustaining growth for the economy as a
whole.
• The transistor and integrated circuit are good examples of general-

purpose technologies.
16
17.11.2019
ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
• A cell phone can enable video chats and perform an Internet search,
with optics and photonics playing a key part.
• The most obvious contribution of optics is the high-resolution display

and the camera.
• In addition, the cell phone uses a wireless radio connection to a local

cell tower, and the signal is converted to an optical data stream for
transmission along a fiber-optic network.
• An Internet search conducted on the phone will be directed over these

fibers to a data center, and in a given data center clusters of co-located
computers talk to each other through high-capacity optical cables.
• There can be more than 1 million lasers involved in the signaling.
17
17.11.2019
ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
• People are surrounded by objects whose manufacture was enabled by
highly accurate directed-energy light.
• For example, nearly every microprocessor has been fabricated using

optical lithographic techniques, and in nearly all advanced
manufacturing, high-power lasers are used for cutting and welding.
18
17.11.2019
ENABLING TECHNOLOGY
• Optics is rapidly changing medical imaging, making it possible not only
to see with higher resolution inside the body but also to distinguish
between subtle differences in biological material.
• Swallowed capsules can travel through the body and send images back
to a doctor for diagnosis.
• Today, the relatively young field of optical coherence tomography has
the potential to save thousands of lives annually by providing
dramatically better images for early detection of disease.
• Optical spectroscopic techniques can provide valuable information from
blood and tissue samples that is critical in early detection and
prevention of health problems, and eye, dental, and brain surgery now
uses focused lasers for ablating, cutting, vaporizing, and suturing.
19
17.11.2019
Optical materials
• The optical properties of materials arise from the characteristics of their
interactions with electromagnetic waves.
• In particular, the ability of a material to exhibit an induced polarization

or magnetization at a selected wavelength, or over a selected
wavelength band, provides the potential for it to change the character
of light propagating through it.
• Such changes can take the form of loss or gain of intensity, shifts in
wavelength, and narrowing, broadening or filtering of bandwidth, for
example.
• Different classes of materials will, in general, differ in their response to

optical radiation.
20
17.11.2019
Optical materials
• Insulators and conductors, for example, each exhibit a unique response to
electric polarization.
• While insulators exhibit local induced polarization of bound charges, dipoles,

etc., conductors exhibit induced currents from the movement of free charges.
• In some cases, materials will act as insulators at frequencies or temperatures

where only local polarization is possible, and they will act as conductors
when conditions are suitable for charge transport.
• Thus, glasses and semiconductors act as insulators at low temperatures and

at frequencies below those needed to excite free carriers, and they act as
conductors at temperatures and frequencies high enough to excite free
carriers and to allow induced electric currents to form.
21
17.11.2019
Optical materials
• In between these conditions, materials exhibit a variety of changes in
local polarization mechanisms, including (1) molecular or dipolar, (2)
ionic or atomic, and (3) electronic polarization, and these mark large
changes in their optical behavior.
22
17.11.2019
Part 2: Waves
23
17.11.2019
• Light propagates by electromagnetic waves.
• We are surrounded by many kinds of waves.
• For example, acoustic waves propagate the sounds we make and hear.
• Light that we see comes from electromagnetic waves at very high

frequencies.
• Radio and television signals are carried by electromagnetic waves at much

lower frequencies, and the microwaves that heat our food are
electromagnetic waves at intermediate frequencies.
• Since EM fields can exist without the presence of matter, light waves
propagate through empty space, whereas acoustic waves require a
propagating medium.
24
17.11.2019
• The optical properties of materials arise from the characteristics of their

interactions with electromagnetic waves.
• In particular, the ability of a material to exhibit an induced polarization or

magnetization at a selected wavelength, or over a selected wavelength
band, provides the potential for it to change the character of light
propagating through it.
• Such changes can take the form of loss or gain of intensity, shifts in
wavelength, and narrowing, broadening or filtering of bandwidth, for
example.
25
17.11.2019
• Different classes of materials will, in general, differ in their response to

optical radiation.
• Insulators and conductors, for example, each exhibit a unique response to

electric polarization.
• Insulators exhibit local induced polarization of bound charges, dipoles, etc.,

conductors exhibit induced currents from the movement of free charges.
• Materials normally exhibit a variety of changes in local polarization

mechanisms, including
i. molecular or dipolar,
ii. ionic or atomic, and
iii. electronic polarization,
and these mark large changes in their optical behavior.

26
17.11.2019
• Light is energy, or radiation, in the form of waves or

particles called photons that can be emitted from a
material.
• The important characteristics of the photons—their
energy E, wavelength λ, and frequency ν—are related
by the equation
27
17.11.2019
Photons
• When dealing with events on the atomic scale, it is often
best to regard light as composed of quasi- particles:
PHOTONS
Photons are Quanta of light
Electromagnetic radiation is quantized
& occurs in finite "bundles" of energy 
Photons
• The energy of a single photon in terms of its
frequency , or wavelength  is,
Eph = h = (hc)/
28
17.11.2019
Part 3: Spectra
29
17.11.2019
• A (non-comprehensive) list of
Various Spectra Types:
Absorption, Reflection,
Transmission, Emission
• Each of these types of spectra is
very rich, complicated, & varied!
• Understanding such spectra gives
huge amounts of information about:
electronic energy bands, vibrational
properties, defects, …
30
17.11.2019
Figure 5.5
31
17.11.2019
Optical materials
• Materials are classified on the basis of their interaction with visible light
into three categories.
• Materials that are capable of transmitting light with relatively little
absorption and reflection are called transparent materials i.e. we can

see through them.
• Translucent materials are those through which light is transmitted

diffusely i.e. objects are not clearly distinguishable when viewed
through.
• Those materials that are impervious to the transmission of visible light
are termed as opaque materials. These materials absorb all the energy
from the light photons.
32
17.11.2019
Optical properties – Non-metals

• Non-metallic materials consist of various energy band structures. Thus,
all four optical phenomena are important.
• Refraction: when light photons are transmitted through a material,

they causes polarization of the electrons and inturn the speed of light is
reduced and the beam of light changes direction.
where
• the ratio n is the index of
refraction
• c0 is the speed of light in a
vacuum (3 × 108 m/s)
• c is the speed of light in the
material
Figure 5.6
33
17.11.2019
Example 20.1
Design of a Fiber Optic System
Optical fibers are commonly made from high-purity silicate
glasses. They consist of a core that has refractive index (~ 1.48)
that is higher than a region called cladding (refractive index ~
1.46). This is why even a simple glass fiber in air (refractive index
1.0) can serve as an optical fiber. In designing a fiber optic
transmission system, we plan to introduce a beam of photons from
a laser into a glass fiber whose index of refraction of is 1.5. Design
a system to introduce the beam with a minimum of leakage of the
beam from the fiber.
Figure 20.3 (b) Diagram a

light beam in glass fiber
for Example 20.1.
34
17.11.2019
Example 20.1 SOLUTION

To prevent leakage of the beam, we need the total internal
reflection and thus the angle θt must be at least 90o.
Suppose that the photons enter at a 60o angle to the axis
of the fiber. From Figure 20.3(b), we find that θi = 90 - 60
= 30o. If we let the glass be Material 1 and if the glass
fiber is in air (n = 1.0), then
Because θt is less than 90o, photons escape from the fiber.

To prevent transmission, we must introduce the photons at
a shallower angle, giving θt = 90o.
35
17.11.2019
Example 20.1 SOLUTION (Continued)
If the angle between the beam and the axis of the fiber is
90 - 41.8 = 48.2 or less, the beam is reflected.
If the fiber were immersed in water (n = 1.333), then:
In water, the photons would have to be introduced at an

angle of less than 90 – 62.7 = 27.3 in order to prevent
transmission.
36
17.11.2019
• Complex refractive index
where  is the absorption index
 is the linear absorption coefficient

 is the wavelength of light
n is the refractive index
37
17.11.2019
Figure 20.3 (a) When a ray of light enters from material 1

into material 2, if the refractive index of material 1 (n1) is
greater than that of material 2 (n2), then the ray bends away
from the normal and toward the boundary surface. [1, 9] (b)
Diagram a light beam in glass fiber for Example 20.1.
38
17.11.2019
Reflection
 Reflectivity is defined as fraction of light reflected at an interface.
 Reflectivity R gives the fraction of the incident beam that is

reflected and is related to the index of refraction.
 If the material is in some other medium with an index of

refraction of ni
39
17.11.2019
Absorption
• When a light beam in impinged on a material surface, portion

of the incident beam that is not reflected by the material is
either absorbed or transmitted through the material.
• Bouguer’s law: The fraction of beam that is absorbed is

related to the thickness of the materials and the manner in
which the photons interact with the material’s structure.
• Absorption occurs by two mechanisms: Rayleigh scattering

and Compton scattering.
40
17.11.2019
Absorption mechanisms
• Rayleigh scattering: where photon interacts with the electrons, it is deflected
without any change in its energy. This is significant for high atomic number
atoms and low photon energies. e.g: Blue color in the sunlight gets scattered
more than other colors in the visible spectrum and thus making sky look blue.
• Tyndall effect is where scattering occurs from particles much larger than the
wavelength of light. e.g: Clouds look white.
• Compton scattering – interacting photon knocks out an electron loosing some
of its energy during the process. This is also significant for high atomic number
atoms and low photon energies.
• Photoelectric effect occurs when photon energy is consumed to release an
electron from atom nucleus. This effect arises from the fact that the potential
energy barrier for electrons is finite at the surface of the metal. e.g: Solar cells.
41
17.11.2019
Example 20.2
Light Transmission in Polyethylene
Suppose a beam of photons in a vacuum strikes a sheet of
polyethylene at an angle of 10o to the normal of the surface of
the polymer. Calculate the index of refraction of polyethylene
and find the angle between the incident beam and the beam as
it passes through the polymer.
The index of refraction is related to the high-frequency
dielectric constant. For this material the high-frequency
dielectric constant k= 2.3:
The angle θt is:
42
17.11.2019
Figure 20.4 The linear absorption coefficient relative to

wavelength for several metals. Note the sudden decrease
in the absorption coefficient for wavelengths greater than
the absorption edge.
43
17.11.2019
44
17.11.2019
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
Figure 20.5 Fractions of the original beam that are

reflected, absorbed, and transmitted.
45
17.11.2019
Section 20.3
Selective Absorption, Transmission,
or Reflection
 Unusual optical behavior is observed when photons are
selectively absorbed, transmitted, or reflected.
46
17.11.2019
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Shorter
Wavelengths
Increasing Color & Energy

Photon Violet ~ 3.17eV
Energy (eV) Blue ~ 2.73eV
Green ~ 2.52eV
Yellow ~ 2.15eV
Orange ~ 2.08eV
Red ~ 1.62eV
Longer
Figure 5.10
Wavelengths
47
17.11.2019
Figure 20.1 The electromagnetic spectrum of radiation; the bandgaps

and cutoff frequencies for some optical materials are also shown.
(Source: From Optoelectronics: An Introduction to Materials and Devices,
by J. Singh. Copyright © 1996 The McGraw-Hill Companies. Reprinted by
permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies.)
48
17.11.2019
Figure 20.1 The electromagnetic spectrum of radiation; the bandgaps

and cutoff frequencies for some optical materials are also shown.
(Source: From Optoelectronics: An Introduction to Materials and
Devices, by J. Singh. Copyright © 1996 The McGraw-Hill Companies.
Reprinted by permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies.)
49
17.11.2019
Figure 20.2 (a) Interaction of photons with a material. In

addition to reflection, absorption, and transmission, the bream
changes direction, or is refracted. The change in direction is
given by the index of refraction n. (b) The absorption index (k)
as a function of wavelength.
50
17.11.2019
Visual Appearance of
Insulators, Metals, & Semiconductors
• A material’s appearance & color depend on the interaction
between light with the electron configuration of the material.
Normally
High resistivity materials (Insulators) are Transparent
High conductivity materials (Metals) have a “Metallic
Luster” & are Opaque
Semiconductors can be opaque or transparent
This & their color depend on the material band gap
• For semiconductors the energy band diagram can explain the

appearance of the material in terms of both luster & color.
51
17.11.2019
Colors of Semiconductors
Evis= 1.8eV 3.1eV
I B G Y O R
If the Photon Energy is Evis > Egap 
Photons will be absorbed
If the Photon Energy is Evis < Egap 
Photons will transmitted
If the Photon Energy is in the range of Egap
those with higher energy than Egap will be absorbed.
We see the color of the light being transmitted.
If all colors are transmitted the light is White
52
17.11.2019
Why is Glass Transparent?

