HBET1503 Principles & Practice of TESL Methodology Notes

HBET1503
Principles and Practice of TESL Methodology
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HBET1503
PRINCIPLES AND
PRACTICE OF TESL
METHODOLOGY
Assoc Prof Dr Rosli Talif
Assoc Prof Dr Mardziah Hayati Abdullah
Prof Dr John Arul Phillips
Assoc Prof Hazidi Abdul Hamid

Third edition 2020
Second edition 2016
First edition 2004
Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), HBET1503
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President of Open University Malaysia (OUM).
www.oum.edu.my

Table of Contents
Course Guide ixăxiv
Topic 1 Approaching Curriculum 1

1.1 Defining Curriculum 2
1.2 Defining Syllabus 5
1.2.1 Classifications of Syllabuses 7
1.3 Curriculum and Syllabus 13
1.4 The Hidden Curriculum 19
1.5 Curriculum as the Boundary between Formal and 22
Informal Education
1.6 Philosophical Foundations 24
1.7 Curriculum Types 27
Summary 30
Key Terms 31
References 31
Topic 2 Curriculum Development 35

2.1 A Brief History of Curriculum Making 36
2.2 The Curriculum Development Process 42
2.3 The Basics of Curriculum Development 43
2.3.1 A Brief Definition 43
2.3.2 Models of Curriculum Development 44
2.4 Curriculum Planning 44
2.5 Designing a Curriculum 46
2.6 Types of Curriculum Design 47
2.6.1 Subject-centred Curriculum Design 47
2.6.2 Learner-centred Curriculum Design 48
2.6.3 Problem-centred Curriculum Design 48
2.7 Principles to Follow 49
2.7.1 Is My Programme and Material Suitable to 49
My StudentsÊ Age and Mental Development?
2.7.2 Am I Taking into Account My StudentsÊ Interests? 50
2.7.3 The Curriculum Should Be Environmentally 50
Centred

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.8 The Comprehensive Curriculum Principle 51

2.9 Co-relation Principle 51
2.9.1 Practicality 52
2.9.2 Flexibility 52
2.9.3 Look Forward 53
2.9.4 Always Consult Teachers 53
2.9.5 Engage in Joint Ventures 54
2.9.6 Logistics: Time and Other Resources 54
2.10 The Curriculum Development Process in a Nutshell 54
2.10.1 Curriculum Development Model 55
2.10.2 Phases and Steps in Curriculum Development 57
Summary 61
Key Terms 62
References 62
Topic 3 The Curriculum Development Process 64

3.1 What Do Curriculum Development Models Look Like? 65
3.1.1 The Tyler Model 65
3.1.2 The Taba Model 67
3.1.3 The Saylor and Alexander Model 69
3.2 Goals of Education 71
3.2.1 Educational Philosophy 73
3.2.2 Educational Goals 74
3.2.3 Curriculum Goals 74
3.2.4 Curriculum Objectives 75
3.2.5 Instructional Goals 75
3.2.6 Instructional Objectives 76
3.3 Instructional Objectives of Learning Outcomes 76
3.4 Classifying Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes 77
3.4.1 Cognitive Domain 78
3.4.2 Affective Domain 80
3.4.3 Psychomotor Domain 81
Summary 83
Key Terms 83
References 84

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 4 Structuralist Approach 85

4.1 Approaches, Methods and Techniques 85
4.2 The Structuralist Approach 87
4.3 Grammar-translation Method 88
4.4 Audio-lingual Method 91
Summary 99
Key Terms 99
References 100
Topic 5 Non-structuralist Approach 101

5.1 The Non-structuralist Approach to Language 102
5.2 The Direct Method 103
5.2.1 Disadvantages of the Direct Method 104
5.2.2 Features, Assumptions and Implications of the 107
Direct Method
5.3 Suggestopedia 110
5.4 The Silent Way 115
5.4.1 Teaching the Silent Way 118
5.4.2 Criticism of the Silent Way 121
5.5 The Natural Approach 123
5.6 Total Physical Response 126
5.7 Community Language Learning 131
5.7.1 Advantages of CLL Method 135
Summary 136
Key Terms 137
References 137
Topic 6 Student-centred Approaches 139

6.1 What are Student-centred Approaches? 140
6.2 Language Experience Approach 142
6.3 Collaborative and Cooperative Learning 146
6.4 Discovery Learning 153
6.5 Self-directed Learning 158
6.6 Reflective Learning 166
6.6.1 Benefits of a Reflective Approach to Learning 170
Summary 174
Key Terms 175
References 175

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Fundamentals of CALT 178

7.1 CALT: An Overview 179
7.2 What is Communicative Competence? 180
7.3 Guiding Principles for CALT 183
7.3.1 Communicative Needs and Areas of Competence 183
7.3.2 Meaningful and Realistic Interactions 184
7.3.3 The LearnerÊs Target Language Skill 184
7.3.4 Curriculum-wide Approach 185
7.4 Principles of Communicative Methodology 186
7.5 Activities and Strategies in CALT 190
Summary 192
Key Terms 193
References 193
Topic 8 Issues and Current Trends in CALT 196

8.1 The Role of Grammar in CALT 197
8.1.1 How to Teach Grammar in CALT 199
8.1.2 Guidelines for Teaching Grammar in the 199
Context of CALT
8.2 Uses of Information Technology in CALT 200
8.3 Testing in CALT 203
Summary 206
Key Terms 207
References 207
Topic 9 The Internet and the TESL Teacher 209

9.1 A Brief History of CALL 210
9.2 CALL and Communicative Teaching Objectives 211
9.3 Steps towards Integrative CALL: Multimedia 213
9.4 Steps towards Integrative CALL: The Internet 215
9.4.1 The Internet and the CALL Teacher 216
9.4.2 Computer as Tutor 218
9.4.3 Computer as Stimulus 221
9.4.4 Computer as a Tool 221
9.5 Moving Forward 224
9.5.1 Reference 224
9.5.2 Authoring 225
9.5.3 Teaching Resources 225
Summary 226
Key Terms 226
References 227
Answers 230

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please refer to the Course Guide from
time to time as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBET1503 Principles and Practice of TESL Methodology is one of the courses
offered at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours
and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
This is a foundation course in which learners are introduced to various terms

and concepts. These terms and concepts are of utmost importance to would-be
teachers of TESL. They need to know these terms as it would be beneficial for
their teaching career.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This is a compulsory course for all learners undertaking the Bachelor of Education
with Honours (Teaching English as a Second Language) programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have
the right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how
the course is conducted.

x  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 3
Study the module 60
Attend tutorial sessions 6ă8
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Identify issues in curriculum development in the context of TESL;
2. Evaluate the various teaching principles in TESL; and
3. Appraise contemporary trends and issues in TESL methodology.

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This module is by nature a foundation course and covers a variety of topics.
Specifically, the module emphasises curriculum and syllabus, methods,
techniques, and approaches to teaching. In addition, the module also discusses
curriculum development, structuralist, and non-structuralist methodologies
such as the direct method, the grammar translation method, the total physical
response, suggestopedia and community language learning. The importance of
CALT in language teaching is also given prominence.
This course is divided into 9 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 defines curriculum and curriculum types, syllabus and syllabus types,
curriculum as a boundary between formal and informal education and the
philosophical foundations underlying curriculum and syllabus.
Topic 2 deals with curriculum development. It begins with a brief history of

curriculum, the development curricula and discusses the issues and problems
encountered in their implementations.
Topic 3 explores the English Language curriculum, explores the reasons why the
language is taught, issues in curriculum implementations and creative thinking
skills.
Topic 4 discusses the structuralist approach. Among the subjects discussed are the
various teaching methodologies, such as the grammar translation method and the
audio-lingual method.
Topic 5 deals with the non-structuralist approach. This includes the direct method,
suggestopedia, the silent way, the natural approach, the total physical response
and community language learning.
Topic 6 focuses on student-centred approaches, where teaching/learning assumes

a new role and becomes student friendly. Discovery learning, cooperative
learning, self-directed learning, reflective learning and language experience
approaches are covered in this topic.
Topic 7 explains the fundamentals of CALT or communicative approach to

language teaching. It introduces the communicative approach used, its guiding
principles, methodology and activities as well as strategies employed in CALT.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 8 analyses a communicational syllabus analyses, its needs, objectives,

content of the syllabus itself and teaching implementations of the syllabus.
Topic 9, discusses issues and current trends in CALL (computer-assisted language

learning), emphasising its role in the teaching of language, how to teach language
and guidelines for language teaching using CALL. This topic is to introduce a
greater utilisation of technology in curriculum building.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise
your study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one subtopic or a few
subtopics. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the subtopic(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be
found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Similar to Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be
able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks,
journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list can appear
in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References section), at the
end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or
refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional information needed and to
enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Learners who have taught in schools before and those who have taken courses
in language teaching methodology will not find this course tough but helpful.
Prior knowledge in this area will rekindle their old memory and will refresh
whatever knowledge they have on the subject.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of
educational goals (1st ed.). New York, NY: Longmans, Green.
Brown, J. D. (2001). Pragmatic tests: Different purposes, different tests. In G.

Kasper, & K. R. Rose (Eds.), Pragmatics in language teaching (pp. 301ă325).
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, J. D. (Ed.). (1998). New ways of classroom assessment. Alexandria, VA:

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches

to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1ă47.
Cohen, A. D. (1994). Assessing language ability in the classroom (2nd ed.). Boston,
MA: Newbury House/Heinle & Heinle.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. Harlow,

England: Longman.
Johnson, R. K. (1989). The second language curriculum. Cambridge, MA:

Cambridge University Press.
Krashen, S. D., & Terrell T. D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition
in the classroom. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press.
McNeil, J. D. (1990). Curriculum: A comprehensive introduction. Los Angeles,

CA: Harper Collins.
Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language

teaching: A description and analysis. New York, NY: Cambridge University
Press.
Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. N. (1995). Curriculum development: Theory into practice.
New York, NY: Macmillan.
Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. London,

England: The University of Chicago Press.
Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. Harlow, England: Longman.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through
the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising
e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are
EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books, Emerald
Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are
encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.

Topic  Approaching
Curriculum
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Distinguish curriculum from syllabus;
2. Differentiate the five curricula specified by Goodlad;
3. Compose a clear and short essay on hidden curriculum with
reference to your teaching experience; and
4. Describe the four philosophical foundations specified by Wiles
and Bondi.
 INTRODUCTION
Topic 1 examines the curriculum theories which curriculum designers must be
familiar with and knowledgeable on if a sound curriculum is to be designed ă and
which teachers must appreciate if they are to properly implement the curriculum.
The idea of curriculum is hardly new, but the way we understand and theorise it
has been altered over the years and there remains considerable dispute over its
meaning.
In Latin, curriculum means „racing chariot‰; currere means „to run‰. Several
definitions by Richards (1985), Dubin and Olshtain (1986), Yalden (1986),
White (1988), Nunan (1988) and Johnson (1989) of the term have been offered
but only a few are worth deliberating on, which we will see in the following
subtopics.

2  TOPIC 1 APPROACHING CURRICULUM
1.1 DEFINING CURRICULUM
ACTIVITY 1.1
Spend a minute or two to consider what you understand by the term

„curriculum‰.
The term „curriculum‰ is often used interchangeably with the term „syllabus‰
to signify the following items:
(a) An instructional plan;
(b) A course of study;
(c) A proposal for action;
(d) The school timetable;
(e) The list of textbooks to be purchased by students at the start of every

academic year;
(f) A certain body of knowledge;
(g) A programme of activities;
(h) An educational proposal for action;
(i) A set of planned learning experience encountered by students; and
(j) A set of documents for implementation.
The lack of precision in our everyday use of the term is by no means due to
the lack of effort by curriculum thinkers in coming to conceptual grips with it.
If anything, an over-abundance of definitions have been offered ă not all of which,
we might add, are in agreement with one another.

TOPIC 1 APPROACHING CURRICULUM  3
Figure 1.1 lists a few definitions of curriculum.
Figure 1.1: What is curriculum?

The following are definitions of curriculum by a few other researchers:
A functioning instrument of education (Tyler, 1949).
A plan for learning (Taba, 1962).
A set of broad decisions about what to be taught and how it is to be taught,

that determines the general framework within which lessons are planned
and learning takes place (Errant, 1975).
A particular form of specification about the practice of teaching⁄ not a

package of materials or a syllabus to be covered. It is a way of translating
any educational idea into a hypothesis testable in practice, (inviting of)
critical testing rather than acceptance (Stenhouse, 1975).
Since it means different things to different people and to different educational

institutions, curriculum can be defined as follows:
⁄all the planned learning opportunities offered by the organisation to

learners and the experiences learners encounter when the curriculum is
implemented. These include those activities that educators have devised
for learners which are invariably represented in the form of a written
document⁄ (Print, 1933).
ACTIVITY 1.2
What is a curriculum? Does it involve planning endeavours which take

place prior to instruction? Is it a whole language programme of study?
State your stand in the myINSPIRE online forum.

1.2 DEFINING SYLLABUS
ACTIVITY 1.3
Previously, we looked at the definition of „curriculum‰. Now, what do

you personally understand by the term „syllabus‰?
Since curriculum and syllabus have often been used interchangeably, it is

necessary for us to differentiate these two terms.
Etymologically, syllabus means a „label‰ or „table of contents‰. The following

are dictionary definitions of syllabus:
The outline of a course of study.

(American Heritage Dictionary, 2000)
The subjects that are taught by a school, college, etc., or the things that are
studied in a particular subject and distinguishes syllabus as a plan that
states exactly what students at a school or college should learn in a particular
subject.
ă The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
(Summers, 2001, p. 332, 1464)

Some authors, however, have clearly pointed out the differences between
curriculum and syllabus. Figure 1.2 shows the difference between curriculum
and syllabus according to White (1988):
Figure 1.2: Difference between curriculum and syllabus
For White, there seems to be confusion between the two terms since they are
used distinctly in the US and UK. He notes that „syllabus‰ in the British sense is
similar to what is called „curriculum‰ in the US.
Without a doubt, if we were to refine the differences, we could say that a

curriculum is more comprehensive than a syllabus. A syllabus should contain an
outline, a schedule of topics and many more items of information. This is a
common belief shared by many authors such as Krahnke (1987), Nunan (1988),
White (1988) and Johnson (1989).
For example, according to Dubin and Olshtain (1986), a curriculum can generate
different syllabuses, determined ă among other factors ă by specific needs.
Nunan (1988), on the other hand, states that a syllabus is essentially concerned
with the selection and grading of content which might include:
(a) Structures;
(b) Functions;
(c) Notions;
(d) Topics;
(e) Situations; and
(f) Tasks and activities.

As we can see, this specification of a syllabus greatly corresponds to what we

refer to as a course programme in our secondary school education system.
Therefore, a syllabus implies not only the language content and its corresponding
teaching sequence, but also teacher-student participation supported by the
appropriate resources to successfully achieve the stated objectives.
1.2.1 Classifications of Syllabuses

Several classifications of syllabuses have been identified and worked out
(Dunkelman, 1996; EFL, 2004). The most popular classifications are analytic and
synthetic syllabuses, under which various types of syllabuses are grouped.
Wilkins (1976) made a classic distinction between analytic and synthetic syllabuses
which will be further explained in the following paragraphs. Figure 1.3 shows
the differences between the two.
Figure 1.3: Differences between synthetic and analytic syllabuses
(a) Synthetic Syllabuses

Synthetic syllabuses include many traditional syllabuses in which the
language learning processes are regarded as a steady accumulation of
linguistic rules arranged in a fixed order. The material is divided into
several parts; each part is taught separately and then accumulated to acquire
the whole structure of the language.

(i) Structural, also called formal or grammatical, is defined as „a syllabus

in which grammatical structures form the central organising feature.
A structural syllabus proceeds from simple grammatical structure to
more complex grammatical structure‰ (ESL Glossary, n.d.). According
to Jureckov (1998), this type of syllabus characterises the model of
foreign language teaching at its beginning stages. It focuses only on
one language aspect, which is grammar. The strengths of the structural
syllabus are the accessibility of grammatical material and the
generative character of the syllabus. However, its failure is that there
is not much grammar to be learnt to set up a syllabus based only on
grammar (Skelton and Willis, n.d.).
(ii) Notional-functional syllabus gained recognition during the 1970s.

It can be considered as the most popular alternative to the structural
(formal/grammatical) syllabus because it combines two important
elements to syllabus design:
 Firstly, a notional or conceptual aspect (time, space, movement,

cause, and effect); and
 Secondly, a functional aspect (intentional or purposive use of

language) (EFL, 2004).
Wilkins (1976) describes notional-functional syllabus as a semantically-

based syllabus which identifies meanings (the notions) and
communicative acts (the functions). This syllabus was one of the
first syllabuses which was based on a communicative teaching/
learning approach. Due to the communication that it involves, notional-
functional syllabus can be considered as a partly analytic one.
(iii) According to Skelton and Willis (n.d.), lexical syllabus includes

„grammar, expressions of notions and functions but the organising
principle is lexical‰. The benefit of a lexical syllabus is the fact that
it represents the material (lexis) in an understandable and accessible
way but its drawback is that it can be very long, even several pages
per word because most English words have several meanings.

(iv) Relational syllabus, which was developed in the 1980s, is based on

„notional relations such as cause-effect, or discourse relations, such as
question-reply or clause structure‰ (White, 1988). This syllabus has
not been very specific because it includes only certain parts of the total
linguistic system.
(v) Skill-based syllabus can be defined as „a specific way of using

language that combines structural and functional ability but
existing independently of specific settings or situations‰ (Ypgor, et al.,).
Reilly (1988) adds that skill-based syllabus combines linguistic
competences (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, etc.) and
generalised types of behaviour (socialising, presentations, etc.).
The aim of such an instruction plan is to learn the specific language
skill and at the same time develop professional competence.
(vi) Situational syllabus is not very well known among other syllabuses.
According to Reilly (1988), the content of language teaching is formed
by real or imaginary situations in which a foreign language is used.
The aim of a situational syllabus is to teach the language that the
students can come across in different situations. Since it is possible to
set up real-life situations, the situational syllabus will aid in motivating
students to engage in everyday communication.
(vii) Topical syllabus uses topics as their units of analysis (EFL, 2004). Many
EFL course books are organised according to this principle but it
also presents a drawback as its use can be quite problematic as it is
difficult to predict what it will contain.
(b) Analytic Syllabuses

Analytic syllabuses include a chunk of language that is presented to the
student in the context of a communicative lesson. The study of theoretical
and methodological literature allows supplementing this list with relational,
natural approach, skill-based, content-based and student-centred syllabuses.
(i) Task-based approach has evolved in response to a better

understanding of the way languages are learnt (Foster, 1999). Willis
(1996) describes task-based learning as „a communicative language
teaching with a systematic focus on a language form. This allows
natural integration of all skills and encourages in the learner a concern
for both accuracy and fluency‰.

The aim of a task-based approach is to compose the language syllabus

to stimulate real communication in a foreign language. Such
teaching/learning „offers a comprehensive exposure to words in use,
through listening and reading and provides opportunities for both
spontaneous and planned speaking and writing‰ (Willis, 1996).
The task-based learning framework consists of the following three
components:
 Pre-task (introduction to topic and task);
 Task cycle, planning and report; and
 Language focus (analysis and practice).
Markee (2000) characterises task-based language syllabus as a

relatively new type of syllabus, which promotes communication in
the target language.
(ii) Procedural syllabus, also called communicational syllabus, is one of

the latest types of syllabuses which focuses on classroom activities
that stimulate the internal learning process (Jureckov, 1998). The tasks
students perform in the classroom can be useful later on in their lives.
The procedural syllabus came about from the Bangalore Project in
India, which lasted from 1979 to 1984. The project was carried out
by Prabhu (1987), who suggested that linguistic form is acquired
subconsciously while the learner is focused on meaning.
Procedural syllabus differs from other communicative language

teaching approaches in that the language is taught through
communication, not communicatively as in other communicative
language teaching approaches (Markee, 2000).
(iii) Process syllabus was developed at the University of Lancaster where it

was used for teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Later, it was
used in Europe to teach English and in Australia to teach migrants
(Markee, 2000). Process syllabus can be described as an innovative
syllabus as it is largely based on project work and problem-solving
tasks and activities. In the process approach, the course materials,
content and teaching methods are negotiated between the teacher and
the students, thus ensuring its innovative nature.