• Glass is an insulator (with a huge band gap). Its is difficult for
electrons to jump across a big energy gap: Egap >> 5 eV
Egap >> E(visible light) ~ 2.7- 1.6 eV
• All colored photons are transmitted, with no absorption, hence the light is transmitted
& thematerial is transparent.
• Define transmission & absorption by
Lambert’s Law: I = Ioexp(-x)
Io = incident beam intensity, I = transmitted beam intensity
x = distance of light penetration into material from a surface
  total linear absorption coefficient (m-1)
 takes into account the loss of intensity from scattering
centers & absorption centers.  approaches zero for a
pure insulator.
53
17.11.2019
What happens during the photon

absorption process?
Photons interact with the lattice
Photons interact with defects
Photons interact with
valence electrons
Photons interact with …..
54
17.11.2019
Absorption
An Important Phenomena in the Description of
the Optical Properties of Semiconductors
• Light (electromagnetic radiation) interacts with the
electronic structure of the material.
The Initial Interaction is Absorption
• This occurs because valence electrons on the surface of
a material absorb the photon energy & move to higher-
energy states.
• The degree of absorption depends, among many other
things, on the number of valence electrons capable of
receiving the photon energy.
55
17.11.2019
• The photon-electron interaction process

obviously depends strongly on the photon energy.
• Lower Energy Photons interact principally by
ionization or excitation of the solid’s valence electrons.
• Low Energy Photons (< 10 eV) are in the infrared
(IR), visible & ultraviolet (UV) in the EM spectrum.
• High Energy Photons (> 104 eV) are in the X-Ray &
Gamma Ray region of the EM spectrum.
• The minimum photon energy to excite and/or
ionize a solid’s valence electrons is called the
Absorption Edge or
Absorption Threshold.
56
17.11.2019
57
17.11.2019
Part 4: Band Theory
58
17.11.2019
• The word ‘phosphor’ comes from the Greek language and means ‘light
bearer’, to describe light-emitting or luminescent materials; barium sulfide
is one of the earlier known naturally occurring phosphors.
• A phosphor is luminescent, that is, it emits energy from an excited electron

as light.
• The excitation of the electron is caused by absorption of energy from an

external source such as another electron, a photon or an electric field.
• An excited electron occupies a quantum state whose energy is above the

minimum energy ground state.
• In semiconductors and insulators, the electronic ground state is commonly

referred to electrons in the valence band, which is completely filled with
these electrons.
59
17.11.2019
• The excited quantum state often lies in the conduction band, which is
empty and is separated from the valence band by an energy gap called the
band gap, ΔEg.
• Therefore, unlike metallic materials, small continuous changes in electron

energy within the band are not possible.
• Instead a minimum energy equal to the band gap is necessary to excite an

electron in a semiconductor or insulator, and the energy released by de-
excitation is often nearly equal to the band gap.
• The band gap of a semiconductor material is such that at room

temperature very few electrons are promoted from the valence band to
the conduction band leaving holes in the valence band.
60
17.11.2019
Valence Band – Conduction Band Absorption

(Band to Band Absorption)
Conduction Band, EC
Egap h = Ephoton
Valence Band, EV
Figure 5.20
61
17.11.2019

This process obviously requires that the minimum energy of a
photon to initiate an electron transition must satisfy
EC - EV = h = Egap
Conduction Band, EC
Egap h = Ephoton
Figure 5.21 Valence Band, EV

62
17.11.2019
This process obviously requires that the minimum energy of a
photon to initiate an electron transition must satisfy
EC - EV = h = Egap
Conduction Band, EC
If h > Egap then

obviously a transition
can happen. Electrons
Egap h = Ephoton
are then excited to the
conduction band.
Valence Band, EV
Figure 5.22
63
17.11.2019
After the Absorption Then What?

2 Primary Absorption Types
Direct Absorption & Indirect Absorption
• All absorption processes must satisfy:

Conservation of Total Energy
Conservation of Momentum or Wavevector
• The production of electron-hole pairs is very

important for electronics devices especially
photovoltaic & photodetector devices.
• The conduction electrons produced by the absorbed
light can be converted into a current in these devices.
64
17.11.2019
Direct Band Gap Absorption

A Direct Vertical Transition!
E
Conservation of Energy
h = EC(min) - Ev (max) = Egap
K (wave number)
Conservation of
h
The Photon
Momentum
Momentum Kvmax + qphoton = kc
is Negligible
Figure 5.24
65
17.11.2019
Indirect Band Gap Absorption
Et
K (wave number) h
Figure 5.26
66
17.11.2019
Figure x: Schematic band-energy diagrams for: (a) direct band gap; and (b)
indirect band gap semiconductors
67
17.11.2019
• When an insulator or semiconductor absorbs electromagnetic radiation (i.e.

a photon) an electron may be excited to a higher energy quantum state.
• If the excited electron returns (relaxes) to a lower energy quantum state by

radiating a photon, the process is called photoluminescence (PL).
• The PL intensity depends on the measurement temperature and the energy

of the exciting light (known as photoluminescence excitation or PLE
spectrum).
• In general, peaks in the PLE spectrum are higher in energy than those in the
PL spectrum.
• Figure x (a) schematically illustrates the excitation and emission processes

of PL.
68
17.11.2019
Figure x: Schematic illustrations of: (a) photoluminescence; (b) electroluminescence;

and (c) cathodoluminescence
69
17.11.2019
• When a material emits electromagnetic radiation as a result of the

application of an electric field, the process is called electroluminescence
(EL).
• The photon emitted results from radiative recombination of electrons and

holes created in the phosphor by the voltage between the two electrodes
(Figure x (b)).
• Other advantages for EL devices in comparison to conventional lighting

systems also include small to large size, flexible substrates and shapes,
high brightness, long device lifetimes, lower operating temperatures,
non-directionality and antiglare lighting.
70
17.11.2019
• Cathodoluminescence (CL) is emission of light from a material that is

excited by energetic electrons.
• The exciting primary electrons can be focused into a beam and

scanned across the surface (as in a scanning electron microscope),
resulting in high spatial resolution CL.
• The CL process is shown schematically in Figure x (c), along with other

phenomena that result from primary electron–material interactions,
for example, X-ray and various electron emissions.
71
17.11.2019
Table x: Band gap and Bohr radii data for selected semiconductors
72
17.11.2019
Band Theory
Useful way to visualize the difference between conductors, insulators and
semiconductors is to plot the available energies for electrons in the materials.
Instead of having discrete energies as in the case of free atoms, the available
energy states form bands.
where m* is called the effective mass
Figure 5.20
73
17.11.2019
Electronic properties
Energy Bands models for solids
• The last completely filled (at least

at T = 0 K) band is called the
Valence Band
• The next band with higher energy
is the Conduction Band
• The Conduction Band can be
empty or partially filed
• The energy difference between the
bottom of the CB and the top of
the VB is called the Band Gap (or
Forbidden Gap)
Figure 5.20
74
17.11.2019
Energy Bands for Solids
Fig. 2.1: Simplified energy band diagram for a typical dielectric, semiconductor,
and metal. The shaded gray and light gray regions represent the
valence band and the conduction band, respectively, and the empty
region between them indicates the band gap
75
17.11.2019
Energy Bands for Solids
Figure 5.20
An important parameter in the band theory is the Fermi level, the top of the
available electron energy levels at low temperatures. The position of the Fermi
level with the relation to the conduction band is a crucial factor in determining
electrical properties.
76
17.11.2019
Insulator Energy Bands
Most solid substances are

insulators, and in terms of the
band theory of solids this implies
that there is a large forbidden gap
between the energies of the
valence electrons and the energy
at which the electrons can move Figure 5.20
freely through the material (the

conduction band).
77
17.11.2019
Conductor Energy Bands
In terms of the band theory of solids,

metals are unique as good conductors of
electricity. This can be seen to be a
result of their valence electrons being
essentially free. In the band theory, this
is depicted as an overlap of the valence
band and the conduction band so that at
Figure 5.20
least a fraction of the valence electrons
can move through the material.
78
17.11.2019
Semiconductor
A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties

lie in between those of insulators and good conductors.
Examples are: germanium and silicon. In terms of energy
bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials
which have almost an empty conduction band and almost
filled valence band with a very narrow energy gap (of the
order of 1 eV) separating the two.
79
17.11.2019
Figure 5.35: Relationships between absorption and the energy gap: (a) metals
and (b) dielectrics and intrinsic semiconductors. The diagram on
the left represents the band structure of the material under
consideration. The diagram on the right represents the intensity of
light as it passes from air into the material and back into air.
80
17.11.2019
Figure 5.36:
Relationships between
absorption and the energy
gap: (a) metals, (b)
Dielectrics and intrinsic
semiconductors, and (c)
extrinsic semiconductors.
81
17.11.2019
Optical Properties of Dielectric Materials
• Dielectrics are by far the dominant materials used for optical
components and devices.
• In conventional optical systems, almost all functional parts, except for

some reflection surfaces, are made from crystalline and glassy
materials.
• The reason is simple: light is effectively manipulated only when it can

efficiently pass through a medium, meaning that the medium is, at least
to some degree, a dielectric.
82
17.11.2019
Table 2.1
Band gap and
critical wavelength of
common dielectrics at
room temperature
83
17.11.2019
• The underlying physical background of light interacting with a dielectric
can be analyzed using Maxwell’s equations plus the following two
constitutive relations:
The 1st equation specifies the relationship between the electric

displacement D, the electric field E, the polarization density P and the
electric susceptibility ꭓe, while 2nd equation is for their magnetic

counterparts.
84
17.11.2019
• The transparency window for most dielectric materials is bounded at
the long-wavelength side by the infrared absorption mode of phonons
due to lattice vibrations, while at the high-frequency side the window is
bounded by interband electron-hole transitions.
• When designing an optical material, it is important to make sure that

the selected dielectric constituent is transparent within the wavelength
range of interest.
• Otherwise substantial loss may arise from electron or photon

resonances in the dielectric, which are detrimental to the performance
of the material in most cases.
85
17.11.2019
Fig. 2.2 The spectral range of transparency for several important dielectric materials
86
17.11.2019
• Photoconduction occurs in semiconducting

materials if the semiconductor is part of an
electrical circuit. If the energy of an incoming
photon is sufficient, an electron is excited into
the conduction band, or a hole is created in the
valence band, and the electron or hole then
carries a charge through the circuit. The
maximum wavelength of the incoming photon
that results in photoconduction is,  = hc/Eg
• Solar cells also use the absorption of light

to generate voltage. Solar cells are p-n
junctions designed so that photons excite
electrons into the conduction band.
Figure 5.37:
(a) Photoconduction in semiconductors involves the
absorption of a stimulus by exciting electrons from the
valence band to the conduction band. Rather than
dropping back to the valence band to cause emission,
the excited electrons carry a charge through an electrical
circuit. (b) A solar cell takes advantage of this effect.
87
17.11.2019
Figure 5.38: Elements of a photonic system for transmitting information

involves a laser or LED to generate photons from an electrical
signal, optical fibers to transmit the beam of photons efficiently,
and an LED receiver to convert the photons back into an
electrical signal.
88
17.11.2019
Example 20.3
Determining Critical Energy Gaps
Determine the critical energy gaps that provide complete

transmission and complete absorption of photons in the visible
spectrum.
The visible light spectrum varies from 4  10-5 cm to 7  10-5
cm. The minimum Eg required to assure that no photons in the
visible spectrum are absorbed is:
89
17.11.2019

The maximum Eg below which all of the photons in the
visible spectrum are absorbed is:
For materials with an intermediate Eg, a portion of the

photons in the visible spectrum will be absorbed.
90
17.11.2019
Example 20.4
Design of a Radiation Shield
A material has a reflectivity of 0.15 and an absorption
coefficient (α) of 100 cm-1. Design a shield that will permit
only 1% of the incident radiation from being transmitted
through the material.
The fraction of the incident intensity that will be
transmitted is:
The material should have a thickness of 0.0428 cm in order

to transmit 1% of the incident radiation.
91
17.11.2019
Section 20.4
Examples and Use of
Emission Phenomena
 X-rays - Electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength
range ~ 1 to 100 Å.
 Continuous spectrum - Radiation emitted from a material
having all wavelengths longer than a critical short
wavelength limit.
 Luminescence - Conversion of radiation to visible light.
 Fluorescence - Emission of light obtained typically within
~ 10-8 seconds.
 Phosphorescence - Emission of radiation from a material
after the stimulus is removed.
92
17.11.2019
Section 20.4 (Continued)
 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) - Electronic p-n junction

devices that convert an electrical signal into visible light.
 Electroluminescence - Use of an applied electrical signal
to stimulate photons from a material.
 Laser - The acronym stands for light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation. A beam of
monochromatic coherent radiation produced by the
controlled emission of photons.
 Thermal emission - Emission of photons from a material
due to excitation of the material by heat.
93
17.11.2019
Selective Absorption, Transmission,

or Reflection
• Unusual optical behavior is observed when photons are

• In certain materials, replacement of normal ions by

transition or rare earth elements produces a crystal field,
which creates new energy levels within the structure.
• Glasses can be doped with ions that produce selective

absorption and transmission.
• Polymers—those containing an aromatic ring in the

backbone can have complex covalent bonds that produce an
energy level structure which causes selective absorption.
94
17.11.2019
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.
Figure 20.9 When an

accelerated electron
strikes and interacts
with a material, its
energy may be reduced
in a series of steps. In
the process, several
photons of different
energies E1 to E5 are
emitted, each with a
unique wavelength.
95
17.11.2019
©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used
herein under license.
Figure 20.10 The continuous and characteristic spectra of radiation

emitted from a material. Low-energy stimuli produce a continuous
spectrum of low-energy, long-wavelength photons. A more intense,
higher energy spectrum is emitted when the stimulus is more powerful
until, eventually, characteristic radiation is observed.
96
17.11.2019
Figure 20.11 Characteristic x-rays are produced when electrons

change from one energy level to a lower energy level, as illustrated
here for copper. The energy and wavelength of the x-rays are fixed
by the energy differences between the energy levels.
97
17.11.2019
Example 20.6
Design/Materials Selection for
an X-ray Filter
Design a filter that preferentially absorbs Kβ x-rays from the
nickel spectrum but permits Kα x-rays to pass with little
absorption. This type of filter is used in x-ray diffraction
(XRD) analysis of materials.
98
17.11.2019
Figure 20.12 Elements have a

selective lack of absorption of
certain wavelengths. If a filter
is selected with an absorption
edge between the Kα and Kβ
peaks of an x-ray spectrum, all
x-rays except Kα are absorbed
(for Example 20.6).
99
17.11.2019
When determining a crystal structure or identifying

unknown materials using various x-ray diffraction
techniques, we prefer to use x-rays of a single
wavelength. If both Kα and Kβ characteristic peaks are
present and interact with the material, analysis becomes
much more difficult.
However, we can use the selective absorption, or
the existence of the absorption edge, to isolate the Kα
peak. Table 20-2 includes the information that we need. If
a filter material is selected; such that the absorption edge
lies between the Kα and Kβ wavelengths, then the Kβ is
almost completely absorbed, whereas the Kα is almost
completely transmitted. In nickel, Kα = 1.660 Å and Kβ =
1.500 Å. A filter with an absorption edge between these
characteristic peaks will work. Cobalt, with an absorption
edge of 1.608 Å, would be our choice. Figure 20-12 shows
how this filtering process occurs.
100
17.11.2019
Example 20.7
Design of an X-ray Filter
Design a filter to transmit at least 95% of the energy of a
beam composed of zinc Kα x-rays, using aluminum as the
shielding material. (The aluminum has a linear absorption
coefficient of 108 cm-1.) Assume no loss to reflection.
The final intensity will therefore be 0.95I0.
We would like to roll the aluminum to a thickness of

0.00047 cm or less. The filter could be thicker if a material
were selected that has a lower linear absorption coefficient
for zinc Kα x-rays.
101
17.11.2019
Example 20.8
Generation of X-rays for XRD
Suppose an electron accelerated at 5000 V strikes a copper
target. Will Kα, Kβ, or Lα x-rays be emitted from the copper
target?
The electron must possess enough energy to excite an electron
to a higher level, or its wavelength must be less than that
corresponding to the energy difference between the shells:
For copper, Kα is 1.542 Å, Kβ is 1.392 Å, and Lα is 13.357 Å.

Therefore, the Lα peak may be produced, but Kα and Kβ will
not.
102
17.11.2019
Example 20.9
Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDXA)
The micrograph in Figure 20.13 was obtained using a
scanning electron microscope at a magnification of 1000. The
beam of electrons in the SEM was directed at the three
different phases, creating x-rays and producing the
characteristic peaks. From the energy spectra, determine the
probable identity of each phase. Assume each region
represents a different phase.
103
17.11.2019
Figure 20.13
Scanning electron
micrograph of a
multiple-phase
material. The
energy distribution
of emitted radiation
from the three
phases marked A, B,
and C is shown.
The identity of each
phase is determined
in Example 20.9.
104
17.11.2019
All three phases have an energy peak of about 1.5 keV =

1500 eV, which corresponds to a wavelength of:
In a similar manner, energies and wavelengths can be

found for the other peaks. The identity of the elements in
each phase can be found, as summarized in the table.
105
17.11.2019

Thus, phase A appears to be an aluminum matrix, phase
B appears to be a silicon needle (perhaps containing some
aluminum), and phase C appears to be an Al-Si-Mn-Fe
compound. Actually, this is an aluminum-silicon alloy. The
stable phases are aluminum and silicon, with inclusions
forming when manganese and iron are present as
impurities.
106
17.11.2019
Photoluminescence
• Luminescence is the spontaneous emission of light from the excited
electronic states of physical systems.
• The emission is preceded by the process of excitation, which may be

produced by a variety of agents.
• If it is achieved by the absorption of light it is called photoluminescence,

if by the action of an electric field electroluminescence, if by a chemical
reaction chemiluminescence, and so on.
• Following the excitation, if the system is left alone without any

additional influence from the exciting agent, it will emit spontaneously.
107
17.11.2019
Photoluminescence
• Although the means by which the luminescence is excited varies, all
luminescence is generated by means of accelerating charges.
• The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to the human eye is

in wavelengths from 400 to 700 nm.
• The evolution of the relatively narrow sensitivity range of the human

eye is complex, but is intimately related to the solar spectrum, the
absorbing behaviour of the terrestrial atmosphere, and the reflecting
properties of organic materials.
• Green is the dominant colour in nature and, not surprisingly, the

wavelength at which the human eye is most sensitive.
108
17.11.2019
Photoluminescence
Table 1.1: Luminescence types, applications and typical effi ciencies (visible
output power/electrical input power)
109
17.11.2019
Photoluminescence
• Consider that an ensemble of atoms has electrons in quantum states k
of energy Ek, which may make transitions to states 1 of energy El with
the release of photons (Figure x).
Figure x: The decay of an electron from state k to state l results in the release of
a photon.
110
17.11.2019
Part 5: Semiconductor
111
17.11.2019
Types of Semiconductors
Figure 5.20
112
17.11.2019
Intrinsic Semiconductors
An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the

semiconductor material in its extremely pure form.
Examples of such semiconductors are: pure
germanium and silicon which have forbidden energy
gaps of 0.72 eV and 1.1 eV respectively. The energy
gap is so small that even at ordinary room
temperature; there are many electrons which possess
sufficient energy to jump across the small energy gap
between the valence and the conduction bands
Alternatively, an intrinsic semiconductor may be
defined as one in which the number of conduction Figure 5.20
electrons is equal to the number of holes. Schematic
energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor at
room temperature is shown in Fig. 5.xx.
113
17.11.2019
Intrinsic Semiconductors
“Fermi level" is the term used to describe the top of the

collection of electron energy levels at absolute zero
temperature. the highest energy level which an electron
can occupy the valance band at 0k is called fermi energy.
114
17.11.2019
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or

doping agent or doping has been added in extremely small
amounts (about 1 part in 108) are called extrinsic or impurity
semiconductors. Depending on the type of doping material used,
extrinsic semiconductors can be sub-divided into two classes:
(i) N-type semiconductors and