(iv) In the content-based syllabus, language is learnt through other subjects

(ESL Glossary, n.d.). Thus, the language is no longer the main focus,
but plays a secondary role in the teaching/learning process, giving the
primary role to the information that students acquire from the course.
Marco (2000) admits that content-based syllabus integrates target

language learning and content learning. As it is based on content and
authentic materials, it takes into consideration the studentsÊ needs.
The target benefit of content-based learning is the use of authentic and
challenging materials, which helps students to achieve better results
and boosts their motivation to learn. A content-based syllabus develops
the linguistic skills and communicative competence of ESP students.
(v) Learner-centred syllabus views language acquisition as „a process of

acquiring language skills rather than a body of knowledge‰ (Nunan,
1991). It consists of the following elements:
 Initial planning procedures (needs analysis, goal setting, objective

setting, student grouping);
 Content selecting and gradation;
 Methodology (development of teaching aids);
 Selection of materials and tasks; and
 Ongoing monitoring, assessment and evaluation.
Its aims are to provide learners with efficient learning strategies to

fulfil their aims and to develop self-evaluation skills (Nunan, 1991).
The main difference between traditional syllabus and student-centred
syllabus is that in a student-centred syllabus, any decision is open to
changes. This means that the content chosen by the students and the
teacher at the beginning of the course can be later changed according
to the studentsÊ wishes.
(vi) The natural approach was first developed as foreign language teaching
method in the US. It was aimed to meet the language learning needs
of adult students. Now, this approach is considered as a practical
implementation of monitor theory that deals with the acquisition-
learning theories for adults (Markee, 2000). The natural approach
syllabus focuses on communication; linguistic competence emerges
over time and the stress is on error correction of meaning, not
grammatical form. The drawback of this syllabus is its complex nature.

Another classification for syllabuses is along the „Type A‰ and „Type B‰

syllabuses (White, 1988) as shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1: Type A and Type B Syllabuses
Type A Type B
 Type A syllabuses focus on content  Type B syllabuses focus on an

(what is to be learnt). experiential and natural approaches
(how it is to be learnt).
 Synthetic syllabuses are Type A  Analytic syllabuses are Type B.

syllabuses.
Dunkelman (1996), on the other hand, classifies syllabuses into two groups as
shown in Table 1.2:
Table 1.2: Product-oriented and Process-oriented Syllabuses
Product-oriented Syllabuses Process-oriented Syllabuses
Focus on the knowledge and skills which Consist of a specification of tasks and
students gain as a result of instruction. activities through which students gain
knowledge and skills.
Examples include:
Examples include:
 Structural; and
 Task-based;
 Notional-functional syllabuses.
 Content-based;
 Situational; and
 Topical syllabuses.
Reilly (1988) stresses the fact that different types of syllabuses are usually
combined in more or less integrated ways. One syllabus type is the leading
one around which other types of syllabuses are arranged. The main problems
are to decide which type of syllabuses to choose from and how to connect all
the chosen types.

ACTIVITY 1.4
1. An ESP syllabus for engineering students may contain the process

syllabus because it is largely based on project work and problem-
solving tasks. Do you agree with this statement?
2. Situational syllabus can be regarded as the leading syllabus which

should act as a yardstick for how other syllabuses should be
arranged. What is your opinion on this?
Explain your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE

online forum.
1.3 CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS

Although there are conflicting definitions of the terms „curriculum‰ and
„syllabus‰, we choose to define „curriculum‰ as being at the level of a whole
language programme (for instance, a six-year English programme of study in
primary schools in Malaysia), as opposed to „syllabus‰ which can be considered
at the level of an English course with a duration of one term or year, for example.
A universal definition for „syllabus‰, therefore, seems impractical since different

educational theories and approaches differ on syllabus goals and functions.
What can be said is that syllabuses tend to be representation as defined as follows:
„Every syllabus is a particular representation of knowledge and capabilities.

And this representation will be shaped by the designerÊs views concerning
the nature of language, how the language may be most appropriately
taught or presented to learners and how the language may be productively
worked upon during the learning process.‰
(Breen, 1987)

However, we suggest that the primary purpose of a syllabus is for teachers to

communicate to their students what the course is about, why the course is taught,
where it is going and what will be required of the students for them to complete
the course with a passing grade.
Figure 1.4 provides a list of items of information that might be included in a

syllabus:
Figure 1.4: Items of information in a syllabus

Preparing a good syllabus requires careful thought and some skills. Figure 1.5
highlights the important points to consider when coming up with a good syllabus.
Figure 1.5: Important points to consider in preparing a good syllabus

Figure 1.6 shows some of the themes cited for a good syllabus.
Figure 1.6: Themes for a good syllabus
Therefore, if one of the main purposes of a syllabus is to communicate to students

what the course is about, it presumes that we should have some ideas about
what we think the course should accomplish. Therefore, it is important that we
first plan the course, in other words, the curriculum.

Consider, as an example, the following legal definition of a school curriculum:
„An educational programme that includes curriculum and co-curricular

activities which encompasses all the knowledge, skills, norms, values,
cultural elements and beliefs to help develop a pupil fully with respect to the
physical, spiritual, mental and emotional aspects as well as to inculcate and
develop desirable moral values and to transfer knowledge.‰
(Sharifah Nor Puteh, 1998)
It is now clear from our discussions that curriculum covers not just the
specifications and ordering of course content or input (also conventionally
known as „syllabus‰ in the UK) but everything from planning and processes
to experiences at all levels (individual, community and the nation).
Goodlad (1984) clarified the term „curriculum‰ by dividing it into the following
five groups:
(a) Ideal Curriculum

The ideals put forth by a committee set up to examine a specific curriculum
and advise on the necessary changes. The actual impact of the ideal
curriculum is contingent upon the adoption and implementation of the
committeeÊs recommendations.
(b) Formal Curriculum

Officially approved plans consisting of a collection of ideal curricula,
a modification of the ideal, or other curriculum policies, guides, syllabuses
and sanctioned texts.
(c) Perceived Curriculum

What teachers perceive the curriculum to be, which does not always fully
correlate with the formal curriculum.
(d) Operational Curriculum

What actually goes on in the classroom, which may reveal discrepancies
between what teachers know about the curriculum and what they actually
do.

(e) Experiential Curriculum

What learners get from and think about the operational curriculum.
The assumption here is that learners respond to the same instructions
in unique ways because of their different backgrounds and life experiences.
GoodladÊs five-curricular proposition helps us differentiate the many dimensions

of the term „curriculum‰. It reminds us of the fact that there is no fail-proof way
to directly translate the objectives of an educational plan into concrete reality.
What is planned, in other words, does not always commensurate with what is
actually experienced.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. What is a syllabus?
2. How does it differ from curriculum?
3. What should a syllabus contain?
4. What are the different types of syllabuses?
ACTIVITY 1.5
1. In what ways are the definitions of syllabus and curriculum

conceptually similar to and/or different from each other?
2. How do they compare with your own definitions from earlier

discussions?
Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

1.4 THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM

In contrast to GoodladÂs experiential curriculum which learners consciously
experience, there is also what is commonly known as the hidden curriculum
(or collateral curriculum or collateral learning of attitudes). It is unanticipated
learning outcomes which occur at the level of the untaught which may well be of
long-range importance compared to the explicit school curriculum (1984, p. 48).
A fairly standard (product) definition of the hidden curriculum was given by

Kelly (1983). He argues that it is things which students learn, „because of the
way in which the work of the school is planned and organised but which are not
in themselves overtly included in the planning or even in the consciousness of
those responsible for the school arrangements‰.
Specifically, hidden curriculum may be referred to as the unplanned learning

in which meaning is conveyed indirectly by the way language is used, the
interactions that occur in the classroom and assessment methods.
The hidden curriculum can have negative outcomes when indirect meanings
conveyed are in conflict with explicit intentions. When taking a strategic approach
to their studies, some students are quick to determine the hidden curriculum.
For example, anything that will be examined is likely to be seen as included in
the curriculum; meanwhile, anything that is not to be examined is considered
superfluous and unlikely to be learnt. However, hidden learning is not all
negative and can be potentially liberating.
„In so far as they enable students to develop socially valued knowledge and
skills⁄ or to form their own peer groups and subcultures, they may contribute
to personal and collective autonomy and to possible critique and challenge of
existing norms and institutions.‰
(Cornbleth, 1990)
In this context, social milieu has a role to play in determining the end product of
schooling. By paying attention to milieu, we can begin to get a better grasp of
the impact of structural and sociocultural processes on teachers and students.
As Cornbleth (1990) argues, „economic and gender relations, for example, do not
simply bypass the systemic or structural context of curriculum⁄ they are
mediated by intervening layers of the education system‰ (p. 7).

Educationists sometimes tend to underestimate the power of the hidden

curriculum which, according to Dewey (as cited in Tanner & Tanner, 1995),
„may be and often is much more important than the spelling lessons or lesson in
geography or history that is learnt‰. For instance, within the school environment,
learners may unconsciously internalise norms, beliefs, values and assumptions
expressed as rules, rituals and regulations (Seddon as cited in Marsh, 1992).
They may develop an inexplicable liking for a subject (for instance, music
appreciation or moral studies) even though the school covertly discourages the
pursuit of non-core subjects.
They may be able to enumerate and expound on the characteristics of a good

citizen, but grow to be more racist each day. They may score an „A‰ for English in
the final exam and at the same time, acquire a negative attitude towards the
language without being aware of the underlying reasons. They may take on the
teacherÊs xenophobic attitude towards all things „colonial‰. They may even
develop the said attitude despite the teacherÊs kind attention and best intentions.
At any rate, students are unlikely to progress as far as they would have, had they
been positively disposed towards the subject.
The term „hidden curriculum‰ was originally coined by Phillip Jackson in 1968.
It was first used to designate three core features of the socially-complex classroom
life, as shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7: Three core features of the socially-complex classroom life

Source: Lynch (1989)
However, many more critical perspectives have emerged to shed light on how
the hidden curriculum operates as a form of political control and an agent of
legitimisation, production and reproduction of the values and beliefs of the
hegemonic group. The following are some of these criticisms:
(a) Bowles and Gentis assert that schools reproduce the consciousness necessary
for the maintenance of the capitalist system; and

(b) Apple posits that schools are structured in such a way as to privilege the
dominant class and marginalise the poor and the disadvantaged. The poor
and the disadvantaged have access to low-status curriculum knowledge.
However, they are excluded from high-status (technical) knowledge, which
is „used as a devise to filter for economic stratification and future career
prospects‰ (Marsh, 1997). In addition, Apple says, the school „(re) produces
culture in forms which are either accepted (by career-oriented bourgeoisie)
or contested and resisted (by lower classes)‰.
From within the same Marxist tradition, Lynch (1989), argues in her book
The Hidden Curriculum, that inequality is reproduced because schools have a
variety of universalistic (equalising) features (at the level of service provision)
which offsets its (in-egalitarian) particularistic effects (at the level of service
consumption).
According to Lynch (1989), schools share a universal set of organisational features

which is identical for all students. Figure 1.8 demonstrates these common features
shared by schools.
Figure 1.8: Common features shared by schools
These universalistic features hide a schoolÊs particularistic features. For example,

a school may follow the common practice of streaming and banding students.
It may do so according to the studentsÊ scholastic abilities with the aim of achieving
variability in the type of knowledge distributed to upper and lower streams.

At a glance, there seems nothing wrong with the streaming and banding since
it allows „smarter‰ learners to progress uninterruptedly and the „slower‰ ones
to learn and catch up at their own pace. However, by probing a little deeper
we will find that, in places where the working class are disproportionately
over-represented in the lower streams, the universal practice of streaming actually
reproduces existing social class divisions. Schools are a „class particularistic in
this ability-grouping‰ (Lynch, 1989).
ACTIVITY 1.6
1. In your opinion, do hidden curriculum elements assume greater

importance in formal or informal learning situations? Why?
2. What are the implications of hidden curriculum for teachers (of

English)?

forum.
Read Lynch (1989, p. 128). The suggested pages provide a comprehensive

critical reappraisal of reproduction theories by Bowles and Gentis, Apple,
Giroux, Boudieu and others.
1.5 CURRICULUM AS THE BOUNDARY

BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL
EDUCATION
Jeffs and Smith (1990; 1999) argue that the notion of curriculum provides a central
dividing line between formal and informal education. They contend that
curriculum theory and practice was formed within the school context and that
there exist major problems when introduced into informal forms of pedagogy.
The adoption of a curriculum theory and practice by some educators appears to

have arisen from a desire to be clear about content. Yet, there are crucial difficulties
with the notion of curriculum in this context. This centres around the extent to
which it is possible to have a clear idea, in advance (and even during the process)
of the activities and topics that will be involved in a particular piece of work.

At any one time, outcomes may not be marked by a high degree of specificity.
In a similar way, the nature of the activities used often cannot be predicted.
It may be that we can say something about how the informal educator will work.
However, knowing in advance about broad processes and ethos is not the same
as having knowledge of the programme. We must, thus, conclude that approaches
to a curriculum which focuses on objectives and detailed programmes appear
to be incompatible with informal education (Jeffs & Smith, 1990).
In other words, they are arguing that a product model of curriculum is not
compatible with the emphasis of process and praxis within informal education.
However, process and praxis models of curriculum also present problems in the
context of informal education. If we were to look back at our models of process
and compare them with the model of informal education presented previously,
it is clear that we can have a similar problem with pre-specification.
One of the key features that differentiate the two is that the curriculum model
has the teacher entering a situation with a proposal for action which sets out
essential principles and features of the educational encounter. Informal educators
do not have and do not need this element. They do not enter with a clear proposal
for action. Rather, they have an idea of what makes for human well-being and
an appreciation of their overall role and strategy. They, then, develop their aims
and interventions through interaction.
Another key difference is context. Even if we were to define curriculum as a

process, there remain substantive problems. As Cornbleth (1990) and Jeffs and
Smith (1990; 1999) have argued, curriculum cannot be taken out of context and
the context in which it is formed is for schools. Curriculum theory and practice
only makes sense when considered alongside notions like class, teacher, course,
lesson and so on.
You only have to look at language that has been used by our main proponents,
Tyler, Stenhouse, Cornbleth and Grundy, to see this. It is not a concept that
stands on its own. Instead, it is developed in relation to teaching and within
particular organisational relationships and expectations. Alter the context and
the nature of the process alters. We, then, need different ways of describing what
is going on.

What is being suggested here is that when informal educators take on the language
of curriculum, they are crossing the boundary within their chosen specific fields
and the domain of formal education. This they need to do from time to time. There
will be formal interludes in their work, appropriate times for them to mount
courses and to discuss content and method in curriculum terms. Education is
more than just schooling. We should not be misled by how powerful the idea of
schooling is.
ACTIVITY 1.7
As a teacher of English, do you see the need for separate curricula,

one formal and the other informal, in the teaching of the language to
your students? Why?
Justify your answer to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.
1.6 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

It is hardly surprising that curriculum is a site of heavy contestation, considering
the direct and profound impact it has on society. Every curriculum (more so the
national curriculum), is directed by a core philosophy which explicitly or
implicitly answers value-laden questions such as the following:
(a) What is the purpose of education?
(b) What knowledge is of most worth? and
(c) What methods of instruction are likely to produce the desired results?
Obviously, not everyone shares the same set of values and convictions. Some may
feel that schools should emphasise the memorisation of holy verses and the
religiously significant scripts. They might perceive „worldly‰ subjects like
geography and mathematics as a threat to society and their authoritative position.
Some may be of the opinion that mathematics and science should be instructed
entirely in English. Others may utterly reject the suggestion, citing national
integration or other nationalistic agenda as reason.

WilesÊ and BondiÊs (1993) classification of four major philosophies as in Figure 1.9
is useful in clarifying how critical decisions are made on what schools should be
and do.
Figure 1.9: Four major philosophies
Each of the four philosophies is explained in greater detail as follows (refer to

Table 1.3):
Table 1.3: Explanations of Major Philosophies
Philosophy Description
Perennialism  Of the four philosophies, perennialism is the most

unpromising.
 Education evolves around reason and/or God and is seen as

preparation for life.
 Learners are treated as passive recipients of unchanging

truths and are taught through highly disciplined drills and
behaviour control.
 Eternal truths are found through study and sometimes divine

acts.
 The teacherÊs role is to interpret and impart knowledge rather

than facilitate learning.
Idealism  Idealism espouses the refined wisdom of men and women.
 The function of the school is to sharpen intellectual processes

and present the wisdom of the ages.
 Teachers are models of ideal behaviour.
 Learners are passive participants in the study of things.
 Like nature, classrooms are highly ordered and disciplined.

Existentialism  Existentialists are concerned about the individual and his or

her self-responsibility. They tend to be suspicious of or hostile
to the submersion of the individual in larger public groups.
 In the face of objective uncertainty, truth is subjective, while

goodness is a matter of individual free choice and free from
external coercion.
 The school is where students get to know themselves and

their place in society, rather than the place where societal
beliefs are internalised.
 Favoured subjects are those which call for interpretation,

including arts, ethics and philosophy.
 The teacherÊs role is to assist students in their personal

learning journeys.
Experimentalism  In the eyes of experimentalists, the world is forever changing;

reality is what is actually experienced, truth is what presently
functions and goodness is what is accepted by public test.
 Change is embraced and new ways of improving society is

continuously sought after.
 The experimentalistÊs school emphasises social subjects and

experiences.
 Learning is conducted through problem-solving.
However, the four philosophies delineated by Wiles and Bondi are not strict
categories which educationists must necessarily and exclusively follow. In fact,
neither are they united movements. Many existential philosophers (including
Soren Lierkergard, Jean Paul Sartre and Friedrich Nietzsche) do not even see
themselves as part of the same group. Notwithstanding, WilesÊ and BondiÊs
point remains: „any curriculum worth its salt will be informed and directed by
an overarching philosophy which engages with the question of what constitutes
its overall strengths‰.

ACTIVITY 1.8
What is your philosophy? Consider the following statements and

indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with them. Then, try to
match each item to one of the four philosophies identified by Wiles
and Bondi.
(a) Ideal teachers are constant questioners.
(b) Schools exist for societal improvement.
(c) Teaching should centre on the inquiry technique.
(d) Demonstration and recitation are essential components of learning.
(e) Learners should always be permitted to determine their own rules

in the educational process.
(Wiles and Bondi, 1993)
1.7 CURRICULUM TYPES

The relation between societal ideals and curriculum is also dealt with at
some length by McNeil (1990), who delineates four categories of curriculum
conceptions:
(a) Humanistic;
(b) Social reconstruction;
(c) Academic; and
(d) Technology.

The first three categories are summarised as follows. As you go through

the following main points, try to draw connections between them and the
four educational philosophies discussed earlier.
(a) The Humanistic Curriculum

The following are descriptions of the humanistic curriculum:
(i) The goals of education are related to the ideals of personal growth,
integrity and autonomy;
(ii) Students are not seen as empty receptacles waiting for facts to be
poured into them but rather as individuals with potential for
self-actualisation;
(iii) Learning has to be made meaningful and the subject matter must be
brought to life by demonstrating its relevance to studentsÊ personal
lives;
(iv) The curriculum features activities that are exploratory, playful, and
spontaneous ă all of which are vital for innovation and self-renewal;
(v) Emphasis is placed on the process, instead of product; and
(vi) The humanistic teacher creates opportunities for students to deal with
their affective contents.
(b) The Social Reconstruction Curriculum

The following are descriptions of the social reconstruction curriculum:
(i) Social re-constructionists focus on the relationship between curriculum

and the social, political and economic development of society;
(ii) Paulo Freire, a leading social re-constructionist argues that the aim of
education is not to adjust students to the existing social system but to
free them from slavish adherence to it;
(iii) The teacherÊs role is to impress upon students that content is never
neutral and that it is necessary to continually ask „in whose favour and
for what reasons do we use our knowledge?‰; and
(iv) The instructional sequence typically includes identifying problematic

issues, linking issues to institutions in the larger society, relating social
analysis to the ideals students have for the world and for themselves
and encouraging them to take responsibility to realise these ideals.

(c) The Academic Curriculum

The followings are descriptions of the academic curriculum:
(i) The goals of academic curriculum are to develop rational minds, train
learners to do research and establish a residual societal meaning or
tradition;
(ii) Academic disciplinarians want learners to think like professionals of

specific fields, for instance, as economists, historians, mathematicians
and so on;
(iii) Understanding the disciplineÊs mode of operation is as important as its

conclusions; and
(iv) Expositions and enquiry are commonly used techniques.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Should teachers support the education system and the wider

society within which they are located, or should they critique it?
On what theoretical grounds would you substantiate your answer?
2. It is well-known that colonial policies sought to keep the rural

population of certain ethnic background backward and docile.
Higher education was made available only to sons of aristocrats
and royalty of this ethnic group so that they could later be absorbed
into administrative service. The rest had to contend with training
that only went so far as to their lot as agriculturists (Cheah, 1996).
Immigrants in plantation schools that taught in their vernacular

language were worse off. Their role was to prepare students for
manual jobs, serving as they did as an agent of social control and
meeting the manpower needs of the plantation economy
(Marimuthu, 1993).
In your opinion, which educational philosophy underpins the

curriculum of the type of schools mentioned by Cheah and
Marimuthu? How would you go about subverting the curriculum
if you were an English teacher (in one of these schools) who
„secretly‰ sympathised with social reconstructionism?