(ii) P-type semiconductors.
115
17.11.2019
N-type semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent donor
atoms (e.g., phosphorus (P) and Arsenic (As)) is
added, a silicon atom in the lattice may be
replaced by a donor atom with four of its valence
electrons forming the covalent bounds and one
extra free electron. This is an N-
type semiconductor whose conductivity is much
improved compared to the intrinsic
semiconductors, due to the extra free electrons in
Figure 5.20
the lattice, which are called predominant or
majority current carriers. There also exist some
tiny number of holes called minority carriers.
116
17.11.2019
P-type semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent acceptor
atoms (e.g., boron (B) and aluminum (Al))
is added, a silicon atom in the lattice may
be replaced by an acceptor atom with only
three valence electrons forming three
covalent bounds and a hole in the lattice.
This is a P-type semiconductor whose
conductivity is also much improved
compared to the intrinsic semiconductors,
due to the holes in the lattice, which are
called predominant or majority current Figure 5.20
carriers. There also exist some tiny
number of free electrons called minority
carriers.
117
17.11.2019
Figure 5.20
118
17.11.2019
Comparison of P & N type Semiconductors

N-type Semiconductor P-type Semiconductor
1) Doped with pentavalent 1) Doped with trivalent atoms.

atoms. Electrons are majority Holes are majority charge
charge carriers. Holes are carriers. Electrons are minority
minority charge carriers. charge carriers.
2) It gives out electrons, hence, 2) It accepts electrons, hence,

known as donor atoms. known as accepter atoms.
3) Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic 3) Aluminum, Gallium, Indium

and Phosphorus are the elements and Boron are the elements
used for doping. used for doping.
119
17.11.2019
When a small amount of trivalent acceptor
atoms (e.g., boron (B) and aluminum (Al))
is added, a silicon atom in the lattice may
be replaced by an acceptor atom with only
three valence electrons forming three
covalent bounds and a hole in the lattice.
This is a P-type semiconductor whose
conductivity is also much improved
compared to the intrinsic semiconductors,
due to the holes in the lattice, which are
called predominant or majority current Figure 5.20
carriers. There also exist some tiny
number of free electrons called minority
carriers.
120
17.11.2019
PN-Junction
Figure 5.20
121
17.11.2019
P-N Junction Diode

Construction; It is two terminal
devices consisting of a P-N junction
formed either in Ge or Si crystal. It is
circuit symbol is shown in Fig. (3.2-a).
The P and N type regions are referred
to as anode and cathode respectively.
In Fig. (1-b) arrowhead indicates the
conventional direction of current flow
when forward biased. It is the same
Figure 5.20: Working; A P-N junction diode is a
direction in which hole flow takes one way device offering low resistance when
forward biased and behaving almost as an
place. insulator when reverse biased. Hence such diodes
are mostly used as rectifiers for converting
alternating current into direct current.
122
17.11.2019
Semiconductor Energy Bands
For intrinsic semiconductors like silicon and

germanium, the Fermi level is essentially halfway
between the valence and conduction bands. Although
no conduction occurs at 0 K, at higher temperatures a
finite number of electrons can reach the conduction
band and provide some current. In doped
semiconductors, extra energy levels are added.
Figure 5.20:
The increase in conductivity with temperature can be
modeled in terms of the Fermi function, which allows There are two cases:
one to calculate the population of the conduction • Direct gap
• Indirect gap
band.
123
17.11.2019
Temperature dependence of the energy bandgap

The energy bandgap of semiconductors tends to decrease as the
temperature is increased. The temperature dependence of the energy
bandgap, Eg, has been experimentally determined yielding the following
expression for Eg as a function of the temperature, T:
124
17.11.2019
Part 5: Optical Properties of

Semiconductors
125
17.11.2019
band structure of crystalline solids by solution of

Schroedinger equation (one e- approximation)
Solution leads to energy bands separated by an

energy band
m*- effective mass (determined by curvature of

E-k) Figure 5.20
Band structure E(k)

k- wave vector
126
17.11.2019
Band structure of solids k(E) – is a function of the

three dimensional wave vector (k) within the
Brillouin zone.
Brillouin zone – depends on crystal structure and
corresponds to unit cell of the reciprocal lattice.
Forbidden energy region (gap) – no energy
states.
Energy bands are only permitted above
(conduction band) and below (valence band) the
gap. Figure 5.20
ECB and EVB contain several bands
each band has different effective mass (m*) Band structure E(k)
k- wave vector
127
17.11.2019
Light absorption in semiconductor
• Energy conservation
• Momentum conservation
128
17.11.2019
• Dispersion relation for quasi free electrons and photons for one
dimensional case
Figure 5.20
129
17.11.2019
• Semiconductor band gap (Eg) – the distance between

valence band maximum and conduction band minimum.
• Direct band gap – ECB minimum and EVB maximum at the
same k value.
• Indirect band gap – ECB minimum and EVB maximum at the
different k value
130
17.11.2019
direct vs. indirect semiconductor

Direct (perpendicular) transitions: Indirect transitions: “inclined” transitions
dipole-allowed interband transitions within the 1st Brillouin zone: the k-conservation
can not be realized by a reciprocal lattice vector.
Phonon supplies the missing momentum to the
electron.
Figure 5.20
131
17.11.2019
Character of optical excitation process
Direct - (perpendicular), dipole-allowed interband transitions

Energy conservation
Momentum conservation
(provided by reciprocal lattice vector)

Indirect - phonon assisted with small probability and weak resulting absorption
132
17.11.2019
Absorption coefficient a as function of the energy of

the impinging light
Photon energy
E – photon energy
h – Planck’s constant (4.135667516(91)×10−15 eV s)
c – speed of light (299.79 m s-1)
λ - wavelenght
The absorption coefficient α, is a property of a material which defines the

amount of light absorbed by it.
The inverse of the absorption coefficient, α–1, is the average distance traveled by
a photon before it gets absorbed.
133
17.11.2019
direct semiconductors
• square root dependence on photon energy
indirect semiconductors
• quadratic dependence on the photon energy
134
17.11.2019
Optical properties
Figure 5.20
135
17.11.2019
Relation of absorption coefficient (α) and light

intensity (I) (Lambert-Baer´s Law)
α- absorption coefficient
I0- intensity of incoming light
x- distance to the surface
Exponential decay of intensity profile of absorbed light
136
17.11.2019
Penetration depth and absorption coefficient

The wavelength-dependent value of “α” determines how far the light enters the
semiconductor.
the light intensity vs. distance for a few typical examples of absorption behavior.
Penetration depth (x) – the inverse of the absorption coefficient (α-1) – average
distance at which traveled by a photon before it gets absorbed
137
17.11.2019
Figure 5.20
I0 – the intensity of incoming light
138
17.11.2019
• Semiconductors with direct energy gap are generally

characterized by:
• a high absorption coefficient in the relevant energy range for
photovoltaics;
• most of the sunlight is absorbed within a small range beneath the
surface
• possibility to fabricate thin film solar cells;
139
17.11.2019
Indirect semiconductors
• need more material to absorb most of the sunlight; (Si, Ge, GaP)
• thicker layers are needed;
• higher material costs and increased demands on purity increase prize
Figure 5.20
140
17.11.2019
• The plot of the absorption coefficient for a series of semiconductors allows

identification of thin film solar cell absorber material:
Figure 5.20
141
17.11.2019
• weak absorption of crystalline Si (x-Si) in the IR to visible range

prohibits the use in thin film solar cells.
• III-V compound sc, the steep increase of the absorption coefficient with
the photon energy, reaching values of α > 104 cm-1 within about 0.2 eV
beyond the fundamental absorption edge, makes these materials
candidates for thin film applications.
• ternary chalcopyrites CuInS2 and its selenide -even steeper increase of
α.
• amorphous hydrogenated silicon (a-Si:H) has a considerably increased
absorption compared to x-Si and an optical gap shifted by about 0.6eV
compared to the crystalline material which allows application in thin
film devices with in principle higher photovoltages.
142
17.11.2019
• Absorption coefficient vs absorption length for hν ~ Eg + 0.2 eV
143
17.11.2019
144
17.11.2019
145
17.11.2019
• Unusual optical behavior is observed when photons are

146
17.11.2019
Examples and Use of Emission Phenomena

• Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) - Electronic p-n junction devices
that convert an electrical signal into visible light.
• Electroluminescence - Use of an applied electrical signal to

stimulate photons from a material.
• Laser - The acronym stands for light amplification by

stimulated emission of radiation. A beam of monochromatic
coherent radiation produced by the controlled emission of
photons.
• Thermal emission - Emission of photons from a material due

to excitation of the material by heat.
147
17.11.2019
Figure 5.42: Luminescence occurs when photons have a wavelength in the visible spectrum. (a) In
metals, there is no energy gap, so luminescence does not occur. (b) Fluorescence occurs
when there is an energy gap. (c) Phosphorescence occurs when the photons are emitted
over a period of time due to donor traps in the energy gap.
• Luminescence is the conversion of radiation or other forms of energy to visible light.

• In fluorescence, all of the excited electrons drop back to the valence band and the
corresponding photons are emitted within a very short time (10-8 seconds) after the stimulus
is removed.
• Phosphorescent materials have impurities that introduce a donor level within the energy gap.
• Intensity of luminescence → ln(I/I0) = t/ : where  is the relaxation time - The time required
for 1/e of the electrons to drop from the conduction band to the valence band in
luminescence.
148
17.11.2019
Example 20.10
Design/Materials Selection for
a Television Screen
Select a phosphor material that will produce a blue image
on a television screen.
Figure 20.1 The

electromagnetic spectrum
of radiation; the bandgaps
and cutoff frequencies for
some optical materials are
also shown. (Source: From
Optoelectronics: An
Introduction to Materials
and Devices, by J. Singh.
Copyright © 1996 The
McGraw-Hill Companies.
Reprinted by permission of
The McGraw-Hill
Companies.)
149
17.11.2019
150
17.11.2019

Photons having energies that correspond to the color blue
have wavelengths of about 4.5  10-5 cm (Figure 20.1).
The energy of the emitted photons therefore is:
Typical phosphorescent materials for television screens

might include CaWO4, which produces photons with a
wavelength of 4.3  10-5 cm (blue).
151
17.11.2019
Figure 5.43:
Diagram of a light-
emitting diode (LED).
A forward-bias
voltage across the p-n
junction produces
photons.
• Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) - Electronic p-n junction devices that convert an

electrical signal into visible light.
• Electroluminescence - Use of an applied electrical signal to stimulate photons

from a material.
152
17.11.2019
Figure 5.44: Schematic cross-section of a GaAs laser. Because the surrounding p- and
n-type GaAlAs layers have a higher energy gap and a lower index of
refraction than GaAs, the photons are trapped in the active GaAs layer.
• Laser – Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
153
17.11.2019
Figure 5.45: Creation of a laser beam from a semiconductor: (a) Electrons are excited into
the conduction band by an applied voltage. (b) Electron 1 recombines with a
hole to produce a photon. The photon stimulates the emission of photon 2 by
a second recombination. (c) Photons reflected from the mirrored end
stimulate even more photons. (d) A fraction of the photons are emitted as a
laser beam, while the rest are reflected to simulate more recombinations.
154
17.11.2019
Figure 5.46: The laser converts a stimulus into a beam of coherent

photons. The mirror on one side is 100% reflecting, the mirror
on the right transmits partially.
155
17.11.2019
Figure 5.47:
Intensity in relation to
wavelengths of photons
emitted thermally from a
material. As the temperature
increases, more photons are
emitted from the visible
spectrum.
• Thermal emission - Emission of photons from a material due to excitation of

the material by heat.
156
17.11.2019
157
17.11.2019
Section 20.5
Fiber Optic Communication System
 Generating the Signal - In order to best transmit and process
information, the light should be coherent and monochromatic
(to minimize dispersion).
 Transmitting the Beam - Optical fibers transmit the
information.
 Receiving the Signal - The job of a receiver in the fiber optic
system is to convert the optical signal into an electronic
signal.
 Processing the Signal - Normally, the received signal is
converted immediately into an electronic signal and then
processed using conventional silicon-based semiconductor
devices.
 Photonic bandgap materials - These are structures produced
using micromachined silicon or colloidal particles, such that
there is a range of frequencies that cannot be transmitted
through the structure.
158
17.11.2019
Figure 20.20 Schematic of a fiber-optic based communication system.
159
17.11.2019
Figure 20.21 Different types of

optical fibers. (a) A step index glass
fiber, in which the index or refrac-
tion is slightly different in each glass.
(b) The profile of a refractive index in
a graded refractive index (GRIN)
fiber. (c) The path of rays entering at
different angles. [1,5]
160
Part 4.4:
Applications
17.11.2019
• Light interacts with a material in many ways.
• Depending on the material, its crystal-/micro-

structure, and also on the characteristics of incident
light, there are many peculiar phenomena occurs,
which are known as optical phenomena. These
include:
• luminescence
• lasers
• thermal emission
• photo-conductivity
• optical fibers
• All these find quite many applications in technology
for every day life
162
Part 4.4.1:
Luminescence
17.11.2019
• It is the process where a material absorbs energy and then

immediately emits visible or near-visible radiation. It consists of
electron excitation and then dropping down to lower energy states.
• If the emission of radiation occurs within 10-8 sec.s after excitation,
the luminescence is called fluorescence, and if it takes longer than
10-8 sec.s, it is known as phosphorescence.
• Ordinarily pure materials do not display this phenomenon. Special
materials called phosphors have the capability of absorbing high-
energy radiation and spontaneously emitting lower-energy
radiation. e.g: some sulfides, oxides, tungstates, and few organic
materials.
• The intensity of luminescence is given as:
164
17.11.2019
• Based on source for electron excitation, luminescence is three types:

photo-luminescence, cathode-luminescence, and electro-
luminescence.
165
Part 4.4.1.1:
Photo-luminescence
17.11.2019
• Photo-luminescence occurs in fluorescent lamps.

• Here ultra-violet radiation from low-pressure mercury arc is
converted to visible light by calcium halo-phosphate phosphor
(Ca10F2P6O24).
• In commercial lamps, about 20% of F- ions are replaced with Cl- ions.
• Antimony, Sb3+, ions provide a blue emission while manganese,
Mn2+, ions provide an orange-red emission band.
167
Part 4.4.1.2:
Cathode-luminescence
17.11.2019
• Cathode-luminescence is produced by an energized cathode which

generates a beam of high-energy bombarding electrons. e.g:
Applications of this include electron microscope; cathode-ray
oscilloscope; color television screens.
• The modern televisions have very narrow, about 0.25 mm wide,

vertical stripes of red-, green-, and blue- emitting phosphors
deposited on the inner surface of the screens.
• Commercial phosphors for different colors are: red – yttrium oxy-

sulfide (Y2O2S) with 3% europium (Eu); green – (Zn,Cd)S with a Cu+
acceptor and Al3+ donor; blue – zinc sulfide (ZnS) with Ag+ acceptor
and Cl- donor.
169
Part 4.4.1.3:
Electro-luminescence
17.11.2019
• Electro-luminescence occurs in devices with p-n rectifying junctions

which are stimulated by an externally applied voltage.
• When a forward biased voltage is applied across the device,

electrons and holes recombine at the junction and emit photons in
the visible range (mono-chromatic light i.e. singe color). These
diodes are called light emitting diodes (LEDs).
• LEDs emit light of many colors, from red to violet, depending on the
composition of the semiconductor material used. e.g: GaAs, GaP,
GaAlAs, and GaAsP are typical materials for LEDs.
171
Part 4.4.2:
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
17.11.2019
Key Points
1. The two types of LED structures are surface emitting and edge
emitting.
2. Electrons and holes combine, the electron loses energy to

create a photon.
3. Direct band gaps create the most amount of photons
4. LED’s are taking over house lighting because they are so much
more efficient
5. The color of light emitted from an led is determined by the band

gap of the semiconductor
173
17.11.2019
What is an LED?
• Light-emitting diode
• Semiconductor
• Has polarity
174
17.11.2019
175
17.11.2019
LED Structures
 Surface emitting
 Edge emitting
 superluminescent diode
 Packages
– Traditional
– Surface Mount
176
17.11.2019
177
17.11.2019
• LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a semiconductor p-n junction diode

which converts electrical energy to light energy under forward
biasing.
• Principle: The diode is forward biased. Due to forward bias, the
majority carriers from ‘n’ and ‘p’ regions cross the junction and
become minority carriers in the other junction (i.e.) Electrons, which
are majority carriers in ‘n’ region cross the junction and go to ‘p’
region and become minority carriers in p-region.
• Similarly, holes which are majority carries in ‘p’ region cross the
junction and go to ‘n’ region and become minority carriers in ‘n’
region and this phenomenon is called minority carrier injection.
178
17.11.2019
L.E.D.= Light Emitting Diode (Runs on 3.2V DC Power)
Blue LED
LED produces light by combining

Positive and negative charges inside
Gallium nitride crystal
179
17.11.2019
• Forward Bias p-n junction:

• Light is created by flowing current from
battery
180
17.11.2019
LED: How It Works

• When current flows
across a diode
• Negative electrons move one way and

positive holes move the other way
181
17.11.2019
LED: How It Works

• The wholes exist at a
lower energy level than
the free electrons
• Therefore when a free electrons falls it

losses energy
182
17.11.2019
LED: How It Works

• This energy is emitted
in a form of a photon,
which causes light
• The color of the light is determined by

the fall of the electron and hence
energy level of the photon
183
17.11.2019
184
17.11.2019
185
17.11.2019
Radiative recombination
Now if the biasing voltage is further increased, these excess

minority carriers diffuse away from the junction and they
directly recombine with the majority carriers. (i.e.) the
electrons, which are excess minority carriers in p-region
recombine with the holes which are the majority carriers in ‘p’
region and emit light. Similarly, the holes which are excess
minority carriers in ‘n’ region recombine with the electrons
which are majority carriers in ‘n’ region and emit light.
186
17.11.2019
• Thus radiative recombination events lead to photon emission.

The number of radiative recombination is proportional to the
carrier injection rate and hence to the total current flowing
through the device as given by
  eV  
I I 0 exp    1
   kT  
• where I0 - the saturation current ; V- the forward bias

voltage; k - the Boltzmann constant ;  -varies from 1 and 2
depending on the semiconductor and temperature.
• The optical photon emitted due to radiative recombination has
the energy very close to the bandgap energy Eg and frequency of
the emitted photon is given by
187
17.11.2019
• The optical photon emitted due to radiative recombination has

the energy very close to the bandgap energy Eg and frequency of
the emitted photon is given by
hc
 Eg

• where  - the photon wavelength; h - Plancks constant; c -
the velocity of light in vacuum.
188
17.11.2019
Kinds of LEDs
189
17.11.2019
Inside a Light Emitting Diode
1. Transparent Plastic
Case
2. Terminal Pins
3. Diode
190
17.11.2019
LED Construction
An LED must be constructed such that the light emitted by the
radiative recombination events can escape the structure.
Sketches of LEDs
191
17.11.2019
LEDs can be designed as either surface or edge emitters.

Surface emitting LEDs can be made such that the bottom edge
reflects light back towards the top surface to enhance the output
intensity. The main advantage of edge emitter LEDs is the emitted
radiation is relatively direct. Hence edge emitter LEDs have a
higher efficiency in coupling to an optical fibre.
192
17.11.2019
Although the internal quantum efficiency of LEDs is 100%, the

external efficiencies are much lower. The main reason is that most
of the emitted light radiation strikes the material interface at
greater than critical angle and hence trapped with in the device.
The internal critical angle at the semiconductor – air boundary is
given by n2
sin  c 
n1
Where n1 is the refractive index of air = 1.0

n2 is the refractive index of the semiconductor
193
17.11.2019
For group III semiconductor n2 = 3.5

Therefore c = 16°
Critical angle
Therefore all rays of light striking the surface at an angle

exceeding 16° suffer total internal reflection and as a result most
of the emitted light is reflected back inside the semiconductor
crystal.
194
17.11.2019
Two methods used to reduce reflection losses in LEDs
195
17.11.2019
• Hence to improve the external efficiency losses caused bulk

absorption has to be minimized and the surface transmission
has to be increased. One method to achieve this is to give the
semiconductor a dome structure.
• Hemi spherical domes made from plastics are effective in
increasing the external efficiency by a factor 2 or 3. There will
be some losses at the plastic/ air interface but these are easily
minimized by molding the plastic into an approximately
hemispherical shape.
196
17.11.2019
How to Connect a LED:

• Requires 1.5~2.5V and 10 mA
• To prevent overloading, use resistor 470 Ω
197
17.11.2019
How to Connect a LED:
198
17.11.2019
Connect LED to BS2
• LED is on when P0 is
high
• LED is on when P1 is
low
199
17.11.2019
Connect Multiple LEDs to BS2
• 8 LEDs are connected to BS2 each I/O pin

(P0-P7) is allowed to sink 6.25mA
200
17.11.2019
Case Study: Blinking LED
201
17.11.2019
Materials
• The choice of the materials for an LED is decided by the spectral
requirements for a particular application. The most commonly
used materials for LEDs are GaP, GaAs and their related ternary
compound Ga Asx P1-x
• The bandgap radiation of GaP, GaAs and GaAsP. GaP which gives
a peak at 560 nm is very close to the wavelength of maximum
eye response.
202
17.11.2019
Materials
Aluminum gallium arsenide
Aluminum gallium indium

phosphide
Aluminum gallium nitride
Aluminum nitride
Gallium arsenide
Gallium arsenide phosphide
Gallium phosphide
Indium gallium nitride
Indium gallium phosphide
203
17.11.2019
• LEDs can be made up from

group III and V elements
from the periodic table.
• III-Nitride
semiconductors(AlN, InN,
GaN): Can create LEDs to
cover the ultraviolet to the
entire visible spectrum.
204
17.11.2019
GaN Emits All Colors of Light