 Curriculum is defined as the totality of the content to be taught, whereas

syllabus is defined as the content or subject matter of an individual subject.
 There are two broad classifications of syllabuses:
ă Synthetic Syllabuses
Structural (formal/grammatical), notional-functional, lexical, relational,
skill-based, situational and topical.
ă Analytic Syllabuses
Task-based, procedural, process, content-based, student-centred and the
natural approach.
 Curriculum involves planning and processes at all levels. Goodlad clarified

the term curriculum by dividing it into five groups: ideal, formal, perceived,
operational and experiential curriculum.
 Hidden curriculum is unanticipated learning outcomes in which meaning is

conveyed indirectly from interactions outside the planned learning.
 Curriculum serves as the boundary between formal and informal teaching,

as the former requires a proposal for action ă a curriculum ă while the latter
does not.
 The four major philosophies of education which guide schools are

perennialism, idealism, existentialism and experimentalism.
 Curriculum can be divided into four major categories: humanistic, social

reconstruction, academic and technology.

Academic Natural approach

Content-based Operational
Curriculum Perceived
Experientialism Procedural
Experimentalism Process
Formal Skill-based
Hidden Social
Humanistic Student-centred
Ideal Syllabus
Lexical Task-based
American Heritage Dictionary. (2000). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Breen, M. P. (1987). Learner contributions to task design. In C. N. Candlin, &

D. Murphy (Eds.), Lancaster practical papers in English language education:
Vol. 7. Language learning tasks (pp. 23ă46). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Cornbleth, C. (1990). Curriculum in context. Basingstoke, England: Falmer Press.
Dubin, F., & Olshtain, E. (1986). Course design development programs and
materials for language learning. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press.
Dunkelman, J. P. (1996). The application of selected sociolinguistic concepts to

second language learning syllabus design. Retrieved from http://www.
home.att.ne.jp/iota/puritycompany_dis.htm
ESL Glossary. (n.d.). Structural syllabus. Retrieved from http://bogglesworldesl.

com/glossary/structuralsyllabus.htm

Foster, P. (1999). Key concepts in ELT: Task-based learning and pedagogy. ELT
Journal, 53(1), 69ă70.
Goodlad, J. I. (1984). A place called school. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Heritage, A. (2000). The American heritage dictionary of the English language.

Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Jeffs, T., & Smith, M. (Eds.). (1990). Using informal education. An alternative to
casework, teaching and control? Milton Keynes, England: Open University
Press.
Jeffs, T. J., & Smith, M. K. (1999). Informal education. Conversation, democracy,

and learning. Ticknall, England: Education Now.

Jureckov, A. (1998). Toward more reality and realism in ESP syllabuses. Retrieved
from http://e. usia. gov/forum/
Kelly, A. V. (1983; 1999). The curriculum: Theory and practice (4th ed.). London,
England: Paul Chapman.
Krahnke, K. (1987). Approaches to syllabus design for foreign language teaching.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lynch, J. (1989). Multicultural education in a global society. London, England:

The Falmer Press.
Marco, M. J. L. (2000). Collocational frameworks in medical research papers:

A genre-based study. English for Specific Purposes, 19(1), 63ă86.
Marimuthu, T. (1993). The plantation school as an agent of social reproduction.

In K. S. Sandhu, & A. Mani (Eds.), Indian communities in Southeast Asia
(pp. 465ă483). Singapore: Times Academic Press for Institute of Southeast
Asian Studies.
Markee, N. (2000). Conversation analysis. New Jersey, NJ: Routledge.
Marsh, C. (1992). Key concepts for understanding the curriculum. London,

England: Falmer Press.

Marsh, C. J. (1997). Perspectives: Key concepts for understanding curriculum 1.

London, England: The Falmer Press.

CA: Harper Collins.
Nunan, D. (1988). Syllabus design. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Nunan, D. (1991). Communicative tasks and the language curriculum. TESOL

Quarterly, 25(2), 279ă295.
Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford, England: Oxford

University Press.
Richards, J. C. (1985). Planning for proficiency. CATESOL (California Association

of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages) Occasional
Papers, 11, 16ă30.
Richards, J. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. Cambridge,

England: Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J., Hull, J., & Proctoc, S. (2005). Interchange (3rd ed.). Cambridge,
Reilly, T. (1988). Approaches to foreign language syllabus design. Washington,

D.C: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics.
Skelton, J., & Willis, J. (n.d.). Approaches to syllabus specification course and
syllabus design ă Unit 1. Retrieved from http://www.philseflsupport.
com/csd1.htm
Stenhouse, L. (1975). An introduction to curriculum research and development.

London, England: Heinemann.
Summers, D. (2001). The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Harlow,

England: Longman Group Limited.
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development theory and practice. New York, NY:
Harcourt Brace and World.
Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. N. (1995). Curriculum development: Theory into practice.
New York, NY: Macmillan.


Warburton, N. (1998). Philosophy: The classics. London, England: Routledge.
West, D. (1996). An introduction to continental philosophy. Cambridge, England:

Polity Press.
White, R. (1988). The ELT curriculum: Design, innovation, and management.

Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
Wiles, J., & Bondi, J. (1993). The essential middle school. New York, NY:
Macmillan.
Wilkins, D. A. (1976). Notional syllabuses. Oxford, England: Oxford University

Press.

Topic  Curriculum
Development
2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the key features of the schools of thought discussed;
2. Discuss answers to TylerÊs four fundamental questions;
3. Analyse similarities and differences between the curriculum
development processes adopted by the Curriculum Development
Centre (CDC) of the Ministry of Education Malaysia and TylerÊs
model; and
4. Discuss the issues and problems faced in curriculum development
implementation.
 INTRODUCTION
Is curriculum development an art or a science? How does one go about
developing curriculum for the school or more arduously, the nation? This topic
examines the history of curriculum thought and practice, the process involved in
its development and some issues and problems inherent in the field.

36  TOPIC 2 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
2.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF CURRICULUM

MAKING
Curriculum development is a complex process through which a person, an
institution or a group builds a plan of study according to their requirements to
achieve specific educational goals. Of course, this definition is not exhaustive
because like any complex process, developing a curriculum can also involve many
other variables and priorities. A good curriculum is required among other things,
for the following:
(a) The developers need to form a good social understanding of the people
who will be involved in the curriculum, both on the delivery and the
recipientÊs sides;
(b) To enable optimal or maximum personal development in the clients

(students);
(c) To enable a continuity of effective teaching and learning experience. This

involves both the teaching staff and the learners;
(d) To enable the educational institution to achieve its educational goals;
(e) To enable the institution to maintain a balance between its goals. This
includes social, educational and other relevant goals; and
(f) Should enable the teaching institution to plan good utilisation of available
resources, and guide it in its plans to obtain the required resources.
More importantly, in most cases, the people developing a curriculum have to

work under very specific and sometimes strict parameters. These parameters
can range from demands from the government, industry and even society.
Fulfilling these demands usually requires the curriculum developers to maintain
a balance between educational and non-educational priorities.
Consequently, the curriculum development process requires several things to be

put in place for it to be truly effective. The following lists a number of requirements
that should be made available:
(a) A good plan in place;
(b) A clear and accurate account of logistics;
(c) Teaching staff that are qualified in the appropriate fields;

TOPIC 2 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT  37
(d) Teaching staff that are trained in the field;
(e) Appropriate teaching and learning material; and
(f) A clear timetable of course development, and course execution.
Curriculum developers need to perform an analysis of the teaching and learning

situation and context. You need to ask some pertinent questions like the following:
(a) The procedural question: What steps should one follow in planning a
curriculum?
(b) The descriptive question: How do people actually plan curricula; i.e., what
do they do?
(c) The conceptual question: What are the elements of curriculum planning
and how do they relate to one another conceptually?
(d) So now you are set to design your own curriculum. The question that arises
now is, how „good‰ is the curriculum you are developing?
There have been many models proposed that allows you to evaluate your
curriculum. In general, models proposed to evaluate a curriculum will ask the
following questions:
(a) How well does the curriculum fulfil its objective/s?
(b) How appropriately does your curriculum suit and utilise the material
you have selected for it?
(c) How does your curriculum impact its participants including the
management, teachers and learners? In a wider scope, you might also
want to consider asking how the curriculum impacts the society around it.
(d) How well does your curriculum impact and respond to its context and
situation?
(e) How well does your curriculum suit and convey the values upon which it is
built?
(f) How efficiently does your curriculum enable transactions between all parties
involved?

The rest of this topic is a case study of how the Malaysian educational system
developed its curriculum with a brief look at the history of this development.
In Topic 1, we explored the various definitions of curriculum, curriculum

philosophical foundations and its different types. In this topic, we will look at an
overview of the history of curriculum thought and practice in general, as well as
in the Malaysian context. There are several good reasons for undertaking this.
As scholars like McNeil (1990) and Marsh (1992) have pointed out, studies of
curriculum history have value because they:
(a) Help to identify the problems with which others have been and are still
struggling;
(b) Provide insight into the processes of curriculum making;
(c) Help us make decisions about the present and inform our future goals; and
(d) Enable us to better appreciate the current models of curriculum.
By the late 19th century, with the advent of industrial modernity, western Europe
and the US were in the process of creating a new division of labour and a uniform
school-transmitted culture so as to allow the workforce to communicate
competently (Gellner, 1988). In the field of education, the period was marked by
struggles between different interest groups over what should be taught in schools.
The following are some of the major schools of thought, derived primarily from
McNeil (1990) and Tyler (1949):
(a) Herbartism
The following are the descriptions of herbartism:
(i) Herbartism is founded upon the pedagogical theories of Johann

Herbart and is defined as „a rationalised set of philosophical and
psychological ideas applied to instructional method‰ (McNeil, 1990);
(ii) The assumption was that only large, connected units of subject matter
were able to arouse and maintain a childÊs interest and attention;
(iii) It stressed on „the doctrine of concentration‰ (the mindÊs immersion in

one interest to the exclusion of everything else) and „the doctrine of
correlation‰ (the ability to see interrelations between different
subjects); and

(iv) Followers of Herbartism believed that moral action was the highest
educational goal, and that education should prepare a person for life
with the highest ideals of culture.
(b) DeweyÊs School

The following are the descriptions of DeweyÊs school:
(i) John Dewey disagreed with HerbartismÊs emphasis on the teaching of

societal values, which does not take into consideration the studentÊs
individuality. He proposed instead, a paradigm in which the student
becomes the link between knowledge and conduct; and
(ii) The goal of the curriculum was not limited to the acquisition of
specialised knowledge. What was more important was that it became a
tool for understanding and ordering experience.
(c) BobbittÊs Scientism

The following are the descriptions of BobbittÊs scientism:
(i) Franklin Bobbitt is the author of The Curriculum (1918), the first formal
textbook on curriculum as a specialised area of study;
(ii) Bobbitt argued that school systems could operate more efficiently and
economically if they borrowed the principles of scientific management;
and
(iii) He argued that professional agreement on a method of discovery was

more important than agreement on the details of curriculum content.
(d) TylerÊs Rationale

The following are the descriptions of TylerÊs rationale:
(i) In his lucidly written book Basic Principles of Curriculum Making

(1949), Ralph Tyler proposed his famous model of curriculum building
which today continues to be used by curriculum specialists.
(ii) The model is commonly referred to as the means-end model (also

known as „objectives‰ and „rational‰) because of its emphasis on the
systematic working out of valid and workable educational objectives.
As Tyler stressed, „if an educational programme is to be planned
and if efforts for continued improvements are to be made, it is very
necessary to have some conception of the goals that are being aimed
at‰ (Tyler, 1949).

(iii) Tyler proposed four fundamental questions to be answered in

developing any curriculum or plan of instruction, as shown in
Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: TylerÊs four fundamental questions

Source: Tyler (1949, p. 1)
(iv) The selection of educational objectives should be guided not just by one
source but by many, including the following:
 He suggested that curriculum makers first study the students

themselves, that is, „identify needed changes in behaviour patterns
of the students which the educational institution should seek to
produce‰ (1949, p. 6);
 Studies of contemporary life outside the school should also be

undertaken in order to identify the validity of particular items of
knowledge or particular skills and abilities;
 Subject specialists should be consulted. The questions to ask here

are „What can your subject contribute to the education of young
people who are not [necessarily] going to be specialists in your
field; and what can your subject contribute to the layman, the
garden variety of citizen?‰ (1949, p. 26);

 The use of philosophy in selected objectives is unavoidable. „The

educational and social philosophy to which the school is committed
can serve as the first screen‰ (p. 34). As Tyler illustrated, „If the
school believes that its primary function is to teach people to adjust
to society, it will strongly emphasise obedience to the present
authorities, loyalty to the present forms and traditions, skills in
carrying on the present techniques of life; whereas if it emphasises
the revolutionary function of the school, it will be more concerned
with critical analysis, ability to meet new problems, independence
and self-direction, freedom and self-discipline‰ (p. 36); and
 Tyler also proposed the use of a psychology of learning in selecting

objectives. This, he argued, should be used as a second screen
through which educational ends be passed. „Unless these ends are
in conformity with conditions intrinsic in learning, they are
worthless as educational goals‰, he wrote (p. 37ă38).
(v) Educational objectives are to be attained through the active behaviour

of the student. In other words, what the student learns is more
important than what the teacher does.
(vi) On organisation, Tyler suggested that learning experiences should be

built upon earlier activities and that there should be an interrelating or
integrating of experiences across subjects.
(vii) Evaluation is an important part of curriculum because it is a way of

„finding out how far the learning experiences as developed and
organised are actually producing the desired results‰ (p. 105). It
involves identification of the strengths and weaknesses of the plans.
However, TylerÊs rationale for curriculum making is not fail-proof.

For instance, no explicit guidelines are provided on why certain
objectives should be chosen over others. Furthermore, it overlooks
how to ensure information collected from needs analysis is not biased.

ACTIVITY 2.1
1. Identify the key features of the schools of thought which were

discussed previously, as well as others you may have come across
in your readings. Which of them are still relevant and being
debated today?
2. In what ways are the key ideas of the schools of thought discussed
earlier relevant to education in Malaysia? In your opinion, why is
it important for teachers to reflect on this?
3. State TylerÊs four fundamental questions pertaining to curriculum

development and planning. Relate them to the teaching of English
in Malaysia.

forum.
2.2 THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

PROCESS
Curriculum development is a process that we need to run in progressive steps.
Often the product of each step enables us to run the next step. Using curriculum
development, we create courses and programmes. These programmes are then
used by academics or non-academics depending on the actual curriculum, to run
the programmes and courses. This is the process used by education institutions
(universities, colleges, institutes and other institutions) or training institutions
(trade schools, professional development schools, training institutes and so on)
to run improvement programmes for their students or clients.
Ideally, the curriculum we develop should be able to encompass the advancements

and changes that happen in the world, in the specific field the curriculum is
devised. When properly constructed, a good curriculum is stable enough to
include all the contents that are de rigueur in the area, profession or discipline.
In addition, it needs to be flexible enough to enable us to include new
developments and relevant important issues from the respective area, profession
or discipline.

In addition, a good curriculum needs to be able to allow innovations in

pedagogical and andragogical practices, techniques and strategies devised to
enhance the learning experience. This will ensure that the programme will not be
employing old-fashioned teaching style. The institution that is able to plan for
and allow for these changes and innovation will be able to take advantage of
the benefits they offer.
2.3 THE BASICS OF CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT
This subtopic explores the basics of curriculum development. We will discuss a
brief definition of curriculum development. In this subtopic, we will also touch
on two models of curriculum development.
2.3.1 A Brief Definition

Linguistically speaking, curriculum is a noun which means, „a course, especially
a fixed course of study at a college, university or school‰. It came into use in the
modern sense in 1824. Initially taken from classical Latin, curriculum means,
„a running, course or career‰. It alludes to racing because it comes from the
Latin term currere which means „to run‰. It was first used in English as a
borrowing from Latin in 1630s at the Scottish universities.
Of course, we have changed the way we think of curriculum since then. Today,
curriculum is most commonly understood as a list or collection of subjects
comprising a programme or course of study in education institutions of all levels.
Like any form of planning, the same basic material or intention can lead to many
interpretations. Two programmes of study that use the same basic course material
may differ greatly in the way the courses are designed and carried out. The
fundamentals of the curriculum and its design, however, are constant. One
example can be seen in programmes run by universities. The programmes in
most universities will not differ greatly; they may even use the same material.
These programmes however, can differ significantly from one another in terms
of how they run their programmes. This in turn may cause the students or
clients to gain different experiences when taking the different programmes in
different institutions.

2.3.2 Models of Curriculum Development

There are two broad categories of current curriculum models: the product
model and the process model.
In simple terms, a product model will place emphasis on the shape and form of
the programme being developed above all other considerations. On the other
hand, the process model will regard the process of developing the programme
as of the utmost importance. Alternatively, it may also be a thinking that regards
the experience offered by the programme to be run to be more important than the
actual content of the programme.
Curriculum designed using the product model is results-oriented. In the courses,

grades are given priority and the general aim is to finish the course and gain the
credentials, i.e., the finished product, more so than the actual learning process
offered by the programme or course. Curriculum designed using the process
model tends to be more open-ended. They also tend to focus on developing the
learning experience; learning to learn, more than what you are learning.
Generally, however these are not mutually exclusive opposites. Rather, both
models are often considered when curriculum are designed and constructed.
Think of the process model and the product model as two opposite ends of a
continuum. Whatever curriculum we develop will fall somewhere on that
continuum; that point will be identified by the degree in which we focus on the
material or focus on the learning experience.
2.4 CURRICULUM PLANNING

When we plan a curriculum, we involve multiple instructional and organisational
strategies and methods. Therefore, we often require people who are qualified
and experienced to be involved in the curriculum development process. This is
because the process will require them to draw upon their experience in the field,
familiarity with the myriad of strategies, methods and theories.
Our focus is trying to achieve optimal student development and student

learning outcomes. The rest are variables that we manipulate and arrange to
allow us to achieve that goal. To achieve that we work with plans, assessment
and coursework, making them work towards the main focus from the classroom
to the entire institution.

In the planning stage, planners consider multiple factors based on their likeliness
to hinder or complement the initial curriculum. It is essential to remember that
whatever theory, strategy, method or approach we choose to adopt will inevitably
affect the curriculum, the running of the course and the overall learning experience
of the participants.
Curriculum themselves are built according to institutional requirement by

adhering to the guidelines, principles, framework, comprehensibility and other
guiding references that are available to the planners. Most importantly, the
planners need to consider the studentsÊ educational needs, and logistics in the
present and predictable future.
In effect, every time we engage in curriculum development, we are indulging

in a balancing act where we will need to simultaneously juggle the parameters
set by the institutional guidelines, the laws of the land, the demands and concerns
of the institutions, and the needs and experience of the clients such as students,
participants and others.
Curriculum needs also consider the teachers. Without the teachers (also trainers
and facilitators) we do not in fact, have a viable programme because there will be
no one to run the course or programme. The planned curriculum is factoring on
affective teaching. These factors are as follows (refer to Figure 2.2):

Figure 2.2: The planned curriculum
2.5 DESIGNING A CURRICULUM

Next, we can discuss designing a curriculum. Designing a curriculum is
deliberately organising curriculum within a programme, course or class.
A programme includes multiple courses. A programme in Teaching of English
as a Second Language (TESL), for example, will include courses in linguistics,
teaching theory and practice, grammar, educational assessment and evaluation,
and more. Each course will include several classes. The classes can be divided
by the level of the studentsÊ progress or any other consideration deemed suitable
by the institution.

When we design our curriculum, we need to identify what we need to get done,
who will carry out the job, how the job will be done and when it will be carried
out, all of which with a view to achieving the objectives of the curriculum. As we
engage these, we need to encompass the knowledge and skills that the students
are required to master to progress to the next level.
Most importantly, the curriculum designer needs to ensure that all requirements
are covered. From there, the designer can progress to exploring suitable
approaches and teaching methods to attain the curriculum objectives. Here again
we need to consider the interest of all stakeholders involved. By stakeholders
we mean every relevant body from the government to the parents.
2.6 TYPES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

There are three basic types of curriculum design ă subject-centred, learner-centred
and problem-centred curriculum design. Let us look at them one by one in
detailed manner.
2.6.1 Subject-centred Curriculum Design

Subject-centred curriculum design focuses on a particular subject matter or
discipline rather than the students. In this design, teachers list the following:
(a) The subjects to be taught;
(b) How the subjects are to be taught; and
(c) How the students must learn the subject.
This design is typical in higher education. One setback of this model may be in
terms of the problem in engaging student and motivating those who do not
perform at the required pace or level. The reason this design is popular among
higher institutions is that the students there are expected to be mature and
intelligent enough to be responsible for their own learning.
Thus, they are expected to be able to find their own ways of grasping the subject
and content matter. They are expected to „know how to learn‰.