(Blue,Green,UV->White)
205
17.11.2019
• This makes GaP one of the most useful of all visible

semiconductor light sources since in addition to green light both
red and other colours can be produced by appropriate dopants.
Wavelength response of LED materials
206
17.11.2019
Quantum
Bandgap Wavelength
Material Dopant efficiency
(eV) (Nm)
( %)
GaP N 2.88 430 0.6

GaP Zn0 1.80 690 0.2
GaP N 2.25 550 0.1
GaAs P 1.88 660 0.2
AlGa As 1.84 675 0.2
207
17.11.2019
Fabrication
• Grown on sapphire,
silicon carbide
• Process to create layers:
– Molecular beam epitaxy
– Metal organic chemical
vapor deposition
– Liquid phase epitaxy
208
17.11.2019
209
17.11.2019
Lighting
• Aviation
lighting
• Automotive
headlights
• Traffic signals
• Camera flashes
210
17.11.2019
Luminous Efficacy of Various Light Sources
LED
x
Current number for

GaN white LED at UCSB
is 116lm/W ucsb chip
143 lm/W partner chip
2006
Graph taken from www.lampteck.co.uk
211
17.11.2019
Lighting System Efficacy
212
Courtesy Cree Inc
17.11.2019
213
17.11.2019
The Advantage of LED Lighting

Long life – lifetimes can exceed 100,000 hours as compared to 1,000 hrs for
tungsten bulbs.
Robustness – no moving parts, no glass, no filaments.
Size – typical package is only 5 mm in diameter.
Energy efficiency – 50- 90% less energy used

translates into smaller power supply.
Non-toxicity – no mercury.
Versatility – available in a variety of colors; can be pulsed.
Cool – less heat radiation than HID or incandescent
214
17.11.2019
LED Market Size
215
17.11.2019
LED Market Penetration LED Market Penetration
Time
216
17.11.2019
The Reality
• Commercial White LED “Bulb” 15-100 LPW
• Fixture Efficiency all over the map 10-80%
• Luminaire System Efficacy 15- 80 LPW
• HEAT is the Biggest Problem
100 LPW
71 LPW
25C 60C in fixture

217
17.11.2019
LED “Lamp” Eff. vs. System Eff.

• Company LED Fixture Eff. System Efficacy
– LED A 80 LPW 80% 64LPW
– LED B 45LPW 50% 22.5LPW
– LED C 50LPW 30% 15LPW
– CFL 60LPW 50% 30LPW
– Better wait for Energy Star Ratings
218
17.11.2019
Current LED Market $2B/yr
Cellphone Traffic signals

(Nokia) (Gelcore)
Large Displays
(NASDAQ)
TVs (LED DLPtm)

(samsung)
streetlights Automotive
219
17.11.2019
LEDs in Architectural Lighting
Installation Benjamin Franklin Bridge,

PA, USA (Color Kinetics Inc.) Lighting Systems by Color Kinetics Inc.
Takarazuka University of Art and Design
220
17.11.2019
Ultra-Mobile LED Enabled products
• Uses Blue, Green, Red LEDs
• CellPhone Camera Flash
(Osram Opto)
221
17.11.2019
LED Plant Growth

• Blue and Green LEDs used to grow Wasabi at night,
• It is known that chlorophyll has the second distinct absorption peak in the vicinity of 450 nm
(blue light region) other than the first peak in the vicinity of 660nm (red light region) in its
light absorption spectrum.
• The blue light is also indispensable to the morphologically healthy growth plant.
• On the other hand, the red light contributes to the plant photosynthesis.
222
17.11.2019
Other Applications
 Optical fiber applications
 Medical diagnostic
equipment
 Photolithography
 Detecting light
 Displays
– 7 segment
– Star-burst
– Dot matrix
– TV’s
223
17.11.2019
Summary
• The two types of LEDs are surface and edge emitting. They can
packaged traditionally or surfaced mounted.
• When a current is applied to the PN-junction then the holes
and electrons combine making photons.
• Many LEDs can be combined to make a display.
• The materials used come from the III and V groups on the
periodic table
• Crystal layers are formed using liquid phase epitaxy
• The final epoxy protects the tiny electronics and keeps
everything together
• LEDs for lighting are much more efficient than incandescent or
florescent
224
17.11.2019
Part 4.4.3:
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
225
17.11.2019
• Liquid crystals are organic compounds that flow like a liquid

while maintaining a long range orderliness of a solid. The
molecules of liquid crystal compound are in the form of long
cigar shaped rods.
Liquid Crystal
226
17.11.2019
Types
Based on the orientation of these rods–like polar molecules, the
liquid crystals are classified into three basic types. They are smectic,
nematic and chloesteric.
(i) Smectic
The Smectic phase consists of flat layers of cigar shaped
molecules with their long axes oriented perpendicular to the plane
of the layer. The molecules within each layer remain oriented within
each layer and do not move between layers. This most ordered
smectic mesophase structural model.
227
17.11.2019
(ii) Nematic
The nematic phase also has molecules with their long axes
parallel to each other, but they are separated into layers. In the
nematic mesophase, while the molecules maintain their
orientation, the individual molecules can move freely up and
down.
The nematic liquid crystal molecule consists of two
benzene rings linked with a central group. A typical example is 4-
methoxybenzenylidene-4-butylanaline (MBBA). The nematic
liquid exhibits crystalline property over the temperature range
20°C to 47°C.
228
17.11.2019
(iii) Chloesteric
Chloesteric mesophase can be defined as a special type of nematic in
which the thin layers of mostly parallel molecules have their longitudinal axes
twisted (rotated) in adjacent layers at a definite angle. This is the most
ordered phase. Each layer is basically nematic.
LIQUID CRYSTAL ORIENTATION

In LCD’s two preffered orientations of LC molecules are used (i).
Homeotrophic [With long axis of the molecules parallel to the glass plates and
electrodes] and (ii). Homogeneous [With long axis of the molecules
perpandicular to the glass plates and electrodes]
229
17.11.2019
The dielectric layer near the electrodes has preferred

orientation which in turn aligns LC molecules. The top and
bottom dielectric layers are by 90° with respect to one another.
Therefore the direction of the crystal is rotated 90° with
respect to the bottom of the liquid crystal. The liquid crystal
thus acts like a set of polarisers whose optic axes are parallel to
each other in the presence of electric field and in crossed
position in the absence of electric field.
230
17.11.2019
LC molecular orientations
231
17.11.2019
Effect of electric field

• The fundamental property of LCDs that makes them useful as display
device is that they are sensitive to an external electric field.
• The nematic liquid crystal finds its applications increasingly in electro-optic
devices since their molecules can be aligned by electric and magnetic fields
to produce sufficient change in their optical properties. Liquid crystal
molecules rotate as a result of external electric field. The behaviour of
initially ordered liquid crystal material due to increase in electric field.
232
17.11.2019
Behaviour of LC molecules in an electric field
233
17.11.2019
• The orientation of the LC molecules parallel to the glass plates is

achieved by the deposition of a layer of dielectric over the
transparent electrodes.
• The dielectric layer near the electrodes has preferred orientation
which in turn aligns LC molecules. The top and bottom dielectric
layers are by 90° with respect to one another. Therefore the
direction of the crystal is rotated 90° with respect to the bottom
of the liquid crystal. The liquid crystal thus acts like a set of
polarisers whose optic axes are parallel to each other in the
presence of electric field and in crossed position in the absence
of electric field.
234
17.11.2019
Comparison between LED and LCD
LED LCD
S.No.
Demerits Merits
1 Cost is high compared to LCD Cost is very low.
2. Not suitable for large area display Suitable for large areas display
3. High consumption Power (milliwatts) Low power consumption (microwatts)
Merits Demerits
4. Operating temperature is 0 °C to 70 °C. Operating temperature is 10 °C to 47 °C.
5. Response time is in nano seconds Response time is in microseconds (10-6 sec)

(10-9 sec)
6. Intensity of light can be controlled Intensity of light cannot be controlled.
7. Different colour displays are available at low cost. Colour displays will not be available at low cost.
235
Part 4.4.4:
Fiber-Optic Communication
System
17.11.2019
What are optical fibers
• Thin strands of pure glass
• Carry data over long distances
• At very high speeds
• Fiber can be bent or twisted
237
17.11.2019
Fiber-Optic Communication System
• A fiber-optic system transmits a light signal generated

from some other source, such as an electrical signal.
• The fiber-optic system transmits the light to a receiver

using an optical fiber, processes the data received,
and converts the data to a usable form.
• Photonic materials are required for this process.
238
17.11.2019
System Design Considerations

• Design is based on
– Application
• Type of signal
• Distance from transmitter to detector
• Performance standards
• Resource constraints (time, money, etc.)
– Implementation
• Components
– Format, power, bandwidth, dynamic range
• Amplification
239
17.11.2019

• Design is based on
– Implementation
• Components
– Format, power, bandwidth, dynamic range
• Amplification, amplitude, and spacing

• Multiplexing
• Security requirements
• Acceptable noise levels
240
17.11.2019

• System Power Budget
– Most important parameter is throughput or transfer function.
– Output power must be greater than the input sensitivity of the

receiver.
– System budget
• Amount of power lost or gained in each component
– System power margin

• Allows for component tolerances, system degradation, repairs and splices
241
17.11.2019

• Power at the Source
– Transmitter must be appropriate for the application
• Number of signals
• Wavelength of signal
• Type of transmitter device (LED, Laser)
• Modulation
• Mode structure
• Tunability
• WDM and amplification capability
• Coupling efficiency
242
17.11.2019

• Power in the Fiber
– Matching
• Source output pattern, core-size, and NA of fiber
• Coupling is critical
• Power at the Detector

– Sensitivity is the primary purpose of the detector
– Minimum sensitivity yet still meets standards
– Must support the dynamic range of the power levels
243
17.11.2019
• Fiber Amplification
– For those fibers that require amplification
– Two types:
• Repeaters are rarely used.
• Optical amplifiers are the preferred amplification.
– Use manufacturers specifications to ensure

optimization of the input signal.
244
17.11.2019

• Amplifier Placement
– Depends on
• Type of amplifier
• Transmitter
• Receiver
• Rise time
• Noise and error analysis
– Can be inserted
• Before regeneration
• Between regenerators
245
17.11.2019

• System Rise Time Budget
– Determines the bandwidth carrying capability
– Total rises time is the sum of the individual

component rise times.
– Bandwidth is limited by the component with the

slowest rise time.
246
17.11.2019

• Rise Time and Bit Time
– Rise time is defined as the time it takes for the
response to rise from the 10% to 90% of maximum
amplitude.
– Fall time is the time the response needs to fall from
90% to 10% of the maximum.
– Pulse width is the time between the 50% marks on the
rising and falling edges.
247
17.11.2019
• Transmitters, Receivers, and Rise Time

– Rise time of transmitter is based on the response
time of the LED or laser diode.
– Rise time of the receiver is primarily based on the

semiconductor device used as the detector.
248
17.11.2019

• Fiber Rise Time
– Comes directly from the total dispersion of the
fiber as a result of modal, material, wave guide,
and polarization mode dispersion
• Total Rise Time