2.6.2 Learner-centred Curriculum Design

This design focuses on studentsÊ needs, interests and goals. Central here is the
realisation that students are individuals with individual learning and should not
be subject to a standardised curriculum. These curricula aim to empower learners
make meaningful choices to shape their education. This design uses differentiated
instructional plans to provide opportunities to select assignments, teaching and
learning experiences, or activities.
This form of curriculum design allows us to engage and motivate students.

One drawback of this form of curriculum design is that it can create more pressure
on the educator to source materials, so that we can cater to each studentÊs
learning needs.
Another concern is when the interest and goals of the teacher do not coincide with
those of the students. The question then becomes, how do I make my students
become interested in learning?
Other challenges include teaching time constraints and balancing individual

student interests with the required outcomes.
This curriculum design is more popular among primary education institutions.

Here the learners are not expected to be able to control their own learning and
thus, they require more guidance, motivation and input. There is however a
danger of going too far, to the extent of spoon-feeding the students.
2.6.3 Problem-centred Curriculum Design

In this design, we teach students handle problems and formulate solutions to
them. Learning in this design, attempt to engage authentic forms of learning by
exposing students to real-life issues with a view to develop skills that are
applicable in the real world. Problem-centred curriculum design tries to increase
curriculum relevance, encourages creativity, innovation and collaboration in the
classroom. One problem is that this format may not take into account individual
learning styles: the students may have their individual ways of solving problems,
and these problem-solving styles may differ or even conflict against one another.
For the designer, it is essential that we choose the appropriate model before we
start designing our curriculum. We need to choose the model that best suits both
our students and our course. Thus, developing, designing and implementing an
education curriculum is a complex task. This is compounded by the variety of
educational technology available to us and the studentsÊ diversity. However,
following the fundamental guidelines and framework of curriculum development,
can and will lead to success.
2.7 PRINCIPLES TO FOLLOW

The first thing we think of in curriculum development is the type of learning
experiences we want to give to our learners at what age, grade and level. In some
cases, the curriculum developers are the one who decides on these factors. In many
cases however, these factors are decided by the stakeholders.
Curriculum developers need to be systematic. The system adopted by the

curriculum developers will guide every step in the process of curriculum
development. Therefore, it is important for the developers to have a clear idea of
the direction that they need to take and the destination they are aiming for.
We need to plan the curriculum in terms of the sequence leading to a more

sophisticated learning experience at each progressive level. Our course must be
arranged in incremental levels of complexity and difficulty. We cannot teach,
for example, multiplications without first teaching numbers. We cannot explain to
students how to make chicken curry without first teaching them how to prepare
the chicken meat.
The curriculum itself, however, generally concerns two fundamental points:
(a) What we need to teach. This is about the content of the curriculum; and
(b) How we will organise the curriculum including how we will teach the
course.
The following are factors that need to be considered when we develop curricula.
These factors also form the principles upon which we build out curricula.
2.7.1 Is My Programme and Material Suitable to

My Students’ Age and Mental Development?
We cannot give learning experiences and learning material not suitable to our
studentsÊ level of mental development and age, and then expect success.
Remember that a childÊs mental abilities develop with age. This means that the
content of our programme needs to be appropriate to the childrenÊs age.
Any teacher, particularly teachers of primary schooling, can testify to the problems
that difference in children developmental rate can cause. This is where the
flexibility in the curriculum really matters: it needs to give teachers enough space
to make the adjustments to the curriculum and allow them to teach all their
students effectively.

We can monitor this as the class development because we may have to make
changes to our programme since children do not all develop at the same rate.
Some may be more matured than others at their age.
2.7.2 Am I Taking into Account My Students’

Interests?
Children, as well as adults, are often able to learn faster when they are interested
in the field or subject they are studying. This is true especially in areas of
specific interest. If we know what and where their interest lay, then we can explain
that interest and use it to motivate them.
We need to remember however that peopleÊs attention and interests change.

A seven-year-old class in 1980 for instance, would not have the same interests
as a class of seven-year-olds today. The further the chronological distance,
the more their interests will differ, at least on the surface level.
Age also plays a role. A six-year-old child and a twelve-year-old teenager would
probably not be interested in the same things.
Children may be more interested in such things as sports and entertainment, and
this may hinder their participation in the class. Adults on the other hand may
partake in a course for utilitarian reasons. This may hinder their efforts in the
class and the learning. In both cases, it becomes the teacherÊs responsibility to
find ways to guide his or her student to gaining interest in the subject and thus,
make an effort towards learning it.
Therefore, it is essential that we form an understanding of our studentsÊ interests

as we develop our programme curriculum.
2.7.3 The Curriculum Should Be Environmentally

Centred
We should make the learning experiences that we plan to offer suit the context of
our students. This includes make use of their common experiences in their
environment. For example, using a cybercafé as the setting for a learning activity
may not be as useful if your students have never been to one.
Our use of the term „environment‰ here is inclusive of all aspects of a personÊs
life. In a school, the environmental concerns can include everything in the school
compound. In the studentsÊ lives, however, factors that affect their learning come
from everything and everyone in their „world‰. One might ask, how does a
curriculum developer take into account the studentsÊ lives outside the school.
One example may be in their choice of samples and examples to be used in the
classes. Teachers may decide to use things that happen in real life in the immediate
community to give the learners a sense of familiarity with the material in the
learning process.
2.8 THE COMPREHENSIVE CURRICULUM

PRINCIPLE
We must include all relevant details in our curriculum. Without adequate details,
it would be pointless if we only list out items that are supposed to be there.
Remember that the curriculum you are developing is the foundation of the entire
programme. The curriculum that you are developing will be the basis for all the
teaching and learning that will be done in the programme. In addition, it will also
affect the choice of teaching and learning material, how the infrastructure will be
used, and even the recruitment of teaching staff and support crew.
Moreover, this has to do with expectations. Teachers and students simply cannot
perform to the level expected of them if their understanding of the expectations
differs from one another. More importantly, this information needs to be given to
them at the beginning of their programme or class.
List all important information in the details, material, activities and more needs to
be listed in the curriculum.
2.9 CO-RELATION PRINCIPLE

All the subjects in our curriculum must correlate to one another. There should be
links between the subject, the manner or nature of those links is up to you or
the developer.
This can be done in many ways. Among the methods used by teachers include
the following:
(a) Use material that come from the same publication and belong to the same
series of teaching-learning material;
(b) Cooperate with teachers of other subjects to ensure that they apply similar
approaches; and
(c) Use the same approach, method or strategies when teaching the different
classes and subjects.

2.9.1 Practicality
Children or people in general, generally love doing things; working on things
with their hands. They also like new things and doing new things. However, they
are not always able to nor should they be allowed to do what they want to do,
always. This could and will interrupt the running of the class and hinder the
curriculumÊs progress.
If a curriculum is designed to provide a series of activities that provide its learners

to be active, it will probably be successful.
This is where the relationship between the curriculum developers and the
teachers teaching the subject become important. Both sides need to have a common
understanding of what is practical, feasible and realistic.
2.9.2 Flexibility
It is commonly belief that being flexible is always better than being rigid when
we are talking about curricula. Most of the time, it is true. However, this must be
taken with a pinch of salt. It is true that we need to prioritise flexibility when we
develop curricula and run programmes, but we must also be aware of the
parameters and boundaries of said parameters. This is especially true when we
consider the assessments of said programme. Students need to pass the
examinations and assessments to earn the qualifications associated with the
programmes. To be able to do that, they need to learn specific skills and acquire
a definite list of learning objects, they cannot do these if we do not maintain
a definite direction in running the programme.
In this domain, flexibility means that we should, as far as possible, consider

individual differences.
Moreover, society, community, people in general, learning institutions and

administration change often. So, we need flexibility to account for all pertinent
changes.

2.9.3 Look Forward

Be observant of speculations of what is to come. Using good judgement but
include as much as possible of all matters that are forecasted to impact the
studentsÊ lives in the future.
In effect, to be a good curriculum developer you would need to be a bit of a

futurologist: someone who predicts what the future will be like. This may sound
odd but just consider a few common occurrences. You are developing a
curriculum for a programme that will run for several years. This may mean that
after a few times your programme is run, there could be changes in technology
that makes some of the things that you incorporate into your curriculum either
obsolete or has become so common that they no longer pose a challenge to the
students.
For example, you develop a writing course and part of the assessment plan for
your course requires your participants to work in groups. This meant meeting up
and working together at the time but when the Corona virus pandemic broke out,
this became difficult but online collaboration has also become greatly improved
with the introduction of Google Meet, Microsoft Team, Skype and a host of other
applications. The question now is do we need to tweak our assessment plans to
incorporate this new form of collaboration?
2.9.4 Always Consult Teachers

Teachers are the people who will run our educational programmes. They are the
ones whom you need on your side and on board with the programme.
It is always ideal if we could get the teachers involved in the planning process
as soon as possible. If your teachers are involved in the construction and
development of the school curriculum, they will be better informed about the
programme.
It is always a good idea to consult the people who are active in the field when we
plan for something involving the said field. An example comes to mind. I once met
some people who were trying to establish an educational institution as an
investment. They were not from the education field, but they thought it would be
a simple matter to venture in with common business notions. They focused on
the infrastructure, but they did not consult any educationists on the building of
programmes. The plan fell through because they did not realise that education
programmes especially at the tertiary level are required to go through strict
evaluation processes to obtain the necessary approval to run from accreditation
bodies, both from the government and the industry.
2.9.5 Engage in Joint Ventures

Joint ventures are not absolutely necessary but engaging in them will always be
beneficial to your programme. Among the people you could bring into our joint
venture programme would include educational psychologists, technologists,
curriculum specialists, subject matter experts and more.
This comes from the notion that two heads are better than one. Joint ventures can
bring more depth to our programmes. Moreover, the way disciplines are today,
many, if not all are multidisciplinary to some extent. An education programme,
for example, will include elements of psychology, management, mathematics and
even performing arts. In fact, teachers in essence do a performance when they are
in front of the class.
2.9.6 Logistics: Time and Other Resources

Our curriculum is the means by which we will achieve our educational objectives.
Consequently, implementing our curriculum is just as important as planning it.
Therefore, we must always keep implementing our curriculum in our minds as

we are planning. To meticulously plan we need to know what we have to work
with, the resources that we have or need to obtain to ensure the success of our
programme. Awareness of our logistics also means that we can ensure that our
curriculum can be carried out in the programme smoothly.
The problem that arises when considering logistics and resources, if first to list
what we need, and secondly, more importantly, where, and how do we obtain
them. In many cases, certain resources cannot be bought on retail market. In some
cases, we need to manipulate readily available resources to suit our needs.
2.10 THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

PROCESS IN A NUTSHELL
In the curriculum process, we bind together what we will teach, who will teach,
who will be taught and more. All the components of our curriculum will affect
and interact with all other components.
More importantly, we need to recognise the importance of each of these elements.

Failure to do so may hinder the progress of the programmes that we develop or,
in a worst-case scenario, doom them to failure.

The methods that we will employ need to also be made explicit. These include:
(a) Issues/problems/needs;
(b) Learner characteristics;
(c) Desired and intended outcome;
(d) Important and relevant content; and
(e) Assessment and evaluation strategies.
2.10.1 Curriculum Development Model

The following are simplified process components that we undergo in the
curriculum development process (refer to Figure 2.3 and Table 2.1).
Figure 2.3: Curriculum development model

Source: http://www.fao.org/3/ah650e/AH650E03.htm

Table 2.1: Components in Curriculum Development Process
Component Elaborations
Identify the need for  The need could be an issue, concern or problem
curriculum materials
 Conduct need assessment and analysis
Form curriculum  Making systematic decisions about:

development team
 Target audience (learner characteristics);
 Intended outcomes (objectives);
 Content;
 Method; and
 Evaluation strategies: formative and summative.
Pilot test the  Produce intended product

programme
 Test and revise curriculum
 Find, recruit and train staff
 Implement curriculum
Evaluate the outcome  Find weaknesses and fix them
Examine curriculum  Curriculum products are developed, tested, evaluated

materials and redesigned ă if necessary
Volunteer training  This provides feedback for new materials or revisions

to the existing curriculum

2.10.2 Phases and Steps in Curriculum Development

In this subtopic, we will learn four phases that are involved in curriculum
development. Let us look at them one by one in a detailed manner.
(a) Phase I: Planning

Let us start with the first phase, planning. There are few steps that are
involved in this stage:
(i) Identify Issue/Problem/Need

We often develop a curriculum as a reaction to some major issues
or problem faced by the population, specifically the target audience.
Here we explore these issues and questions, define them, develop our
statement on it, find our committee, and identify the scope and range
of our curriculum.
(ii) Form Curriculum Development Team

We find the people who will develop the curriculum. To do this, we do
the following:
 Select the team members;
 Define and inform them of their roles and functions; and
 Start collaborating and build teamwork.
(iii) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

There are two phases to do this:
 Conduct a needs analysis: ask questions like who needs what, why,
how many and so on; and
 Analyse the data: how do you use the data and interpret the data.

(b) Phase II: Content and Methods

This phase determines intended outcomes (what learners will be able to do
after participation in curriculum activities), the content (what will be taught)
and the methods (how it will be taught). Here we do the following:
(i) State the Intended Outcomes

Make it clear what we want to achieve or happen: our intended
outcome. Thus, we will:
 Define our intended outcome. This includes our educational

objectives and learning outcomes: what the learners will be able to
do after going through the course;
 Identify the components of the outcome (condition, performance

and standards); and
 Breakdown the outcomes and provide detailed description of

each outcome.
(ii) Decide on Content

In this part of the process, do the following:
 Selecting Our Content

The guiding notion is, how will this content item help us to achieve
our intended outcome?
 What Do We Want Our Learners to Know?

This may sound mundane, but it can include everything from
formulas, history and more. We may identify the scope (breadth of
knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviour). Educational reliability,
our ability to make good decisions becomes quintessential (Smith,
n.d.). Also, we may identify the sequence (order) in which the
content will be presented. Then, we add an addendum section
as an example and application of how intended outcomes are
linked with content and vice versa.
(iii) Design Experiential Methods

This is where we design activities (learning experiences) to help the
learner achieve appropriate intended outcomes. This is where we
discuss our experiential learning model and its components
(i.e., experience, share, process, generalise and apply). This is also
where we make it clear the specific teaching method or approach that
we will adopt to achieve our outcome.

(c) Phase III: Implementation

Now, let us discuss the third phase, implementation. The following are the
steps that are involved in this stage:
(i) Produce Curriculum Product

Here we start rolling out our product. For example, make out
curriculum material, teach our classes, assess our students and more.
As we do this, we will also do the following:
 Evaluate the effectiveness of each material and product;
 Refine our evaluation criteria; and
 Make suggestions on further development.
(ii) Test and Revise Curriculum

Here we select test sites, conduct formative evaluation of curriculum
materials during the production phase and collect samples. For
example, we record classes in session.
(iii) Recruit and Train Facilitators

What is the point of going through all the trouble of designing a good
curriculum, if we are not going to train our staff to run it properly?
Hence, training teachers is important and needs to be done. We need to
be open to suggestions and recruit appropriate facilitators. Do not
forget to train your trainers first.
(iv) Implement Curriculum

Now we are good to go. With all our planning done and tested,
we want to hit the ground running. Strategies to promote and use
the curriculum are discussed in this step.
(d) Phase IV: Evaluation and Reporting

Remember, that the steps taken are not necessarily sequential. Each phase
has steps and tasks that need to be completed in a logical sequence. Also
remember that the steps are not necessarily distinct and separate. They may
run concurrently and overlap each other. It is also important that the entire
curriculum development is involved in all of the steps.
At each step, we need to assess the progress where we see what works
and what does not. More importantly, we need to determine the effectiveness
and impact of the curriculum when implemented.

We include formative evaluation to provide feedback during the process of

developing the curriculum and summative evaluation to record changes
experienced by learners as a result of the learning experiences. It is essential
to keep the learners involved in this process because they are the ones we are
trying to educate.
(i) Design Evaluation Strategies

Evaluation is a phase in the curriculum development model, but it is
also specific step in the educational process. Here also we use the
formative and summative evaluations. Formative evaluations are used
to assess needs, product development and testing steps. Summative
evaluations are used to measure and report on the outcomes of the
curriculum.
Here we review evaluation strategies and suggest simple procedures to

produce valid and reliable information. We will then develop a series
of questions used for the summative evaluation process and suggest a
sample evaluation format.
(ii) Reporting and Securing Resources

Finally, we come to the part where everything either pays off or proves
to be a failure. In this step, we need suggestions for what and how
to report to our key shareholders, this includes funding bodies and
policy decision makers. Remember to make it brief. The objective is to
secure resources for additional programming, to keep the institution
going.
ACTIVITY 2.2
How many steps do you need to take to plan a basic lesson?
Explain your answer to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

 The major schools of thought in curriculum making are Herbartism, DeweyÊs

school, BobbittÊs Scientism and TylerÊs rationale.
 Tyler advocated that four fundamental questions be asked and answered

when developing a curriculum:
 What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
 What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain

these purposes?
 How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
 How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
 One process of curriculum development is based on a cyclical model

beginning with a needs analysis, followed by planning, development,
piloting, dissemination and implementation, evaluation and then back to the
identification of needs.
 A needs analysis involves gathering data from various sources to determine

the needs of students and society in developing a suitable curriculum.
 Summative evaluation (final changes at the end of planning) and formative

evaluation (feedback provided during the implementation to allow for
immediate change) are important in the process of curriculum development.
 The issues in curriculum development and implementation are the politics

in curriculum development, curriculum developersÊ level of expertise and
the dissonance between intentions and outcomes.

Dissemination Problem-centred curriculum design

Dissenters Process model
Dissonance Product model
Herbartism Subject-centred curriculum design
Learner-centred curriculum design
Arul, J. P. (2007). HMEF5073 Curriculum development. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia:

Open University Malaysia.
Brown, J. D. (1995). The elements of language curriculum. New York, NY: Heinle
and Heinle.
Curriculum Development Centre. (2001a). Pembelajaran secara konstruktivisme

(Learning by means of constructivism). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia:
Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education.
Curriculum Development Centre. (2001b). Pembelajaran masteri (Mastery

learning). Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Curriculum Development Centre,
Ministry of Education.
Gellner, E. (1988). Plough, sword and book: The structure of human history.
London, England: Collins Harvill.
Hussain, A., Dogar, A. H., Azeem, M., & Shakoor, A. (2011). Evaluation of
curriculum development process. International Journal of Humanities and
Social Science, 1(14), 263ă271.
Ilie, M. D. (2013). A hyper-rationalistic model for curriculum development: First

draft. Procedia ă Social and Behavioral Sciences, 76, 383ă387.


Johnson, D., & Steele, V. (1996). So many words, so little time: Helping college
ESL learners acquire vocabulary building strategies. Journal of Adolescent
& Adult Literacy, 39(5), 348ă357.
Marimuthu, T. (1993). The plantation school as an agent of social reproduction.

In K. S. Sandhu, & A. Mani (Eds.), Indian communities in Southeast Asia
(pp. 465ă483). Singapore: Times Academic Press for Institute of Southeast
Asian Studies.
Marsh, C. (1992). Key concepts for understanding the curriculum. London,

England: Falmer Press.

CA: Harper Collins.
Oon-Chye, Y. (1977). The curriculum development centre of Malaysia. Studies

of curriculum development centres in Asia 2. Retrieved from
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed165298
Rea-Dickins, P., & Germaine, K. (1992). Evaluation. Oxford, England: Oxford

University Press.
Sharifah Maimunah Syed Zin, & Lewin, K. M. (1991). Curriculum development

in Malaysia. In C. Marsh, & P. Morris (Eds.), Curriculum development in
East Asia (pp. 225ă251). London, England: The Falmer Press.
Smith, M. K. (n.d.). What is curriculum? Exploring theory and practice. Retrieved

from http://infed.org/mobi/curriculum-theory-and-practice
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. New York, NY:
Harcourt, Brace and World.
Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. (1995). Curriculum development: Theory into practice
(3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.

White, R. (1988). The ELT curriculum: Design, innovation and management.

Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell.
Wiles, J., & Bondi, J. (1993). The essential middle school (2nd ed.). New York, NY:
Macmillan.