– Sum of all the rise times in the system
249
17.11.2019

• Round Trip Delay
– Time needed for the signal to reach the furthest point of the network
and return
• Dispersion Compensation
– Allows for lowering the fiber dispersion characteristics
– add fiber with dispersion of the opposite magnitude
– Only available type: chromatic dispersion
250
17.11.2019

• Single Channel System Compensation
– Implementation
• Long length of small amplitude dispersion fiber
• Short length of large amplitude dispersion fiber (distributed
compensation)
– Multi-Channel System Compensation

• Large effective area fibers
• Reduced dispersion fibers
251
17.11.2019

• Single Channel System Compensation
– Noise and Error Analysis
• Determines the type of amplification required
– Minimizing System Noise

• Additional Noise Sources
– Extended pulse width
– Modal properties of fibers
– Chirp
– Fresnel reflection
– Feedback noise
252
17.11.2019

• Multiple Channel System
– Channel Density and Spacing
• Standards have been defined by ITU-T
– WDM, TDM, and Noise

• Interchannel crosstalk: Data from adjacent channels gets
mixed
• Dispersion in adjacent channels
• Non-linearities at high powers causes interference
• Narrow bandpass filtering at the receiver
253
17.11.2019
• WDM Power Management

– Methods must ensure that all power levels fall
with acceptable range.
– Gain flattening is the process of adjusting the

amplitudes of wavelengths to be the same.
254
17.11.2019
Fiber-Optic Communication System

 Generating the Signal - In order to best transmit and process
information, the light should be coherent and monochromatic (to
minimize dispersion).
 Transmitting the Beam - Optical fibers transmit the information.
 Receiving the Signal - The job of a receiver in the fiber optic system is
to convert the optical signal into an electronic signal.
 Processing the Signal - Normally, the received signal is converted

immediately into an electronic signal and then processed using
conventional silicon-based semiconductor devices.
 Photonic bandgap materials - These are structures produced using

micromachined silicon or colloidal particles, such that there is a range
of frequencies that cannot be transmitted through the structure.
255
17.11.2019
Fiber optic technology

• Sources
• Transmission medium
• Detectors
Fig: The fiber optic communication system
256
17.11.2019
Figure 20.20 Schematic of a fiber-optic based communication system.
257
17.11.2019
Sources of light
• Light emitting diodes

• Lasers
258
17.11.2019
Sources
• Modulate electrical signals into optical signals
• Mostly modulate at 850 nm, 1300 nm and

1550 nm
• Lasers give high intensity, high frequency light
• LEDs are economical
259
17.11.2019
Transmission medium
• Optical fiber is replacing copper
• Light is used as the carrier of information
• Much higher data rate
The optical fiber
260
17.11.2019
Physics of optical fibers
• Index of refraction of material : ratio of

speed of light in vacuum to speed of light in
medium
• Refraction of light : bending of light as it
travels from one media to another
261
17.11.2019
Figure 5.21:
Different types of optical fibers. (a) A step
index glass fiber, in which the index or refrac-
tion is slightly different in each glass. (b) The
profile of a refractive index in a graded
refractive index (GRIN) fiber. (c) The path of
rays entering at different angles.
262
17.11.2019
Refraction of light
• Speed of light
changes as it
across the
boundary of two
media
• Angles w.r.t normal
263
17.11.2019
Refraction Indices
• Vacuum ….….….….….….1.00000 (exactly)
• Air ……….….….….………. 1.00029
• Alcohol .....….….….……..1.329
• Diamond ......….….….….2.417
• Glass ........….….….….…. 1.5
• Ice .......….….….….….….. 1.309
• Sodium Chloride (Salt) .... 1.544
• Sugar Solution (80%) .........1.49
• Water (20 C) ...................1.333

264
17.11.2019
Snell’s Law
• Critical angle: Angle of incidence at which angle of refraction

= 900
265
17.11.2019
Total internal reflection

• Trapping light in the fiber
266
17.11.2019
Fibers can be bent!!
Fig: Illustration of total internal reflection
267
17.11.2019
Types of optical fibers

• Single mode
– only one signal can be transmitted
– use of single frequency
• Multi mode
– Several signals can be transmitted
– Several frequencies used to modulate the signal
268
17.11.2019
Losses in optical fibers

• Attenuation loss
• Dispersion loss
• Waveguide loss
269
17.11.2019
Splices and Connectors

• To connect to fibers mechanically or by fusion
• Lot of signal loss possible
• Very accurate alignment necessary
• Most important cost factor
• Now being replaced by optical amplifiers
270
17.11.2019
Optical Receivers
• Must be very sensitive
• Capable of picking up and amplifying signals

of nanowatts
• Photodiodes and phototransistors
• These devices get ‘turned ON’ by light
• Produce photocurrent
271
17.11.2019
Advantages of optical fibers

• Can carry much more information
• Much higher data rates
• Much longer distances than co-axial cables
• Immune to electromagnetic noise
• Light in weight
• Unaffected by atmospheric agents
272
Part 4.4.5:
Photonic band gap (PBG)
Materials
17.11.2019
• Photonics, the technology of photons (by analogy to

electronics, the technology of electrons) will be the driving
force for the advancement of areas such as communications
and computing, information technology and probably others
such as sensing.
• Photonic band gap (PBG) materials may answer many of their
demands.
• Trying to understand the physics involved is a challenge very
eagerly taken on by an ample science community.
• Although most of the notions dealt with in this discipline are
rooted in solid state physics concepts, it is worth pointing out
that they were originally borrowed by solid state physics from
the theory of electromagnetism.
274
17.11.2019
• The realizations of actual structures to fulfill theoretical

predictions are plenty and they come from very distinct
fields.
• Foremost among the approaches to PBGs, colloidal systems

lend themselves to being used as natural starting points for
the purpose of creating and using photonic crystals.
• A broad range of techniques and different sources of

knowledge contribute to the interdisciplinary nature of the
subject.
• A whole wealth of materials properties are involved that

spring from their architectural scale.
275
17.11.2019
• From the molecular level, and up to the macroscopic

structure, micro- and mesoscopic regimes involve new
properties, processes, and phenomena like synthesis in new
environments, mechanical, optical, electronic, magnetic and
other properties.
276
17.11.2019
• Photonics, the technology of photons (by analogy to

electronics, the technology of electrons) will be the driving
force for the advancement of areas such as communications
and computing, information technology and probably others
such as sensing.
• Photonic band gap (PBG) materials may answer many of their
demands.
• Trying to understand the physics involved is a challenge very
eagerly taken on by an ample science community.
• Although most of the notions dealt with in this discipline are
rooted in solid state physics concepts, it is worth pointing out
that they were originally borrowed by solid state physics from
the theory of electromagnetism.
277
17.11.2019
What is a PBG ?
• A photonic band gap (PBG) crystal is a structure that could
manipulate beams of light in the same way semiconductors
control electric currents.
• A semiconductor cannot support electrons of energy lying in

the electronic band gap. Similarly, a photonic crystal cannot
support photons lying in the photonic band gap. By preventing
or allowing light to propagate through a crystal, light
processing can be done .
This will revolutionize photonics the way transistors revolutionized
electronics.
278
17.11.2019
Semiconductors
PBG Crystals
279
17.11.2019
PHOTONIC BAND GAP STRUCTURES

Semiconductors PBG Crystals
Periodic crystal potential Periodic variation of dielectric

constant
Atomic length scales Length scale ~ 
Crystal structure given by nature Man-made structures
Control electron flow Control e.m. wave propagation
1950’s electronic revolution 1990’s optical fibers, lasers,

PBGs --> photonics era
280
17.11.2019
PBG Classifications
• Simple examples of one-, two-, and three-dimensional photonic crystals.

• The different colors represent materials with different dielectric constants.
• The defining feature of a photonic crystal is the periodicity of dielectric material
along one or more axes.
• Each of these classifications will be discussed in turn in the following slides.
281
17.11.2019
How is a PBG fabricated ?

• Photonic crystals usually consist of dielectric materials, that is,
materials that serve as electrical insulators or in which an
electromagnetic field can be propagated with low loss.
• Holes (of the order of the relevant wavelength) are drilled into
the dielectric in a lattice-like structure and repeated identically
and at regular intervals.
• If built precisely enough, the resulting holey crystal will have
what is known as a photonic band gap, a range of frequencies
within which a specific wavelength of light is blocked .
282
17.11.2019
How does a PBG work ?

• In semiconductors, electrons get scattered by the row of atoms in the lattice
separated by a few nanometers and consequently an electronic band gap is
formed. The resulting band structure can be modified by doping.
• In a photonic crystal, perforations are analogous to atoms in the
semiconductor. Light entering the perforated material will reflect and
refract off interfaces between glass and air. The complex pattern of
overlapping beams will lead to cancellation of a band of wavelengths in all
directions leading to prevention of propagation of this band into the crystal.
The resulting photonic band structure can be modified by filling in some
holes or creating defects in the otherwise perfectly periodic system.
283
17.11.2019
Physics of PBG
• PBG formation can be regarded as the synergetic interplay between two distinct resonance
scattering mechanisms. The first is the “macroscopic” Bragg resonance from a periodic array of
scatterers. This leads to electromagnetic stop gaps when the wave propagates in the direction of
periodic modulation when an integer number, m = 1,2,3…, of half wavelengths coincides with the
lattice spacing, L, of the dielectric microstructure.
• The second is a “microscopic” scattering resonance from a single unit cell of the material. In the
illustration, this (maximum backscattering) occurs when precisely one quarter of the wavelength
coincides with the diameter, 2a, of a single dielectric well of refractive index n. PBG formation is
enhanced by choosing the materials parameters a, L, and n such that both the macroscopic and
microscopic resonances occur at the same frequency.
284
17.11.2019
Why is making a PBG hard ?