Topic  The
Curriculum
3 Development
Process
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the basic models of curriculum development;
2. Compare and contrast the selected models (the Tyler, Taba, and
Saylor and Alexander models);
3. Differentiate between the levels of educational goals; and
4. Formulate objectives using different taxonomies.
 INTRODUCTION
The first topic examines curriculum planning followed by curriculum design,
curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. In this topic we will
examine in general the curriculum development process by referring to three
well-known curriculum development models; namely, TylerÊs model, TabaÊs
model, and SaylorÊs and AlexanderÊs model. In the second part of the topic,
we will focus on the first phase of the process namely, curriculum planning
which involves establishing the goals and objectives of a curriculum based on the
agreed educational philosophy.
Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process whether it is

a school, college, university or training institution. The textbooks used, how
teachers are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of
students, preparation of guides for both students and teachers, and setting of

TOPIC 3 THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS  65
standards, are all based on the curriculum. Curriculum allows educational

institution to function efficiently. So, how are curricula developed? How are
they organised? Who develops them? What principles are followed in developing
curricula? How do we know when our curricula are successful?
Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning experiences

that students encounter in an educational institution. The process of providing
the plan and keeping it running smoothly is known as curriculum development.
Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes
planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation and evaluation.
Since curriculum development implies change and betterment, curriculum
improvement is often used synonymously with curriculum development, though in
some cases improvement is viewed as a result of development (Oliva, 1982).
Curriculum development is a process that continuously strives to find newer,
better and more efficient means to accomplish the task of educating the next
generation.
3.1 WHAT DO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

MODELS LOOK LIKE?
A model consists of interacting parts. A model primarily serves as a guide or
procedure for action. Some models are simple, while others are complex. Some
models are more similar to another model, while some models are refinements
or revisions of earlier models. There are many models of curriculum development.
In this topic, we will discuss three well-known models: the Tyler model, the Taba
model, and the Saylor and Alexander model.
3.1.1 The Tyler Model

TylerÊs model of curriculum development is one of the popular models. Ralph
Tyler introduced it in the book Basic Principles of Curriculum (1949). In this book,
he asks the following questions:
(a) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
(b) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
(c) How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
(d) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

66  TOPIC 3 THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
In essence, TylerÊs questions represent the four-step sequence of:
(a) Identifying purposes or objectives;
(b) Selecting the means for the attainment or achievement of these objectives
i.e. what educational or teaching-learning experiences have to be provided
for students;
(c) Organising these educational or teaching-learning experiences; and
(d) Evaluating the outcomes or what students have attained or achieved.
By „purposes‰, Tyler was referring to „objectives‰ and when developing a

curriculum, objectives data should be gathered from three sources; namely,
the subject area (e.g. Science, Mathematics, Geography or History), the learners
(e.g. economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) and society
(e.g. ethics, patriotism, national unity, environmental awareness, employment
and market needs).
After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes),
the curriculum developer must pass them through two screens: the philosophy
screen and the psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional
objectives which state the kind of outcomes that are observable are measurable.
The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable the
attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences must take into
account the previous experiences that learners bring to a situation. The learning
experiences will have to be selected based on what is known about human learning
and human development.
Next, Tyler talked about the organisation and sequencing of these learning
experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised to
enhance learning and suggested that ideas, concepts, values and skills be used as
organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would serve as
organisers linking content within a particular subject (e.g. History, Economics or
Science) and determining the method of instruction or delivery of content.
Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the

curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know whether
the selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For example,
if the objective was to develop critical thinking among students, did the learning
experiences selected achieve this objective? Through evaluation, it will be possible
to determine whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective.

There is no denying that TylerÊs thinking has greatly influenced the field of
curriculum, especially curriculum development. The four questions that he raised
had and still have a great appeal because it is very reasonable and workable.
Despite much criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause and effect,
there is no denying that his thinking continues to be popular (Ornstein & Hunkins,
1998).
3.1.2 The Taba Model

Another approach to curriculum development was proposed by Hilda Taba in
her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice published in 1962.
She argued that there was a definite order in creating a curriculum. She believed
that teachers, who teach the curriculum, should participate in developing it which
led to the model being called the grass-roots approach. She noted seven major
steps to her grass-roots approach in which teachers would have a major input
(refer to Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Steps of the grass-roots approach
She was of the opinion that the Tyler model was more of an administrative model.
TylerÊs model involved too much top-down decision-making as a great portion
of curriculum decisions was made by administrators in the Central Office or
the Ministry of Education.

Taba felt that a curriculum should be designed by the users of the programme.
Teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units
for their students. She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to
curriculum development. This meant starting with the specifics and building
towards a general design. This was just the opposite of the more traditional
deductive approach which starts with the general design and then work towards
the specifics.
Taba proposed the following seven major steps for her grass-roots model in
which teachers would be able to provide major input throughout the curriculum
development process (refer to Table 3.1):
Table 3.1: Descriptions of Major Steps of the Grass-roots Model
Step Descriptions
Diagnosis of need The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the
process by identifying the needs of students for whom the
curriculum is planned. For example, the majority of students
are unable to think critically.
Formulation of After the teacher has identified the needs that require
objectives attention, he or she specifies the objectives to be accomplished.
Selection of content The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter
or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and
content match, but also the validity and significance of the
content chosen need to be determined, i.e. the relevancy and
significance of the content.
Organisation of A teacher cannot just select content, but must organise it in

content some type of sequence, taking into consideration the maturity
of learners, their academic achievement and their interests.
Selection of learning Content must be presented to students and they must be

experiences engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher selects
instructional methods that will involve the students with the
content.
Organisation of Just as content must be sequenced and organised, so must the

learning activities learning activities. Often, the sequence of the learning
activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs
to keep in mind the particular students whom he or she will
be teaching.
Evaluation and The curriculum planner must determine just what objectives
means of evaluation have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to be
designed to evaluate learning outcomes.

TabaÊs model has much merit but some argue that teachersÊ involvement
throughout the process assumes that they have the expertise, which may not be
the case. Moreover, they may not have the time to engage in such an extensive and
intensive curricular activity.
The involvement of teachers in the early stages of curriculum development may

not necessarily be an advantage as it will not essentially guarantee an effective
curriculum, since it is a highly specialised process. Curriculum development,
however, requires the involvement of many parties at various stages of the
process, from individuals from the Central Office or the Ministry of Education,
district education officers, principals, teachers, community leaders, subject matter
experts, academics and even students.
Usually, curriculum developers at the Central Office are given the task of directing
those actions that bring together various participants in curriculum development.
Teachers may only be involved in implementing the curriculum while the main
part of the curriculum is determined by the Ministry of Education, academics,
content specialists and employers.
3.1.3 The Saylor and Alexander Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development
as consisting of four steps (refer to Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2: Saylor and AlexanderÊs curriculum development model
According to them, curriculum is „a plan for providing sets of learning

opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives
for an identifiable population served by a single school centre‰.

Table 3.2 explain SaylorÊs and AlexanderÊs curriculum development model in

detail.
Table 3.2: Explanations of Saylor and AlexanderÊs Curriculum Development Model
Step Explanation
Goals, objectives The model indicates that curriculum planners begin by

and domains specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives
they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a
curriculum domain, and the planners advocate four major
goals or domains: personal development, human relations,
continued learning skills and specialisation. The goals,
objectives and domains are selected after careful
consideration of several external variables such as findings
from educational research, accreditation standards, views of
community groups and others.
Curriculum Once the goals, objectives and domains have been established,
designing planners move into the process of designing the curriculum.
Here, decisions are made on the appropriate learning
opportunities for each domain and how and when these
opportunities will be provided. Will the curriculum be
designed along the lines of academic disciplines or according
to student needs and interests or along themes? These are
some of the questions that need to be answered at this stage of
the development process.
Curriculum After the designs have been created, the next step is
implementation implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the
designs of the curriculum plan, teachers would specify
instructional objectives and then select relevant teaching
methods and strategies to achieve the desired learning
outcomes among students in the classroom.
Curriculum Finally, the curriculum planner and teachers engage in an

evaluation evaluation. The model proposes that evaluation should be
comprehensive using a variety of evaluation techniques.
Evaluation should involve the total educational programme
of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of
instruction and the achievement of students. Through the
evaluation process, the curriculum planner and developers
can determine whether the goals of the school and the
objectives of instruction have been met.

The three models we just discussed reveal both similarities and differences. All
models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development.
Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum
development, while the Tyler model focuses on the two screens which objectives
must pass through. However, you should keep in mind that models often are
incomplete; they do not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the
complicated curriculum process. To depict every aspect in detail of the curriculum
development process would require an exceedingly complex and intricate model.
In looking at the three models, we cannot say that any one model is superior
to another model. Some curriculum planners have followed TylerÊs model with
considerable success. But this does not mean that TylerÊs model represents the
ultimate model for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied
with it.
ACTIVITY 3.1
What do you think a model of curriculum development should look like?
Share your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
3.2 GOALS OF EDUCATION

Regardless of where in the world the curricula are developed, the developers
still need to make similar kinds of decisions. Some decisions are relatively simple
such as adding a course, deleting a course or making some minor changes to
content. Other decisions are sweeping and far-reaching such as changing the
levels of schooling from 6-3-2-2 (six years of primary or elementary school,
three years of lower secondary, two years of upper secondary and two years
pre-university or matriculation) to 6-4-2 (six years of primary or elementary
school, four years of secondary and two years of pre-university or matriculation).
How does one decide? All the three models of curriculum development
emphasised the need from the onset to plan statements of purpose of the
education system. What do you want students to be able to do after completing
primary school or after completing secondary school?

The curriculum planner will have to decide on an education philosophy from

which the goals of education may be derived. Goals can be written at several levels
of generality involving many curriculum workers such as teachers, subject
specialists, academics, principals, teacher trainers, administrators and others
who may be engaged in curriculum efforts on several levels at the same time.
The model flows from a broad and wide educational philosophy to more specific
instructional objectives implemented at the classroom level (refer to Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3: Levels of curriculum planning

3.2.1 Educational Philosophy

The initial task of curriculum planners is the identification of an educational vision
or philosophy which will form the basis of planning. It reflects the desires of the
nation and the major theme paving the way for the future. The vision statement or
philosophy provides guidelines for curriculum developers in organising and
incorporating programmes and activities into the curriculum. The philosophic
vision is usually derived through discussions with various people in the country
and also from reading the literature. Then it is reformulated in the light of realities
to enable the vision to be achieved through a process of learning in schools rather
than remaining an unachievable ideal.
The educational philosophy of an educational system is a reflection of the national

policies. For example, the use of one language of instruction to unite the different
communities; provision of free primary education to reduce dropouts and having
a common national curriculum to reduce varying interpretations. The educational
philosophy will also reflect national priorities such as the development aspects of
the nation, sociocultural needs of the people and levels of achievement of the
children at different cycles. Development needs have to be identified in relation to
the priorities. For example, does the country want more graduates or should the
emphasis be on basic education?
In relation to sociocultural needs, the culture of peace, conflict resolutions, etc.

could emerge as important aspects that should be highlighted in the school
curriculum. The needs of disabled people and adults who have lost opportunities
for learning have to be incorporated too. Opportunities for vocational and career
education have to be provided in the curriculum. Therefore, vocational interests of
students have to be assessed.
In addition, curriculum planners should not only study current best practices,
customs and beliefs about education in the local schools but should compare these
to the educational research literature on best practices in teaching, learning and
curriculum design. Levels of achievements relate to understanding of concepts
at different grades by children to enable them to complete the skills needed to
move on to higher grades. These have to be identified in order to bring quality to
learning and avoid wastage in the learning programmes.

3.2.2 Educational Goals

Educational goals are outcomes to be achieved by students at the end of a
particular period of time in school. While certain goals are universal and run
throughout the period, some are specific to particular levels and times. This means
that a child will be facing different goals at different levels. The goals are the basic
elements in curriculum planning and should be clear and well-articulated without
ambiguities. All these relate to human behaviour. For example, in a country
recovering from a civil war, its key educational goals might be peace, developing
self-confidence, cooperation and responsible citizenship that are needed to
overcome the existing conflicts.
Actually, there could be a plethora of goals such as developing creativity, mental

health, coping with change, informed participation, basic skills and so forth,
ending in the vision and cultural needs of the society. Connecting development
needs to education is an important strategy to achieve greater impact of education
on society.
3.2.3 Curriculum Goals

A curriculum goal is a purpose or desired end stated in general terms. No time
period is specified when the goals must be reached. Neither is there mention of
the criteria for achievement or mastery. Curriculum planners expect students
to accomplish the desired goals as a result of exposure to certain segments or
the whole programme in a particular educational institution. Goals provide
direction for the curriculum.
For example:
(a) „Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning as
good citizens in their own school and community.‰
(b) „Schools should seek to promote the physical and emotional health of
students.‰

3.2.4 Curriculum Objectives

Curriculum objectives are derived from the curriculum goal. A curriculum
objective is a purpose or end stated in specific, measurable terms. It is a refinement
of the curriculum goals. They specify the performance standards for the students
for whom the curriculum is designed. From the curriculum goal; „students shall
acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning on a daily basis, as good
citizens in their own school and community setting‰; the following curriculum
objectives can be derived:
(a) The majority of students will obey the rules and regulations of the school;
and
(b) More than 80 per cent of students will be involved in at least one voluntary
activity.
Note how the curriculum objective refines the curriculum goal. Many curriculum
objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal.
3.2.5 Instructional Goals

At the instructional phase, curriculum objectives are translated initially into
instructional goals. An instructional goal is a statement of performance expected
of each student in a class stated in general terms. It is the general intentions
of a course of instruction without stipulating the criteria of achievement.
For example,
Students will show an understanding about the tropical rainforest.
It indicates the performance expected, i.e. „understanding‰, but the performance

level or criteria is not stated. So, it is not easily measured. Instructional goals
point the way to instructional objectives.

3.2.6 Instructional Objectives

An instructional objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by
each student in a class. It is stated in a form that is both measurable and observable.
Other names given for instructional objectives are specific instructional objectives,
specific learning outcomes, behavioural objectives, performance objectives and
competencies.
An example of an instructional objective is:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to describe five characteristics
of the tropical rainforest.
It is important that you clearly state the instructional objectives you intend to
achieve at the end of a period of instruction. It determines the selection of content
(textbook, the Internet, reference books), the teaching learning methods (lectures,
practical sessions, group discussions, self-study, field visits) to be adopted, the
learning resources (audio-visual aids, equipment, kits) you will utilise and how
you intend to evaluate whether the desired learning outcomes have been achieved.
Let us examine in detail the meaning of instructional objectives in the next
subtopic.
3.3 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES OF

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Instructional objectives are the learning outcomes desired and are of primary
importance in developing a curriculum. These objectives point to the appropriate
content to be selected, how teaching and learning is to be conducted and ways of
assessing performance in the subject. In the past, the traditional description of a
course simply refers to the content; i.e. what it was that the teacher would cover.
There has, however, been a shift in thinking about teaching and learning, with
learning and the learner now seen to be of primary importance. Teaching then
becomes the means of facilitating learning in the learner.
In the teacher-centred approach, teaching is generally seen to be about the

transmission of knowledge. Focus is on what the teacher did, and goals of the
subject area were expressed in terms of the content which the teacher would
transmit. In the learner-centred approach, however, the focus is on what the
learner does, and the intentions of a subject area are usually expressed in terms of
how the learner will be transformed as a result of learning that content. The

statements describing the change in student behaviour which should result from
taking the course are known as „intended learning objectives‰ or „intended
learning outcomes‰; „objectives‰ or „outcomes‰ for short. Teaching then becomes
a series of strategies which are devised in order to help students achieve these
objectives/outcomes. You will notice that at the beginning of each topic in this
course, there is a list of learning outcomes or objectives.
In stating an instructional objective or learning outcome, active verbs are used to

indicate what it is that students must do in order to demonstrate learning. It is not
enough to say "Yes, I understand that". But how do I know that you understand
unless you can demonstrate your understanding? Here are some examples of
learning outcomes:
On completion of this 45-minute lesson on the simple tense, you should be

able to:
(a) Write a short sentence in the simple present and past tenses; and
(b) Differentiate between simple past and simple present tenses.
3.4 CLASSIFYING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

OR LEARNING OUTCOMES
The classification of learning objectives or outcomes was developed by a team
led by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. Three domains of learning were addressed
and for each domain, taxonomies of abilities, emotions and skills were developed.
A taxonomy is a system for classifying something, and in this case; the classifying
of learning objectives or learning outcomes. Taxonomies of learning objectives
or learning outcomes are used to categorise the goals for student learning.
Taxonomies are based on the assumption that different types of learning objectives
are achieved through different mental processes. The three taxonomies are:
(a) The cognitive domain which is concerned with mental or intellectual skills
and abilities;
(b) The affective domain which is concerned with feelings, values and attitudes;
and
(c) The psychomotor domain which is concerned with physical skills.

The three taxonomies remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what a
body of content requires students to do, and for thinking about how students
should be able to demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is valuable
because it draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity of
intellectual tasks which a subject might be required to perform.
3.4.1 Cognitive Domain

BloomÊs taxonomy of the cognitive domain is perhaps the best known and most
widely used; it was published in 1956. It lists a personÊs observable and
unobservable intellectual abilities such as comprehending information, organising
ideas, and evaluating information and actions. It categorises the types of cognitive
learning outcomes that are featured at all levels of the curriculum. Bloom and
his associates classified cognitive learning into six major categories: knowledge,
understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (refer to Figure 3.4
and Table 3.3).
Figure 3.4: BloomÊs taxonomy ă Cognitive domains

Table 3.3: Descriptions of BloomÊs Taxonomy ă Cognitive Domains
Examples of Verbs for Stating

Cognitive Level Description
Objectives or Outcomes
Knowledge Remembering previously Define, describe, identify, label,

learned material, from specific list, match, name, select, state,
facts to complete theories; outline, recite.
all that is required is for the
subject to recall the specified
information.
Understanding The ability to grasp the Change, decode, defend,

meaning of the material. distinguish, estimate, explain,
This skill may be shown by generalise, infer, give example,
translating material from illustrate, paraphrase, predict,
one form to another, rewrite, restate, summarise,
by interpreting material solve.
(explaining or summarising)
and by estimating future
trends (predicting
consequences or effects).
Analysis The ability to draw Execute, implement, solve, use,

connections between ideas, demonstrate, interpret, operate,
skills and knowledge. schedule.
Application The ability to use learned Apply, compute, demonstrate,

material in new and concrete develop, employ, manipulate,
situations. This may include modify, organise, produce, relate,
the application of such things transfer, discover.
as rules, methods, concepts,
principles, laws and theories.
Synthesis The ability to put parts Categorise, combine, compile,

together to form a new whole. compose, construct, create,
This may involve the design, devise, formulate, invent,
production of a unique generate, propose, rearrange,
communication (theme or reconstruct, revise, rewrite,
speech), a plan of operations set up.
(research proposal) or a set of
abstract relations (scheme for
classifying information).

Evaluation The ability to judge the value Appraise, choose, compare,

of material (statement, novel, conclude, contrast, criticise,
poem, research report) for a decide, defend, discriminate,
given purpose. The justify, resolve, support, validate,
judgements are to be based on write a review.
a definite criteria. These may
be internal criteria
(organisation), or external
criteria (relevance to the
purpose) and the student
may determine the criteria or
be given them.
Source: Bloom (1956)
3.4.2 Affective Domain

After the appearance of cognitive taxonomy, David R. Krathwohl and others,
including Benjamin Bloom, developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective
domain in 1964 (refer to Table 3.4). The affective domain relates to the manner in
which we deal with things involving our emotions; such as our feelings, our
values, how we appreciate something, our enthusiasm for something, what
motivates us to do something and our attitudes towards something.
Table 3.4: Descriptions of BloomÊs Taxonomy ă Affective Domains
Examples of Verbs for Stating

Affective Level Description
Objectives or Outcomes
Receiving Willingness to receive or to Attend, be aware, listen, reply,

attend to particular show, be alert to, use, watch,
information or activity select, tolerate, follow, ask.
(textbook, classroom activity).
Receiving involves the
willingness to receive or to
accept; and to focus oneÊs
attention.
Responding Refers to active participation Agree, answer, communicate,

by the student. The student is comply, consent, contribute,
actively responding in class cooperate, help, inquire, obey,
and is involved in the participate, question, request,
teaching-learning setting. He report, respond, seek, volunteer.
or she gains satisfaction from
engaging in activities.

Valuing The student sees the worth or Accept, adopt, approve,

value in what is being learnt complete, commit, desire,
or the activity being done. display, exhibit, express, initiate,
The student does not merely invite, prefer, share, study, work.
obey or comply but does so
because he or she is
intrinsically motivated.
Organisation The student brings together Adapt, alter, arrange, classify,

many different values and compare, defend, establish,
attempts to resolve the generalise, integrate, modify,
conflicts between the values. order, rank, synthesise.
Through this process, he or
she builds a value system.
He or she sees how new
values are related to existing
values and he or she tries to
establish a balance.
Characterisation The student internalises the Act, behave, conform, devote,

values. In other words, he or display, endure, exemplify,
she adopts the values as his function, maintain, practise,
or her own. The values perform, uphold, use, influence.
internalised will determine
the behaviour of the student.
The behaviour is consistent
and predictable.
Source: Bloom & Krathwohl (1964)
3.4.3 Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain is less known compared to the other two taxonomies.
There are several interpretations of the domain and one of them was developed by
R. Dave in 1970 (refer to Table 3.5). The psychomotor domain involves physical
movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Developments of these
skills require practice and are measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures or techniques in execution.

Table 3.5: Descriptions of Psychomotor Domains
Psychomotor Examples of Verbs for Stating

Description
Domain Objectives or Outcomes
Imitation The student indicates a Assemble, carry out, copy,

readiness to learn a certain construct, repeat, duplicate,
complex skill. Imitation practise, reproduce, start, try,
includes repeating an act that volunteer, sketch, follow.
has been demonstrated or
explained. It includes trial
and error until an appropriate
response is achieved.
Manipulation The student continues to [All the verbs for imitation, plus
practise the skill until it the following]: acquire, conduct,
becomes habitual and can be do, execute, operate, perform,
performed with some produce, progress, use, operate.
confidence. The response is
more complex but he or she
is still not sure of himself or
herself.
Precision The student attainment of [All the verbs for imitation

the skill and proficiency is and manipulation, plus the
indicated by a quick, smooth, following]: achieve, automatise,
and accurate performance. exceed, excel, master, reach,
The response is complex and refine, surpass, accomplish.
performed without hesitation.
Articulation The student is involved at an Adapt, change, alter, reorganise,

even higher level of precision. rearrange, revise.
The skill is well-developed.
The student can adapt the
skill according to different
requirements.
Naturalisation The skill is automatic, and the Arrange, compose, refine, create,
student is able to experiment design, originate, transcend.
and create new ways of using
the skill.
Source: Dave (1974)
The three taxonomies provide guidelines for developing instructional objectives

and learning outcomes in a curriculum plan. The taxonomies serve as a guide to
encourage teachers to move their students from the lower outcomes to higher
levels of learning in each domain.
 Curriculum development is a comprehensive term which includes the

determination of aims and goals, design, implementation and evaluation.
 The Tyler model focuses on four aspects of education: its purpose, the learning
experiences, the organisation of these experiences and evaluation to determine
goal attainment.
 The Taba model emphasises the need for teachers who teach the curriculum
to participate in developing it.
 The Alexander and Saylor model consists of four phases: goals and domains,
curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation.
 The various levels of goals are educational philosophy, educational goals,

curriculum goals, curriculum objectives, instructional goals and instructional
objectives.
 An instructional objective or learning outcome specifies the behaviour desired,

the conditions in which the behaviour is to be exhibited and the criteria for
evaluating achievement.
 The learning domains are the cognitive domain (intellectual abilities), the
affective domain (emotions and feelings) and the psychomotor domain (skills).
Affective domain TabaÊs model

Cognitive domain TylerÊs model
Psychomotor domain SaylorÊs and AlexanderÊs model


educational goals. New York, NY: Longmans.
Henchey, N. (1999). The new curriculum reform: What does it really mean? McGill
Journal of Education/Revue des sciences de l'éducation de McGill, 34(003).
Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational

objectives: Handbook 2: Affective domain. New York, NY: Longman.
Olivia, P. F. (1982). Developing the curriculum. Boston, MA: Brown.
Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and

issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Reimer, B. (1989). A comprehensive arts curriculum model. Design for Arts in

Education, 90(6), 39ă43.
Saylor, J. G., & Alexander, W. M. (1974). Planning curriculum for schools.

New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Topic  Structuralist
Approach
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the relationship between approaches, methods and
techniques;
2. Describe the basic principles of structural approach;
3. Describe the features of the two methods of teaching; and
4. Analyse the strengths and shortcomings of each method.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic begins by providing a definition of the terms approach, method and
technique as they are used in language teaching. It then states the basic tenets of
the structural approach, followed by a description of two language-teaching
methods based on this approach.
4.1 APPROACHES, METHODS AND

TECHNIQUES
Language teaching came into its own as a profession in the last century. Central to
this phenomenon was the emergence of the concept of „methods‰ of language
teaching. The method concept in language teaching ă the notion of a systematic set
of teaching practices based on a particular theory of language and language
learning ă is a powerful concept and the quest for a better method was a
preoccupation of teachers and applied linguists throughout the 20th century.
HowattÊs (1984) overview of the changes of practice in language teaching
throughout history and the notion of „methods‰ was studied at great lengths.
86  TOPIC 4 STRUCTURALIST APPROACH
Richards and Rodgers (2001) have also studied in great length the concept of
language teaching methodology. According to Rodgers (2001), methodology in
language teaching has been characterised in a variety of ways. A more or less
classical formulation suggests that „methodology is that which links theory and
practice. Theory statements would include theories of what language is and how
language is learnt, or more specifically, theories of second language acquisition‰.
Such theories are linked to various design features of language instruction.

According to Rodgers (2001), these design features might include „stated
objectives, syllabus specifications, types of activities, roles of teachers, learners,
materials and so forth‰. Design features, in turn, are linked to actual teaching and
learning practices as observed in the environments where language teaching and
learning takes place. This whole complex of elements defines language teaching
methodology.
Rodgers (2001) stated that within methodology itself a distinction is often made
between methods and approaches, in which methods are held to be fixed teaching
systems within prescribed techniques and practices, whereas approaches
represent language teaching philosophies that can be interpreted and applied in a
variety of ways in the classroom. This distinction is most useful in defining a
continuum of entities ranging from highly prescribed methods to loosely
described approaches (refer to Figure 4.1).
Figure 4.1: Differences between approach, method and technique

TOPIC 4 STRUCTURALIST APPROACH  87
Based on these definitions, the relationship between approach, method and

technique may be represented diagrammatically as shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Relationship between approach, method and technique
This topic, as well as the following topics of this module, will provide a brief
survey of language learning approaches and methods that have been or are
currently in use. It is up to you, the teachers, to consider the merits or drawbacks
of each approach and decide which is best to be used with your students.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Based on your experience, what do you think is the difference between

approaches, methods and techniques in language teaching?
Explain the relationship between them to your coursemates in the

myINSPIRE online forum.
4.2 THE STRUCTURALIST APPROACH

There are two principles which guide the structuralist approach:
(a) This approach sees language as a complex group of grammatical rules and
language learning as the acquisition of language forms, which are to be
learnt one at a time in a set sequence. Hence, a typical syllabus based on
this approach would advocate that the simple present tense be taught
before the present continuous tense, on the assumption that the former is
easier to learn than the latter; and

(b) The approach attends to structure and form more than meaning; thus,
grammatical accuracy is important, and errors are not tolerated. Hence, drills
that present target structures in the target language are used extensively for
practice in this approach. This is due to the assumption that repetitive
practice helps students remember language forms and patterns necessary for
the successful production of target structures.
Two methods that fall under the category of this approach will be focused on in
the next subtopic. The two methods are grammar-translation and audio-lingual
methods.
4.3 GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD

The grammar-translation method began around the time of Erasmus (1466ă1536)
and required students to develop the ability to read classical literary texts in
Greek and Latin. It gathered momentum and strength in the 19th century as a
traditional approach. Its primary focus is on the memorisation of word paradigms,
grammar rules and vocabulary. Application of this knowledge was directed on
translation of literary texts focusing on studentsÊ appreciation of the target
languageÊs literature as well as teaching the language.
It is hoped that the study of the grammar of the target language is able to aid
learners in becoming more familiar with the grammar of native language. Thus,
they will become better speakers and writers in native language (Larsen-Freeman,
2003). Activities utilised in todayÊs classrooms in line with this method include:
(a) Questions that follow a reading passage;
(b) Translating literary passages from one language to another;
(c) Memorising grammar rules; and
(d) Memorising native language equivalents of target language vocabulary.
Specifically, this method is modelled on the teaching of classical languages

which underlines the notion and claims that „studying‰ (learning) modern
languages can have the same or comparable educational value as studying
(learning) the classical ones and to capitalise on the knowledge of the classical
languages that learners of modern languages tend to have.

The aim of this method is to understand the grammar of the language studied;
to understand the structure of language, that is, the way in which the language
is organised; to develop the mind through rational thinking (about language)
and to read and understand the classical authors; to understand the reasons
for their eminence; and to benefit from the ideas and values expressed by them.
A teacherÊs role is very traditional, as an authority in the classroom who supplies
answers to errors made by students.
In simple terms, the method involves:
(a) Materials (that is the language input) to be mainly done in a written format;
(b) Classroom language, which is the mother tongue, as the medium of

instruction;
(c) Main learning technique and classroom activity is in translation

(predominantly out of, to a lesser extent into, the foreign language);
(d) Main skill practiced is in translation and translation exercises are extensively
used;
(e) Explicit study of grammatical rules;
(f) Detailed analysis of the written form of the target language, especially its
grammar;
(g) Little or no attention paid to speaking or listening skills. Students work on

reading and writing skills; and
(h) Learning of vocabulary from word lists in two languages.
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 present the assumption underlying this method, an example
of a technique employed and the shortcomings of the method.

Figure 4.3: Assumption and a technique of the grammar-translation method
Figure 4.4: Shortcomings of the grammar-translation method
In spite of these shortcomings, the method may appeal to students who respond
well to rules, structure and correction. The grammar-translation method can
provide a challenge for such students. For students who do not respond well to
a strong focus on structures, however, the grammar-translation method must be
used alongside other methods.

4.4 AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
ACTIVITY 4.2
At first, what do you think the audio-lingual method refers to?
It is worth considering for a moment what goes on in a typical language learning

classroom. Do you ever ask your students to repeat phrases of whole sentences,
for example (as shown in Figure 4.5)? Do you drill the pronunciation and
intonation of utterances? Do you ever use drills? What about choral drilling?
Question and answer? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then
consciously or unconsciously, you are using techniques of the audio-lingual
method.
Figure 4.5: One of the techniques of audio-lingual method

This method has its root in the US during the Second World War, when there
was a pressing need to train key personnel quickly and effectively in foreign
language skills. The results of the Army Specialised Training Programme are
generally regarded to have been very successful, with the caveat that the
students were in small groups and were highly motivated, which undoubtedly
contributed to the success of the approach.
The method was theoretically underpinned by structural linguistics, a movement

in linguistics that focused on the phonemic, morphological and syntactic systems
underlying the grammar of a given language, rather than, according to traditional
categories of Latin grammar. As such, it was held that learning a language
involved mastering the building blocks of the language and learning rules by
which these basic elements are combined from the level of sound to the level of
sentence. The audio-lingual method was also based on the behaviourist theory of
learning, which held that language, like other aspects of human activity, is a form
of behaviour.
According to the behaviourist view, language is elicited by a stimulus and that

stimulus triggers a response. The response, in turn, then produces some kind of
reinforcement, which if positive, encourages the repetition of responses in the
future, or if negative, it will suppress the repetition. When transposed to the
classroom, this gives us the classic pattern drill-model, as follows:
She went to the cinema yesterday.
Stimulus: Theatre.
Response: She went to the theatre yesterday.
Reinforcement: Good!
In its purest form, audiolingualism aims to promote mechanical habit formation

through the repetition of basic patterns. Accurate manipulation of structure leads
to eventual fluency, where spoken language comes before written language.
Dialogues and drills are central to this approach. Accurate pronunciation and
control of structure are paramount.

While some of these might seem amusingly rigid in these enlightened times,
it is worth reflecting on actual classroom practices and noticing when activities
occur that can be said to have their basis in the audio-lingual method. Most
teachers will at some point require students to repeat examples of grammatical
structures in context with a number of aims in mind: stress, rhythm, intonation,
„consolidating the structure‰, enabling students to use the structure accurately
through repetition, etc. Questions and answers in open class or closed pairs to
practise a particular form can also be argued to have its basis in the audio-lingual
method, as can without doubt, any kind of drill.
A teacher in a classroom is a model of the target language who can easily be

mimicked by students. He directs and guides the language behaviour of his
students (Larsen-Freeman, 2003).
Although the audio-lingual method in its purest form has many weaknesses
(notably the difficulty of transferring learnt patterns to real communication), to
dismiss the audio-lingual method as an outmoded method of the 1960s is to
ignore the reality of current classroom practices which are based on more than
2,000 years of collective wisdom.
Linguists believed that language samples could be exhaustively described at any

structural level of description (phonetic, phonemic, morphological, etc.) and
language elements were thought of as being linearly produced in a rule-governed
(structured) manner. This structural organisation of language is as demonstrated
in Figure 4.6.
Figure 4.6: Structural organisation of language

Another important tenet of structural linguistics was that the primary medium of
language was oral. It was argued that language is primarily what is spoken and
only secondarily what is written. Therefore, it was assumed that speech should be
given priority in language teaching.
At the same time that structures were given importance, a prominent school of
American psychology ă known as behavioural psychology ă saw learning as a
process of habit or behaviour formation that occurred through the use of external
reinforcement. Proponents of this theory, such as B. F. Skinner, believed that
studentsÊ habits or behaviours could be formed by training them to give
conditioned responses to selected stimuli. The formation of these habits or
behaviours is dependent upon three crucial elements in learning:
(a) A stimulus, which serves to elicit behaviour;
(b) A response triggered by a stimulus; and
(c) A reinforcement or reward, which serves to tell the student that the response
is appropriate, thus encouraging the repetition of the response in the future.
Reinforcement is an important element in the learning process because it increases

the probability that the behaviour will occur again and eventually becomes a habit.
According to this theory, learning is not a mental process, but a mechanical one.
Thus, students are expected to learn by making connections between selected
stimuli and desired responses. Conditioning the desired responses depend upon
providing immediate and appropriate reinforcement. Students are expected to
respond actively and your role as a teacher is to reinforce the correct response.
The various facets of the audio-lingual method can be characterised by the

following features shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Features of the Audio-lingual Method
Feature Shortcoming (If Any)
Language learning is learning structures, It has been suggested that the sequences
sounds or words. Structures are may be contrived and not reflective of the
sequenced and taught one at a time. The natural order of acquisition.
sequence of units is determined solely by
principles of linguistic complexity.
Language items are not necessarily
contextualised.
Students depend on mimicry, Students may not be able to communicate

memorisation of set phrases and over- effectively in an actual situation if it
learning. Structural patterns are taught involves phrases that they are not familiar
using repetitive drills. Communicative with.
activities only come after a long process
of rigid drills and exercises.
There is little or no explicit grammatical Some teachers feel that if students are left
explanation; students are supposed to to infer on their own, they may end up
infer grammatical rules. learning wrong grammatical rules.
Skills are sequenced in this order: This is easy for teachers to follow, but in
listening, speaking, reading and writing. real life, the skills are often developed at
the same time.
Great importance is attached to An over-emphasis on native-like

pronunciation, with special attention pronunciation may cause teachers and
being paid to intonation. Native-speaker- students to disregard meaning.
like pronunciation is sought.
Vocabulary is strictly limited and learnt In real-language situations, we are not

in context. restricted to learning only a particular
vocabulary.
There is much use of tapes, language labs

and visual aids.
There is an extended pre-reading period

at the beginning of the course.
The cultural background of the target

language is stressed.

Some use of the mother tongue by This constraint placed on students may
teachers is permitted, but students are not seem artificial and unnecessary to some
allowed to use it at all. teachers.
There is a great effort to prevent errors. A focus on errors can be discouraging to

students.
Successful responses are immediately

reinforced through praise or other forms
of reward.
There is a tendency to manipulate Language use is not contextualised.

language and disregard content.
Students are exposed to short dialogues in the target language that they have to
listen to and practise orally. Here is an example of a dialogue that is presented to
the students:
Suzie: Good morning, Ali.

Ali: Good morning, Suzie.
Suzie: How are you?

Ali: IÊm fine, thanks. And you?
Suzie: Fine. Where are you going?

Ali: IÊm going to the market.
Suzie: IÊm going there too. Shall we go together?

Ali: Sure. LetÊs go.
An example of a technique used in this is illustrated in greater detail in the

following:
Procedure:
1. The teacher presents the dialogue (introduction).
2. The students listen to the dialogue again (motivation).
3. The students listen and repeat (practice).

4. Teacher takes the students through a backward build-up drill (expansion

drill).
Example: IÊm going to the market.
Teacher: market
Student: market
Teacher: to the market

Student: to the market
Teacher: going to the market

Student: going to the market
Teacher: IÊm going to the market

Student: IÊm going to the market
5. Students repeat the target pattern several times (more practice).
6. Role play (using the same dialogue) between two parties: for example,
Teacher ă Students
Girls ă Boys
7. Select two students to perform the entire dialogue.
8. Chain drill (simple communication drill)
 Teacher to Student #1: Good morning, Kazuo.
Kazuo: Good morning, Teacher.

Teacher: How are you?
Kazuo: IÊm fine, thank you.
 Kazuo to Student #2: Good morning, Enzokuhle.
 Student #2 to Student #3, Student #3 to Student #4, etc.

9. Substitution drills (using tables).
Parts of a sentence are substituted with different words and students read
the possible combinations, for example:
going market
IÊm walking to the post office
driving bookshop office
We have reached the end of this topic. It is hoped that you have understood the
two methods described. Attempt the following activity and exercise to check
your understanding.
ACTIVITY 4.3
What do you think are the possible strengths of using the audio-lingual
method in the teaching of English in secondary schools in Malaysia?

forum.
EXERCISE 4.1
What are the possible strengths of the audio-lingual method that might
make you consider using it in your ESL classroom?

 A language learning or teaching approach is a way of looking at language

instruction which considers beliefs about:
− The nature of language; and
− Language learning.
 A method is a plan for teaching based on a particular approach. It determines

how lessons will be designed and the design, in turn, determines the learning
objectives and the actual pedagogical techniques or learning activities for
achieving those objectives.
 There are two methods that can be implemented by teachers based on

principles of the structural approach which emphasise language structure
and form more than meaning: the grammar-translation method and the
audio-lingual method.
 Both methods aim for the students to learn grammatical correctness.

The techniques used will support this objective. However, there are also
differences between the methods; for example, grammar is taught explicitly
in the grammar-translation method, but not in the audio-lingual method.
Each method has its own strengths and shortcomings that individual teachers
have to consider before deciding whether the method is appropriate for use.
Approach Reinforcement
Audio-lingual method Response
Grammar-translation method Stimulus
Method Technique

Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English language teaching. Oxford, England:

Oxford University Press.
Jonassen, D. H., Beissner, K., & Yacci, M. A. (1993). Structural knowledge:

Techniques for conveying, assessing, and acquiring structural knowledge.
Hillsdale, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. Cambridge,

Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition.

Oxford, England: Pergamon Institute of English.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Teaching language: From grammar to grammaring.

Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Mackey, A., & Grass, S. (2005). Second language research methodology and design.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Marzano, R. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic achievement:

Research on what works in schools. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.

teaching, A description and analysis. New York, NY: Cambridge University
Press.
Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Language teaching methodology (ERIC Issue Paper).

Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics.
Terrell, T. D. (1991). The role of grammar instruction in a communicative approach.

Modern Language Journal, 75(1), 52ă63.

Topic  Non-
structuralist
5 Approach
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the basic principles of a non-structuralist approach;
2. Describe the features of the six methods of this approach; and
3. Analyse the strengths and shortcomings of each method.
 INTRODUCTION
In Topic 4, we looked at two language teaching methods which viewed successful
language learning as the mastery of language structures. In this topic, we will
consider methods that do not hold this view. The methods presented here
may be categorised under a variety of approaches, or may even be referred to
as approaches themselves, in other books. However, as they are all based on
assumptions and beliefs about language learning that are different from those
held by structuralists. We will group these methods under the broad term
„non- structuralist approach‰.