• Photonic band gap formation is facilitated if the geometrical parameters of the
photonic crystal are chosen so that both the microscopic and macroscopic
resonances occur at precisely the same wavelength.
• Both of these scattering mechanisms must individually be quite strong. In practice,
this means that the underlying solid material must have a very high refractive
index contrast (typically about 3.0 or higher and it is to precisely achieve this
contrast, holes are drilled into the medium.)
• The material should exhibit negligible absorption or extinction of light (less than
1 dB/cm of attenuation.)
• These conditions on the geometry, scattering strength, and the purity of the
dielectric material severely restrict the set of engineered dielectrics that exhibit a
PBG.
285
17.11.2019
PBG materials
Materials used for making a PBG:
• Silicon
• Germanium
• Gallium Arsenide
• Indium Phosphide
286
17.11.2019
Example 20.5
Design of a ‘‘Stealthy’’ Aircraft
Design an aircraft that cannot be detected by radar.
1. We might make the aircraft from materials that are
transparent to radar. Many polymers, polymer-matrix
composites, and ceramics satisfy this requirement.
2. We might design the aircraft so that the radar signal is
reflected at severe angles from the source.
3. The internal structure of the aircraft also can be made to
absorb the radar. For example, use of a honeycomb material
in the wings may cause the radar waves to be repeatedly
reflected within the material.
4. We might make the aircraft less visible by selecting
materials that have electronic transitions of the same energy
as the radar.
287
17.11.2019
288
Photonic Crystals:
A New Frontier in Modern Optics
MARIAN FLORESCU
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory

California Institute of Technology
“ If only were possible to make materials in which
electromagnetically waves cannot propagate at
certain frequencies, all kinds of almost-magical things
would happen”
Sir John Maddox, Nature (1990)

Photonic Crystals
Photonic crystals: periodic dielectric structures.

 interact resonantly with radiation with wavelengths comparable to the
periodicity length of the dielectric lattice.
 dispersion relation strongly depends on frequency and propagation direction
 may present complete band gaps  Photonic Band Gap (PBG) materials.
Two Fundamental Optical Principles
• Localization of Light
S. John, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58,2486 (1987)
• Inhibition of Spontaneous Emission

E. Yablonovitch, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58 2059 (1987)
 Guide and confine light without losses

 Novel environment for quantum mechanical light-matter interaction
 A rich variety of micro- and nano-photonics devices
Photonic Crystals History
1987: Prediction of photonic crystals
S. John, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58,2486 (1987), “Strong localization of photons
in certain dielectric superlattices”
E. Yablonovitch, Phys. Rev. Lett. 58 2059 (1987), “Inhibited spontaneous
emission in solid state physics and electronics”
1990: Computational demonstration of photonic crystal

K. M. Ho, C. T Chan, and C. M. Soukoulis, Phys. Rev. Lett. 65, 3152 (1990)
1991: Experimental demonstration of microwave photonic crystals

E. Yablonovitch, T. J. Mitter, K. M. Leung, Phys. Rev. Lett. 67, 2295 (1991)
1995: ”Large” scale 2D photonic crystals in Visible

U. Gruning, V. Lehman, C.M. Englehardt, Appl. Phys. Lett. 66 (1995)
1998: ”Small” scale photonic crystals in near Visible; “Large” scale

inverted opals
1999: First photonic crystal based optical devices (lasers, waveguides)

Photonic Crystals- Semiconductors of Light
Semiconductors Photonic Crystals
Periodic array of atoms Periodic variation of dielectric

constant
Atomic length scales Length scale ~ 
Natural structures Artificial structures
Control electron flow Control e.m. wave propagation
1950’s electronic revolution New frontier in modern optics

Natural Photonic Crystals:
Structural Colours through Photonic Crystals
Natural opals
Periodic structure  striking colour effect even in the absence of pigments

Artificial Photonic Crystals
Requirement: overlapping of frequency gaps along different directions
 High ratio of dielectric indices
 Same average optical path in different media
 Dielectric networks should be connected
Woodpile structure Inverted Opals
S. Lin et al., Nature (1998) J. Wijnhoven & W. Vos, Science (1998)

Photonic Crystals: Opportunities
 Photonic Crystals
 complex dielectric environment that controls the flow of radiation
 designer vacuum for the emission and absorption of radiation
 Passive devices
 dielectric mirrors for antennas
 micro-resonators and waveguides
 Active devices
 low-threshold nonlinear devices
 microlasers and amplifiers
 efficient thermal sources of light
 Integrated optics
 controlled miniaturisation
 pulse sculpturing
Defect-Mode Photonic Crystal Microlaser
Photonic Crystal Cavity formed by a point defect
O. Painter et. al., Science (1999)

Photonic Crystals Based Light Bulbs
C. Cornelius, J. Dowling, PRA 59, 4736 (1999)
“Modification of Planck blackbody radiation by photonic band-gap structures”
3D Complete Photonic Band Gap
Suppress blackbody radiation in the infrared and redirect and enhance thermal energy into visible
Solid Tungsten Filament 3D Tungsten Photonic

Crystal Filament
S. Y. Lin et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. (2003)
 Light bulb efficiency may raise from 5 percent to 60 percent

Solar Cell Applications
– Funneling of thermal radiation of larger wavelength (orange area) to thermal radiation

of shorter wavelength (grey area).
– Spectral and angular control over the thermal radiation.

Foundations of Future CI
Cavity all-optical transistor Photonic crystal all-optical transistor
Iin Iout
χ (3) IH Pump Laser

H.M. Gibbs et. al, PRL 36, 1135 (1976)
Probe Laser
 Fundamental Limitations
 switching time • switching intensity = M. Florescu and S. John, PRA 69, 053810 (2004).
constant
 Incoherent character of the switching
 dissipated power  Operating Parameters
 Operating Parameters  Holding power: 10-100 nW
 Holding power: 5 mW  Switching power: 50-500 pW
 Switching power: 3 µW  Switching time: < 1 ps
 Switching time: 1-0.5 ns  Size: 20 m
 Size: 500 m
Single Atom Switching Effect
 Photonic Crystals versus Ordinary Vacuum

 Positive population inversion
 Switching behaviour of the atomic inversion
M. Florescu and S. John, PRA 64, 033801 (2001)
Quantum Optics in Photonic Crystals
 Long temporal separation between incident laser photons
 Fast frequency variations of the photonic DOS
 Band-edge enhancement of the Lamb shift
 Vacuum Rabi splitting
T. Yoshie et al. , Nature, 2004.
Foundations for Future CI:
Single Photon Sources
 Enabling Linear Optical Quantum Computing and Quantum Cryptography
 fully deterministic pumping mechanism

 very fast triggering mechanism
 accelerated spontaneous emission
 PBG architecture design to achieve
prescribed DOS at the ion position
M. Florescu et al., EPL 69, 945 (2005)

CI Enabled Photonic Crystal Design (I)
Photo-resist layer exposed to multiple laser beam interference

that produce a periodic intensity pattern
10 m

Four laser beams interfere to form a 3D photonic crystals fabricated
3D periodic intensity pattern using holographic lithography
O. Toader, et al., PRL 92, 043905 (2004) M. Campell et al. Nature, 404, 53 (2000)
CI Enabled Photonic Crystal Design (II)
O. Toader & S. John, Science (2001)
CI Enabled Photonic Crystal Design (III)
S. Kennedy et al., Nano Letters (2002)

Multi-Physics Problem:
Photonic Crystal Radiant Energy Transfer
Photonic Crystals
Optical Properties
Rethermalization
Processes: Transport
Properties:
Photons
Electrons Photons
Phonons Electrons
Metallic (Dielectric) Phonons
Backbone
Electronic
Characterization
Summary
Photonic Crystals: Photonic analogues of semiconductors that
control the flow of light
PBG materials: Integrated optical micro-circuits

with complete light localization
Designer Vacuum:
Frequency selective control of
spontaneous and thermal emission
enables novel active devices
Potential to Enable Future CI:
Single photon source for LOQC
All-optical micro-transistors
CI Enabled Photonic Crystal Research and Technology:
Photonic “materials by design”
Multiphysics and multiscale analysis
17.11.2019
309
17.11.2019
APPLICATIONS OF PBG MATERIALS:
 Frequency-selective, loss-less reflection
 Filters, switches, optical amplifiers
Areas impacted:
 Automotive electronics - e.g., collision-avoidance
radar (60-77 GHz)
 Electron cyclotron resonance heating for fusion plasma,
diagnostic tool (60-200 GHz)
mm wave
 Medical and biological application - e.g., microwave

resonance therapy (40-80 GHz), imaging
 Wide bandwidth communication (60, 94 GHz)
 mm waveguides
Infra-red
 Fast electronics - interchip communication

 Remote sensing - e.g., monitoring atmospheric radiation;
observational astronomy
 Lasers and optical devices - improved performance in
visible
efficiency and reduction of background noise

 Photocatalysis
310
Terima Kasih | Thank You

Chapter 5 Fotonic Materials 12112018

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 5 Fotonic Materials 12112018

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 5

Part 1: History, Definitions and

• For example, in the last decade, advances in optical fiber

– as a collection of traveling particles called photons, with potential as a

• Optics and photonics are technical enablers as can be seen in

• Many different properties of waves (i.e., degrees of freedom

• Waves can be coherently processed to have high

• With the demonstration in 1960 of the first laser, many of the

• By 1964 authors from RAND could be found publishing from a group

• Some claim that optoelectronics is a subfield of electro-optics involving

• Colloquially, the term “optoelectronics” is most commonly used to refer

• Japan’s Optoelectronics Industry and Technology Development

• The term began to be seen in print in English around 1981 in press

• In 1982, the trade magazine Optical Spectra changed its name to

• However, in the professional literature, “photonics” is used almost

• The term “photonics” continues to gain popularity today.

• In 2006 Nature Publishing Group established the journal Nature

• When aiming to develop new photonic components and devices, many

• Further advances in photonics will rely on the implementation of new

• Multidisciplinary research is a key factor here, requiring long-term

• The field of photonic materials is extremely broad, including subfields of

• Improvements in those sectors in turn increase the demand for the

• The transistor and integrated circuit are good examples of general-

• The most obvious contribution of optics is the high-resolution display

• In addition, the cell phone uses a wireless radio connection to a local

• An Internet search conducted on the phone will be directed over these

• There can be more than 1 million lasers involved in the signaling.

• For example, nearly every microprocessor has been fabricated using

• In particular, the ability of a material to exhibit an induced polarization

• Different classes of materials will, in general, differ in their response to

• While insulators exhibit local induced polarization of bound charges, dipoles,

• In some cases, materials will act as insulators at frequencies or temperatures

• Thus, glasses and semiconductors act as insulators at low temperatures and

• Light propagates by electromagnetic waves.

• We are surrounded by many kinds of waves.

• Light that we see comes from electromagnetic waves at very high

• Radio and television signals are carried by electromagnetic waves at much

• The optical properties of materials arise from the characteristics of their

• In particular, the ability of a material to exhibit an induced polarization or

• Different classes of materials will, in general, differ in their response to

• Insulators and conductors, for example, each exhibit a unique response to

• Insulators exhibit local induced polarization of bound charges, dipoles, etc.,

• Materials normally exhibit a variety of changes in local polarization

ii. ionic or atomic, and

iii. electronic polarization,

and these mark large changes in their optical behavior.

• Light is energy, or radiation, in the form of waves or

• Materials that are capable of transmitting light with relatively little

absorption and reflection are called transparent materials i.e. we can

• Translucent materials are those through which light is transmitted

• Those materials that are impervious to the transmission of visible light

Optical properties – Non-metals

• Refraction: when light photons are transmitted through a material,

Figure 20.3 (b) Diagram a

Example 20.1 SOLUTION

Because θt is less than 90o, photons escape from the fiber.

Example 20.1 SOLUTION (Continued)

In water, the photons would have to be introduced at an

• Complex refractive index

where  is the absorption index

 is the linear absorption coefficient

Figure 20.3 (a) When a ray of light enters from material 1

 Reflectivity R gives the fraction of the incident beam that is

 If the material is in some other medium with an index of