102  TOPIC 5 NON-STRUCTURALIST APPROACH
5.1 THE NON-STRUCTURALIST APPROACH TO

LANGUAGE
The non-structuralist approach was a reaction against the idea that a language
could be learnt by continual reference to oneÊs native tongue, as advocated in the
grammar-translation method. Although the reliance on memory was still seen to
be one of the keys to mastering language, the approach rejected the structuralist
idea that language learning constitutes memorising a list of vocabulary and
grammar rules.
In addition, observations of children learning their first language (L1) led to

criticism of the structuralist approach to language teaching. Children do not learn
language by having language structures presented to them in particular
sequences, nor are they drilled so that they can memorise the structures. Instead,
they acquire language through listening to it being used and using it themselves
to achieve some purposes. People learning foreign languages in non-instructional
settings also learn in a similar manner. These observations led to the view that
second language (L2) learning should be more like first language (L1) learning,
with little or no analysis of grammatical rules.
These observations led to the development of methods which attempted to make

language learning less structured and more like the natural process of language
acquisition. Figure 5.1 presents the core principles of the non-structuralist
approach.
Figure 5.1: Core principles of the non-structuralist approach

TOPIC 5 NON-STRUCTURALIST APPROACH  103
5.2 THE DIRECT METHOD

This method was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation
method in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in language
teaching. Since the objective of learning another language should be the ability to
communicate with speakers of that language, rather than the ability to read literary
works, it was felt that the grammar-translation method was inadequate and may
not be able to produce the required speakers.
Thus, it was criticised and it was no longer considered a suitable method to be

used exclusively as a teaching method. Thus, in the 1920s and 1930s, it became
important to try to place students in direct contact with speakers of the target
language or in situations that were as authentic as possible.
Lessons using this approach begin with a dialogue in modern conversational style
in the target language. Material, at first, is presented orally with actions or pictures.
The mother tongue is never, never used. There is no translation involved.
The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based
on a dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target
language.
Grammar is taught inductively, and rules are generalised from practice and
experience with the target language. Verbs are used first and systematically
conjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target language.
Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts
are not analysed grammatically. The culture associated with the target language is
also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning
the language. Accuracy in pronunciation and oral expression are considered to be
vital.
Direct method is based on the belief that:
(a) Knowing a language means being able to speak it. Primacy is given to the
spoken word. New methods lay great emphasis on correct pronunciation
and the use of target language from the outset. It advocates the teaching of
oral skills at the expense of traditional aims of language teaching;
(b) Second language learning must be an imitation of the first language learning,
as this is the natural way humans learn any language and as such the mother
tongue has no place in a foreign language lesson;
(c) Printed words must be kept away from the second language student for as
long as possible (same as the first language student, who does not use the
printed word until he has a good grasp of speech);

(d) The written word or writing should be delayed until after the printed word
has been introduced;
(e) The learning of grammar/translating skills should be avoided because they

involve the application of the mother tongue; and
(f) All the above items must be avoided because they hinder the acquisition
of good oral proficiency.
5.2.1 Disadvantages of the Direct Method

In understanding direct method and its disadvantages, it is essential to first
compare both the first and second language learning processes as detailed in
Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Comparison between the First and Second Language Learning Processes
First Language Student Second Language Student

He has no command of another language He has command of another language
before learning the target language (TL). before learning the target language (TL).
He is neurologically immature; thus, his He is neurologically mature; thus, his
mother tongue (MT) is not fixed. mother tongue (MT) is fixed.
He learns to recognise and cope with He learns to recognise and cope with
reality through the TL. reality through the MT, not the TL.
He requires high contact frequency with He already knows that all things have
the TL to learn that all things have names. names.
He requires high contact frequency with He has already experienced the process
the TL to recognise the meaning of sounds of language learning, involving high-
representing the names of things. He is contact frequency and maturation of
neurologically immature as his range of recognising the meaning of sounds
knowledge of the outside world is limited representing the names of things in his
and he has no knowledge of the MT. As he is now neurologically mature,
equivalent meaning of sounds from he needs not be subjected a second time
another language for the same things. to the same process. The new TL is merely
to recognise the equivalent meaning of
TL sounds for the same things.
He requires high contact frequency to He has already established integration of
establish integration of MT sounds with MT sounds with things, but requires
things. high contact frequency to establish new
integration of TL sounds with the same
things.
Source: Dodson (1967)

Although the direct method was developed in response to the shortcomings of

the grammar-translation method, it has several disadvantages which will be
described in greater detail as follows:
(a) A major fallacy of the direct method was the belief that the second language
should be learnt in a way in which the first language was acquired ă by total
immersion technique. However, there is obviously far less time and
opportunity in schools to implement this technique, as compared to a small
child learning his mother tongue.
(b) Is the first language learning process really applicable to foreign language
learning at a later stage?
First language learning is an essential part of a childÊs total growth of

awareness of the world around him. He starts off with a blank sheet, then
starts collecting or selecting and organising the experiences of a totally
new world, perceived through his senses by formulating a variety of
pre-verbal concepts.
Subsequently, part of the process of learning how to live is the acquisition

of skills to verbalise his desires and aversions and to label his concepts,
so as to make living more efficient and secure.
Effectiveness of these verbalising skills depends on the maturity level of

the child and on the type of environment on personal intelligence.
Language is part of an intrinsic process through which the child learns

to recognise or deal with new situations.
(c) The learning of a second language is different from the first because:
(i) At 11 years of age, the child is not interested in recognition of new

living situations; the child has learnt the basic concepts and can handle
situations for ordinary living purposes. So as far as „learning to live‰
is concerned, there are no similarities between the two processes of
learning (not the case for immigrant children in England as they need
to learn English for survival purposes; therefore, the motivating force
is totally different).

(ii) The older child already has a first language at his disposal, which is
securely fixed to the universe of things, he is equipped with this
advantage, the first language student does not have this.
(iii) An older child is more mature and it would seem nonsensical to imitate
first language learning processes for learning an additional language
(think of the contact hours needed); this is the argument for using
mother tongue in teaching (an anti-direct method).
(iv) What does the foreign language learner wish to know first? It is the
foreign language equivalent of mother tongue sentences or words used
in hitherto familiar situations.
(v) He will want to learn how to handle certain known or recurring

situations through the medium of foreign language. He does not wish
to handle completely new situations in the foreign language.
(d) The direct method rejects the use of the printed word, but this objection is
illogical since the second language learner has already mastered his reading
skills.
(e) Later disciplines of the direct method take the method to extremes and refuse
to advocate speaking a single word of English in lessons. To avoid translating
new words, they search for an association between new words and the idea
it stands for.
(f) A successful teacher of the direct method needs to be competent in his

language/stamina/energy, imagination/ability and time management skills
to create his own materials and courses ă beyond the capacity of all except
for the gifted few.
The method by its very nature presupposes a teacher of immense vitality,

of robust health and endowed with real fluency in the modern language
he teaches. He must be resourceful in the way of gesture and tricks of
facial expression, able to sketch rapidly on the board and in the language
teaching day, he must be proof against linguistic fatigue.

(g) Direct methodologists have also failed to grade and structure their materials
adequately ă there is no selection, grading or controlled presentation of
vocabulary and structures. Instead, they have plunged students into the
flood of living language, which can be quite bewildering for students.
However, many teachers did modify the direct method to meet practical
requirements of their own schools and implemented main principles, that is,
teaching through oral practice and banning all translation into the target
language. Obviously, a compromise was needed.
Despite all this however, the direct method did pave the way for a more
communicative, oral-based approach and as such represented an important
step forward in the history of language teaching.
5.2.2 Features, Assumptions and Implications of the

Direct Method
In examining the direct method, it is good to get a sense of its various features,
assumptions which guide its teaching methods and the implications of the
method on language teaching and learning.
Figure 5.2 shows the basic premise of the direct method.
Figure 5.2: Basic premise of the direct method
Next, we are going to look at Figure 5.3, which details the assumptions underlying
the method, the implications of these assumptions for teaching a target language
and the features of this method.

Figure 5.3: Assumptions, implications and features of the direct method

Principles of the direct method still form the basis of the approach used today by
the Berlitz language schools. Language is seen as being fundamentally a means of
communication. Teachers should preferably be native speakers of the language,
and they must take active roles in the learning process. Teachers must do the
following as shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4: TeacherÊs roles in language learning
ACTIVITY 5.1
Based on your understanding, what are the differences between first

language learning and second language learning?
Cite examples to substantiate your claim in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

5.3 SUGGESTOPEDIA
ACTIVITY 5.2
What do you think the term „suggestopedia‰ refers to? Try to look up its
meaning in the dictionary or on the Internet to find out more.
Often considered to be the strangest of the so-called „humanistic approaches‰,

because it respects the feelings of students, suggestopedia was originally
developed in the 1970s by Bulgarian educator and psychologist Georgi Lazanov.
Extravagant claims were initially made for the approach by Lazanov himself
declaring that memorisation in learning through suggestopedia would be
accelerated by up to 25 times as compared to conventional learning methods.
This approach attracted both wild enthusiasm in some quarters and scorn from
others. In other words, it is probably fair to say that suggestopedia has had its day,
but certain elements of the approach still continue to survive in todayÊs good
practices of language learning.
Suggestopedia however has not been as successful as community language

learning (CLL).
The idea developed by Lazanov was that people should be able to learn a lot
more when the right conditions for learning are set. Drawn from insights of
Soviet psychological research of extra sensory perception and from yoga,
suggestopedia capitalised on relaxed states of mind for maximum retention
of material.
The followers would „experiment‰ the teaching of a foreign language with the
presentation of vocabulary, readings, dialogues, role-plays and a variety of other
typical classroom activities.

The approach was actually based on the power of suggestion in learning, the
notion being that positive suggestion would make the student more receptive
and in turn, stimulate learning.
Lazanov believed that a relax but focused state is the optimum state of learning.
In order to create this relaxed state in the student and to promote positive
suggestion, suggestopedia makes use of music, a comfortable and relaxing
environment and a relationship between the teacher and the student that is
akin to the parent-child relationship.
Music, with specific rhythm in particular, is central to the approach. Unlike

other methods and approaches, there is no apparent theory of language in
suggestopedia and no obvious order in which items of language are presented.
The following explains the role of music in suggestopedia based language
learning:
(a) The original form of suggestopedia presented by Lazanov involved the use
of extended dialogues, often several pages in length, accompanied by
vocabulary lists and observations on grammatical points. Typically, these
dialogues would be read aloud to students to the accompaniment of music.
(b) The most formal of these readings, known as „correct reading‰, would
typically employ a memorable piece such as a Beethoven symphony. This
would not be in the form of background music but would be the main
focus of the reading, with the teacherÊs voice acting as a counterpoint to the
music. Thus, the „concert reading‰ could be seen as a kind of pleasurable
event, with the students free to focus on the music, the text or a combination
of the two. The rhythm and intonation of the reading would be exaggerated
in order to fit in with the rhythm of the music.
(c) A second, less formal reading would employ a lighter, less striking piece of
music, such as a piece of classical music and this would take a less prominent
role.
(d) During both types of reading, the students would sit on comfortable
seats, armchairs rather than classroom chairs, in a suitably stimulating
environment in terms of décor and lighting. After the readings of these long
dialogues to the accompaniment of music, the teacher would then make
use of the dialogues for more conventional language work.

(e) In theory, at least, large chunks of the dialogues would be internalised by

the students during the reading sessions, both due to the relaxed and
receptive state of the students and the positive suggestion created by the
music.
There is, however, little evidence to support the extravagant claims of success of
this approach. The more obvious criticisms lie in the fact that many people find
classical music irritating rather than stimulating, the lengths of the dialogues
and the lack of a coherent theory of language may serve to confuse rather than
motivate the students. Furthermore, for purely logistic reasons, the provision of
comfortable armchairs and a relaxing environment in all classrooms will probably
be beyond the means of most educational establishments.
In addition, the idea of a teacher reading a long (and often, clearly inauthentic)
dialogue aloud, with exaggerated rhythm and intonation, to the accompaniment
of Beethoven or Mozart may seem ridiculous to many people.
This is not to say, however, that certain elements of the approach cannot be
incorporated into the more eclectic approaches to language teaching widely used
today. The use of music in the background and as an accompaniment to certain
activities can be motivating and relaxing. Attention to factors, such as décor,
lighting and furniture is surely not a bad thing. Dialogues too have their uses.
Perhaps, most importantly of all the ideas, creating conditions in which students
are alert and receptive can only have a positive effect on their motivation. Whether
these conditions are best created by the use of classical music and the reading of
dialogues is open to question, but there is no doubt that suggestopedia has raised
some interesting questions in the areas of both learning and memory.
The method is rooted in the belief that the starting point for all learning is the
studentÊs deep-rooted attitude to the subject matter and to himself. Therefore,
by creating a pleasant, relaxing and stimulating environment, where all
information has a positive emotional content, teachers can help students create
pleasant associations with a new material, enabling them to remember it longer.
As people like recalling situations in which they felt good, they will be likely to
recall enjoyable classroom situations during which they heard key phrases and
expressions being used. If students discover that they can remember
spontaneously, they will quickly develop more positive expectations of themselves
and their learning capacities.
Figure 5.5 presents the hypothesis underlying suggestopedia, the purpose of the
method and its target group, instructional strategies, the features of a
suggestopedia classroom and the teacherÊs role in language learning through this
method.
Figure 5.5: Hypothesis, purpose, instructional strategies

and features of a suggestopedia classroom

The two key features in suggestopedia teaching are memorisation and integration,
as shown in Figure 5.6.
Figure 5.6: Key features in suggestopedic teaching
Not everyone can reach the levels of LozanovÊs classes, but it may be possible to
accelerate the progress of students through the power of suggestion.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
What are the key features in LazanovÊs suggestopedic teaching?

ACTIVITY 5.3
1. Based on your own perceptions, list out the strengths and

shortcomings of the direct method and suggestopedia.
2. If you are a language teacher interested in suggestopedia, you may

wish to try this approach but at the same time you may be
wondering whether you can use it and how to do so. What are the
essential elements of suggestopedia? What do suggestopedic
teachers really do? What are the requirements to become a
suggestopedic teacher?

forum.
5.4 THE SILENT WAY

The silent way is a pedagogical approach which originated in the early 1970s and
was the brainchild of Caleb Gattegno. The three basic tenets of the approach are:
(a) Learning is facilitated if the student discovers rather than remembers or

repeats;
(b) Learning is aided by physical objects; and
(c) Problem-solving is central to learning.
The use of the word „silent‰ is also significant, as the silent way is built on the
premise that the teacher should be as silent as possible in the classroom in order to
encourage students to produce as much language as possible. The teacher speaks
very little during the lesson; the teacherÊs role is not to transmit knowledge, to act
as a model or to provide answers. However, the teacher intervenes, when
necessary, to draw the studentsÊ attention to the way they are going about in the
act of learning.
Relying on the studentsÊ mental capacities, their experience and acquired skills,
the teacher endeavours to ensure that they make their own discoveries, gain their
own insights into the functioning of the language, establish their own criteria for
rightness, acquire know-how and above all, become autonomous as students
and speakers of the language.

As in the silent way, teachers speak very little. Therefore, they are free to observe
their students carefully and be available to them. The teacher remains the
indispensable guarantor of the correctness of the language (the sounds, prosody,
vocabulary, syntax, register, etc.) depending on its appropriateness to the
situation.
In terms of the presentation of language, the silent way adopts a highly structural
approach, with language taught through sentences in a sequence based on
grammatical complexity, described by some as the „building block approach‰,
as explained in the following:
(a) The structural pattern of the target language is presented by the teacher and
the grammar „rules‰ of the language are learnt inductively by the students;
(b) Small, coloured blocks of varying sizes originally intended for the teaching
of mathematics are often used to illustrate meaning (the physical objects
mentioned earlier);
(c) New items are added sparingly by the teacher; and students take these as far
as they can in their communication until the need for the next new item
becomes apparent. The teacher then provides this new item by modelling it
very clearly just once; and
(d) The students are then left to use the new item and to incorporate it into their
existing stock of language, again taking it as far they can until the next item
is needed and so on.
This is perhaps best illustrated by an example. Let us say that the teacher has
introduced the idea of pronouns as in „Give me a green rod ‰. The class will then
use this structure until it is clearly assimilated, using in addition, all the other
colours. One member of the class would now like to ask another to pass a rod to a
third learner but she does not know the word „her ‰, only that it cannot be „me ‰.
At this point, the teacher would intervene and supply the new item: „Give her the
green rod ‰ and the learners will continue until the next new item is needed
(probably „him ‰). This minimal role of the teacher has led some critics to describe
silent way teachers as being „aloof‰ and, indeed this apparently excessive degree
of self-restraint can be seen as such.
Giving students the opportunity to explore and capitalise on their mistakes enables
them to work ă both on the language and on their own functioning ă as students
and builds confidence and the expansion of their know-how.

This is an intrinsically interesting experience as it is visible and audible in the

intense involvement of students in the silent way classes. The fun students have
in this type of class is not derived from extraneous activities imported into
language classrooms (games, songs, role-plays) but from the sheer pleasure of
self-discovery through the exercise of their mental capacities (imagination,
intuition, sensitivity, etc.) on the task of language learning itself. Meanwhile,
teachers have fun in having to „think on their feet‰ to ensure that their students
are constantly faced with doable linguistic challenges.
However, the prominent writer of language teaching, Earl W. Stevick, has

described the role of the teacher in silent way as „teach, test, get out of the way‰.
Richards and Rodgers (1986) describe the key theories underlying the silent way
as follows:
(a) Learning is facilitated if the student discovers or creates rather than

remembers, and repeats what is to be learnt;
(b) Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects; and
(c) Learning is facilitated by problem-solving involving the material to be learnt.
As with other methods and approaches, however, aspects of silent way can be
observed in many lessons in the modern classroom. In the 1980s and early 1990s,
for example, it became fashionable in some quarters to argue that excessive
„teacher talking time‰ was something to be discouraged. Coloured rods are also
popular with some teachers and can be used in extremely creative ways for various
purposes from teaching pronunciation to storytelling.
The idea of modelling a new structure or item of vocabulary just once may also
have some justification as it encourages students to listen more carefully and then
to experiment with their own production of utterance. Lastly, the problem-solving
feature of silent way may well prove to be its most enduring legacy as it has led
indirectly to both the idea of task-based learning and the widespread use of
problem-solving activities in language classrooms.
Therefore, the silent way method is based on the premise that:
(a) Students are solely responsible for what they learn;
(b) Students should work with resources and nothing else;

(c) Students rely on their mental capacities, experience and acquired skills;
(d) Teachers remain silent and merely act as a guide or motivator; and
(e) The teacherÊs role is not to transmit knowledge, to act as a model or to

provide answers.
5.4.1 Teaching the Silent Way

A lot can be taken from the silent way method, if adapted and combined with
elements from other methodologies. This approach views language learning as
an „exploratory‰ process for learners, of hypothesis building and trying out
valuable teaching principles. Having tried various silent way style techniques
with young students, some teachers say that they are amazingly effective and
learners appear to enjoy the learning process, which is much more relaxed,
since they have an active role in it. The features of the silent way are shown in
Figure 5.7.
Figure 5.7: Features of the silent way
The teacher should, therefore, be silent as much as possible; in the meantime,

the students should be encouraged to produce language as much as possible.
The students are constantly engaged in a hypothesis-testing process and the
teacherÊs role is to guide them during the process. Errors are considered important
and necessary to learning as students, therefore, are able to learn new things.

Gattegno (1911ă1988) stated that learning is facilitated if students discover or

create what is to be learnt and that learning is facilitated by putting together
physical objects and problem-solving, involving the language material to be learnt.
The silent way views learning as a problem-solving, creative and discovery
activity, with the student as the principal actor rather than a listener.
The use of coloured rods and coloured charts provide physical focus for students
and create memorable images for them to recall (refer to Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8: Coloured rods

Source: http://runningmanjihyo.blogspot.com/2014/11/the-silent-way_20.html
The procedure begins with the teacher being silent, or at least holding verbal input
to a bare minimum, while eliciting and subtly reinforcing verbal output from the
students. Teachers use Fidel charts, which colour-code all pronunciation
possibilities uniformly, regardless of spelling, as well as gesture cues and other
kinds of hints.
An example of a SW procedure for teaching pronunciation is as follows:
(a) Five coloured blocks represent five vowels /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/ and /u/.
The teacher points at each block and says the vowels in turn and the
whole class repeats in unison;
(b) The teacher uses gestures to work with the studentÊs pronunciation;
(c) The teacher then assigns two students to elicit articulation of these vowels.
The assigned students point to the coloured blocks on the chart and the other
students say the vowels;

(d) The teacher uses one studentÊs name, for example, Suzie /suzi/ and
introduces consonants /s/ and /z/. Then the teacher points to the location
of these two sounds on the coloured chart and the students remember
these coloured locations; and
(e) The teacher teaches other sounds based on other studentsÊ names. Again,
the teacher assigns a student to tap the coloured blocks so that other
students can practise the combination of these sounds.
A session on teaching grammar may proceed as follows:
(a) The teacher puts two differently coloured rods on the blackboard to
represent two phrases:
Example: Red for have lunch; green for wash my hands. The students
repeat the phrases once.
(b) The teacher puts the coloured rods (for example, here, R is for a red rod,
G for green) into the target sentence structure and uses an indicator to
show the connection between the phrases and the coloured rods.
(? represents I). Teacher is silent.
Example: ? R before? G (I have lunch before I wash my hands.)
(c) Teacher reverses the rods to make another sentence, still keeping silent:
Example: ? G before? R (I wash my hands before I have lunch.)
(d) Teacher uses a yellow rod (Y) to represent negative (not) and white (W) to
symbolise a yes-no question. Teacher puts the coloured rods into the
sentence structure and silently uses an indicator to show the connection
between the phrases and the coloured rods:
Example: ? Y G before? R (I donÊt wash my hands before I have lunch.)

? Y R before ? G (I donÊt have lunch before I wash my hands.)
W ? G before ? R (Do I wash my hands before I have lunch?)
W ? R before ? G (Do I have lunch before I wash my hands?)

(e) Teacher lets the students correct each otherÊs errors in pronunciation or
structure.
SW places emphasis on the studentsÊ cognitive processes and the unusual

procedures in the SW are designed to help students discover pronunciation,
vocabulary and structures by making associations. Based on this method,
precise and complex sets of instructions can be given or written by the
students.
5.4.2 Criticism of the Silent Way

Like almost all methods of teaching and learning language, this one has had its
share of criticisms. The method encourages teachers to assume a distance which
prevents him from providing direct guidance, when at times such guidance
without doubt is helpful. It is criticised as being too focused on building language
structures and misses out on cultural input through the use of language.
The „silence‰ of the teacher can prevent students from hearing many active models
of correct language usage that they may find useful. In trying to create a less
teacher-oriented classroom, many say that the silent way goes too far to the
opposite extreme.
The apparent lack of communication in the approach has been criticised greatly
but some argue that it is difficult to take the approach beyond the very basics of
the language, with only highly motivated students being able to generate real
communication from the rigid structures illustrated by the rods.
Another problem is that it is less practical in nature. The fact that, for logistical
purposes, it is limited to relatively small groups of students is also seen as a
weakness. Getting together the „prerequisite‰ materials can take a lot of time
and money ă there is the sound-colour chart, 12-word charts each containing
500 words (if we were to adopt wholly GattegnoÊs method) and other charts
for the English language alone. Also, do not forget the actual „Cuisinere‰ rods
as well! In order to maximise the learning potential of students using the silent
way, teachers would have to be prepared to invest quite heavily in materials.
Figure 5.9 summarises some of the key drawbacks of the silent way.

Figure 5.9: Drawbacks of the silent way
Despite the drawbacks and irrelevance to normal social discourse in the beginning
stages and the concentration on building linguistic rather than communicative
competence first, many learners find the experience of SW exciting. Some learners
are alert and receptive to the input, and enjoy the sense of self-created, internally
motivated discourse and self-discovered rules that guide their creation of
meaningful word strings.
For further information on the silent way, you can surf the following websites:
(a) http://www2.vobs.at/ludescher/Alternative%20methods/Silent%20
Way.htm
(b) https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/silent-way
ACTIVITY 5.4
In your opinion, is this approach applicable in the Malaysian classrooms?
Justify your answer to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.

5.5 THE NATURAL APPROACH

The natural approach is similar to the direct method, concentrating on active
demonstrations to convey meaning by associating words and phrases with objects
and actions. Associations are achieved via mime, paraphrasing and the use of
manipulatives.
This approach was originally developed by Tracy Terrell (1977), who focused on
the principles of meaningful communication, comprehension before production
and indirect error correction, while Stephen Krashen (1980) included the
element of „input hypothesis‰ in the approach. Terrell believed that students
would benefit from delaying production until speech „emerges‰, that students
should be as relaxed as possible in the classroom and that a great deal of
communication skills, including everyday language situations like conversations,
shopping, listening to the radio and so forth, should be put on hold until
students are ready for it. This acquisition-focused approach sees communicative
competence progressing through three stages (refer to Figure 5.10):
Figure 5.10: Stages of natural approach
The following are tenets of the natural approach:
(a) Following an initial „silent‰ period, comprehension should precede

production in speech, as the latter should be allowed to emerge in natural
stages or progressions;
(b) Lowering of the affective filter is of paramount importance. Only the „target‰
language is used in the class now, introducing the „total immersion‰ concept
for the very first time with auditory input for the students now becoming
paramount;
(c) Errors in speech are not corrected aloud;

(d) The era of glossy textbooks, enclosed with varied cultural information,
glossaries, vocabularies and glazed photographs;
(e) A deliberate, conscious approach to the study of grammar is considered to

have only modest values in the language learning process;
(f) Pairing off students into small groups to practise newly acquired structures
becomes the major focus;
(g) Visualisation activities that often make use of a picture file, slide
presentations and word games are introduced;
(h) Dialogues, contests, recreational activities, empirical utterances and realia

provide situations with problem-solving tasks, which might include the
use of charts, maps, graphs and advertisements, all to be performed on
the spot in class; and
(i) The classroom becomes more student-centred with the teacher allowing
for students to output the language more often on their own. Formal
sequencing of grammatical concepts is kept to a minimum.

Figure 5.11 highlights the ideas proposed by the natural approach.
Figure 5.11: Ideas proposed by the natural approach

The instructional principles employed in this method are as shown in Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.12: Instructional principles in the natural approach
The natural approach adopts techniques and activities from different sources
but uses them to provide comprehensible input. For example, for students who
are not ready to talk, comprehensible input may be presented in the target
language using techniques such as mime and gesture. The students will talk
when they are ready. Total physical response would be a method that would
support this approach. The group techniques used in communicative language
teaching would also be consistent with the natural approach. These two methods
are considered in the next subtopic.
5.6 TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

This approach, also known as TPR, was founded by James Asher (1979). In this
method, both language and body movement are synchronised through action
responses and the use of imperatives (direct commands).
James, J. Asher (1979) defines the total physical response (TPR) method as
one which combines information and skills through the use of the kinaesthetic
sensory system. This combination of skills allows learners to assimilate
information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this success leads to a high
degree of motivation.
The basic tenets are:
(a) Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking;
(b) Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information;

and

(c) The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed to go through an individual
readiness period and to spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels
comfortable and confident in understanding and producing the utterances.
TPR is built on the premise that the human brain has a biological programme for
acquiring any natural language on earth ă including the sign language of the deaf.
The process is visible when we observe how infants internalise their first language.
Before the infant speaks, he silently internalises the patterns and sounds of the
target language. When the child has decoded enough of the target language,
speaking appears spontaneously. The speech may not be perfect, but the
utterances will gradually approximate that of the people around him. If adults
apply this process to their language learning, they could also learn successfully.
Asher applied this theory to language learning and called it the total physical
response. More details can be found at this website (http://www.tpr-world.com).
One of the primary objectives underlying AsherÊs TPR methodology was that
learning needs to become more enjoyable and less stressful. According to Asher,
a natural way to accomplish this is to create the natural way children learn their
native language, most notably through facilitating and appropriate „listening‰
and „comprehension‰ period and encourage students to respond using the
right-brain motor skills rather than left brain language „processing‰.
The basic idea behind TPR is that a language student learns to hear something in
the language and then physically responds to it. In TPR, a beginner or a more
advanced language student learns to comprehend things said in the language by
a teacher, tutor, or friend. In the beginning, these „things‰ are often in the form of
commands such as „stand up‰, „sit down‰,‰ walk‰, „touch your nose‰ and so on.
However, TPR is easily extended to other verb tenses and more complicated
sentence patterns. By using gestures and props, the tutor is able to add enough
non-linguistic context to his speech to convey meaning to the student.
For example, you are trying to learn Arabic and you have an Arab friend who
wants to trade an hour of Arabic for an hour of English a couple of times a week.
During your first hour of the Arabic language, your French friend could say
„yafham ‰ as he stands up and gestures for you to stand up. Then he could say
„tajlus ‰ as he sits and gestures for you to sit and then he could go through
„yafham‰ and „tajlus ‰ a couple more times while modelling it for you.

At some point fairly soon, your friend just says „yafham‰ without standing up,
but you now know to stand up when you hear that, so you do. You just responded
to your first word of Arabic for which you no longer need help (of course,
you will have to remember it and of course you probably cannot say it, but those
things will come in handy in the future).
The success of TPR is built upon these foundational principles of second language
acquisition theory:
(a) Languages are best learnt when the student receives lots of comprehensible
(understandable) input. In other words, for a true beginner, listening to a
radio broadcast in the simple language is not only as effective as listening
to simple „here and now‰ talk directed at the student; and
(b) Beginning language students can benefit greatly from a „silent period‰ in
which they learn to understand and respond to parts of the language without
attempting to speak it. This is also referred to as „delayed production‰
and reflects the path that children follow when learning their first language.
Benefits of TPR include (refer to Figure 5.13):
Figure 5.13: Benefits of TPR

The following are some key features of the TPR method:
(a) The teacher directs and students „act‰ in response. „The instructor is the
director of a stage play in which the students are the actors‰ (Asher,1977);
(b) Listening and physical response skills are emphasised over oral production;
(c) The imperative mood is the most common language function employed,
even well into advanced levels. Interrogatives are also heavily used;
(d) Whenever possible, humour is injected into the lessons to make them more
enjoyable for students;
(e) Students are not required to speak until they feel naturally ready or
confident enough to do so; and
(f) Grammar and vocabulary are emphasised over other language areas.
Spoken language is emphasised over written language.
The secret of TPR is to make it a regular, ongoing part of your language study
programme, with greater emphasis at the beginning but continued use throughout
the language learning period.
The ability to learn thirty new words in any given hour is fun, but the cumulative
effects of learning thirty new words each hour for many, many hours is where the
real language ability develops.
TPRÊs instructional principles which include its beliefs and assumptions are
detailed in Figure 5.14.

Figure 5.14: Instructional principles of total physical response (TPR)
Presented in Figure 5.15 is the TPR syllabus and teacherÊs role in this method.
Figure 5.15: TPR syllabus and the teacherÊs roles

After learning basic vocabulary and sentence structures of the target language,
students can then be introduced to more complex grammatical structures, longer
sentences and texts and stories. At this stage, acting out an action may not be as
frequently required as in the TPR classroom.
A TPR procedure may proceed as follows:
(a) To teach vocabulary and structures, such as „IÊm walking towards the
door ‰, the teacher presents and performs the action.
(b) Students produce and practise vocabulary by imitating what the teacher
has performed.
(c) The teacher presents (with actions) parts of a story which students then
retell (recreate).
(d) The teacher presents the whole story which students then retell.
(e) Students use new and old vocabulary to create original stories.
These steps show us that TPR focuses mainly on developing two skills: listening
and speaking. Grammar is acquired through internalisation by students as they
encounter languages structures through the listening and speaking activities.
Asher believes that in the TPR classroom, learners are always exposed to
correct grammar in the target language as the teacher is the model, so grammar
instruction is not urgently needed. Students first need to develop an ear for
what „sounds right‰ and only then are they formally taught the grammar rules.
He also suggests that formal teaching of grammar is delayed as much as possible,
a suggestion that is consistent with the natural approach.
5.7 COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING

This methodology is not based on the usual methods by which languages are
taught. Rather, the approach is patterned upon counselling techniques and
adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat as well as the personal and language
problems a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages. Consequently,
the student is not taught as a student but as a client. The native instructors of
the language are not considered teachers, but rather, are trained in counselling
skills adapted to their roles as language counsellors. Hence, in this methodology
the student-teacher relationship is similar to a client-counsellor relationship as
shown as follows:

STUDENTS = CLIENTS
TEACHERS = COUNSELLORS
Language-counselling relationships begin with the clientÊs linguistic confusion

and conflict. The aim of the language counsellorÊs skills is first to communicate
an empathy for the clientÊs threatened inadequate state and to aid him
linguistically. Then, slowly the counsellor strives to enable him to arrive at his
own increasingly independent language adequacy. This process is furthered
by the language counsellorÊs ability to establish a warm, understanding and
accepting relationship, thus becoming an „other-language self‰ for the client.
This creative, dynamic and non-directive approach to language learning was first
elaborated by Charles Curran (1976). It is designed to ease the student into gradual
independence and self-confidence in the target language. It is also known as the
counselling learning method because it takes its principles from the counselling
learning approach that he developed. Curran is a specialist in counselling and a
professor of psychology at Loyola University, naturally applied counselling
learning theories to language learning.
CurranÊs approach is beyond simply a methodical pedagogy, but is rather a

veritable philosophy of learning which provides profound, even quasi-theological
reflections of mankind. It encourages holistic learning, personal growth and
self-development. Learning a language is not viewed necessarily as an
individual accomplishment but rather as a collective experience, something to be
disseminated out into the community at large at a later stage in the second
language acquisition process. Its basic premise can be found in the acronym
SARD (Bull, 1965) as explained as follows:
(a) S stands for security (to foster the studentÊs self-confidence);
(b) A represents attention or aggression (the former an indication of the

studentÊs involvement, the latter their frustration level);
(c) R equals to retention and reflection (what is retained is internalised and

ultimately reflected upon); and
(d) D denotes discrimination (the student can now discriminate through

classifying a body of material, seeing how one concept interrelates to another
previously presented structure).

Student „participants‰ are thus allowed to register abstracted grammar both

peripherally and semi-consciously.
We will now focus on the target group of CLL and the teacherÊs roles in this
method (refer to Figure 5.16).
Figure 5.16: Target group and teacherÊs roles in community language learning or CLL
The principles and characteristics of CLL are as follows:
(a) Learning is more important than teaching. Learning develops itself and
students only need occasional help;
(b) CLL provides students with opportunities to guide their own learning, to
decide what they want to learn and to learn at their own pace. The teacher
is not in control of the class;
(c) Cooperation is important. Small-group activities encourage interaction

amongst students. Learning is achieved through cooperation, not
competition;

(d) Focus is on fluency rather than proficiency. The purpose of using language
is to convey messages and develop creative thinking. Grammatical
correctness is less important; and
(e) The teacher does not correct errors immediately. When a student produces
an incorrect utterance, the teacher serves as a model by producing the correct
utterance.
An example of a CLL session is as follows:
(a) Six to twelve students sit in a circle around a table with a tape recorder on it.
The teacher stands outside the circle.
(b) The teacher uses the studentsÊ native languages to explain that they are going
to have a conversation in the target language with his help. He means that
he will translate their conversation into the target language and the
conversation will be recorded. This strategy creates a non-threatening
atmosphere in which the students feel safe and ready to proceed with their
learning.
(c) The group goes through the following stages of learning:
(i) The students decide on a topic. Student 1 (S1) asks the teacher in
the native language how to say something that he wishes to say.
The teacher stands behind him, placing his hands on his shoulders
and translates it into the target language in a warm, accepting tone.
The translation is simple and comprehensible. S1 repeats the translated
sentence and delivers it to S2. At the same time, the teacher records
S1Ês repetition. The tape-recorded script will be used later as material
for the analysis and practice of grammatical items.
(ii) The conversation proceeds in the same way. However, now the
students talk directly to each other and the teacher provides assistance
when he is called upon.
(iii) The students now feel more confident in the group and begin to talk
freely in the target language. The teacher may step in to model the
correct structures or pronunciation.
(iv) Finally, students will become psychologically and linguistically mature

enough to accept new sentence patterns or grammatical points as well
as error correction from the teacher.

5.7.1 Advantages of CLL Method

The CLL method provides an opportunity for teachers to work with a designed
text and syllabus. The following are advantages of the CLL method (refer to
Table 5.2):
Table 5.2: Advantages of CLL Method
Advantage Descriptions
Meaningful content Learners decide the topics and what they want to practise.
This makes the content of learning more meaningful to them.
High motivation Learners feel they have more ownership of their learning
and are likely to become more self-motivated.
Less stress Teachers act as guides and helpers.
Freedom of expression Learners are free to learn to express what they want, in the
target language.
Social support Learners support and learn with each other.
ACTIVITY 5.5
In the myINSPIRE online forum, discuss:
(a) What do you personally think of this statement?
„The superior teacher has regularly gotten superior results

regardless of the method.‰
(b) What are some of the situations in which community language

learning can be effectively carried out?

EXERCISE 5.1
1. What skill is emphasised in the direct method? What may be the

argument against this method?
2. If you select material for a lesson based on the natural approach,

what important principle must you follow with regard to the level
of the material?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the CLL method?
 Except for the silent way, non-structuralist language teaching methods hold
the view that language learning is not a matter of being drilled on language
structures. The natural approach, in particular, asserts that second language
learning is parallel to first language learning, that is, acquiring a second
language is similar to acquiring the first and should, therefore, reflect the
same naturalistic processes.
 Thus, language learning is no longer seen to be the practice of drilling students

on artificially sequenced structures or literary classics. Over the years, the
ability to communicate using language has taken precedence over the mastery
of structures and preference is given to the learning of ordinary, everyday
language structures and vocabulary.
 The direct method, suggestopedia and total physical response emphasise

learning the target language without translation, as first language learning
does not involve translation. Suggestopedia, TPR and the natural approach
advocate procedures that allow students to acquire the target language like
first language students do: in natural, stress-free ways and learning from
models who speak the target language.
 Teachers still take centre stage in ensuring the success of most of these
methods. They have to be creative and careful planners of syllabuses and
lessons, determining the content to be learnt and the procedures to be followed,
to a large extent. They are also the models of correct language usage and a
source of resource for students.

Community language learning (CLL) Silent way (SW)

Fallacy Suggestopedia
Memory Total physical response (TPR)
Optimum
Asher, J. J. (1979). Learning another language through actions. San Jose, CA:
AccuPrint.
Asher, J. J. (1977). Learning another language through actions: The complete

teacherÊs guidebook. Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks Productions.

educational goals (1st ed.). New York, NY: Longmans Green.
Bull, W. E. (1965). Spanish for teachers. Applied linguistics. New York, NY:
The Roland Press C.

Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language.

Harlow, England: Longman.
Curran, C. A. (1976). Counseling-learning in second-language learning. East

Dubuque, IL: Counseling Learning Publications.
Dodson, C. J. (1967). Language teaching and the bilingual method. London,

England: Pitman Publishing.
Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English language teaching. Oxford, England:

Oxford University Press.

Jonassen, D. H., Beissner, K., & Yacci, M. A. (1993). Structural knowledge:

Techniques for conveying, assessing and acquiring structural knowledge.
Hillsdale, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Krashen, S. D. (1980). The input hypothesis. Current Issues in Bilingual Education,

168ă180.
Krashen, S. D., & Terrell T. D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition
in the classroom. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press.
Marzano, R. (2004). Building background knowledge for academic achievement:

Research on what works in schools. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.

teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
Terrell, T. D. (1977). A natural approach to second language acquisition and

learning. The Modern Language Journal, 61(7), 325ă337.
Underhill, N. (1987). Testing spoken language. Cambridge, England: Cambridge

University Press.

Topic  Student-
centred
6 Approaches
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the basic principles of a student-centred approach;
2. Describe the principles and features of the five approaches; and
3. Analyse the strengths and shortcomings of each approach.
 INTRODUCTION
A student-centred approach in language instruction is based on the concept that
the student is central in the learning process. This view of students casts them as
active participants in the learning process as opposed to passive recipients of
knowledge. This approach also decentralises the roles of teachers. This change
in the student and teacherÊs roles will be reflected in the five approaches
considered in this topic.

140  TOPIC 6 STUDENT-CENTRED APPROACHES
6.1 WHAT ARE STUDENT-CENTRED

APPROACHES?
ACTIVITY 6.1
What do you think student-centred approaches refer to?
While structuralist approaches focused on language structures and learning as

behaviour formation, non-structuralist approaches paid greater attention to the
cognitive aspect of learning. Both these approaches were then criticised for
having neglected the most important component of the learning-teaching process:
the student. It was proposed that language pedagogy should also consider
what students bring to their classroom experience. This orientation calls for a
consideration of the studentsÊ perceived needs and motivations, interests, past
experiences and background knowledge and creative skills.
The approach also calls for a change in the roles played by teachers and
students. Students are given a bigger voice and more responsibility, as outlined in
Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: StudentsÊ roles in student-centred approaches

TOPIC 6 STUDENT-CENTRED APPROACHES  141
In a student-centred approach, teachers are seen as facilitators, helpers and

resources, with a decentralised role. A student-centred approach does not,
however, make the teacher invisible, superfluous or dispensable. On the contrary,
such an approach demands that the teacher employs a different mindset to
teaching that can prove to be quite challenging. The roles of teachers in this
approach are outlined in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: TeacherÊs roles in a student-centred approach
Despite the challenges, a student-centred approach can be very rewarding for

both teacher and student. If applied successfully, its outcome is a group of
independent students who have gained maturity and responsibility through
the learning process.
Let us look at some approaches that can make this outcome possible. These are
considered to be approaches rather than methods because they provide broad
frameworks rather than detailed designs for making the language learning process
student-centred.

6.2 LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH

The language experience approach (LEA) is an approach to reading instruction
that makes use of stories developed from the personal experiences of students
as reading materials.
The studentsÊ stories are written down by a teacher and read together by teacher
and students until the students associate the written form of the word with the
spoken. Activities are based on the materials developed. Although the approach
was initially developed for use with young children, adult ESL students can also
benefit from it.
The materials that teachers need for the LEA classroom or session will depend on
the experience being narrated and used for reading. The activities are carried out
either as a whole class or in small groups.
Table 6.1 shows some of the most common materials used in a LEA classroom
and the corresponding activities the students will be involved in.
Table 6.1: Materials Required and Activities in a LEA Classroom
Materials Used Activities
 Audiotapes and tape recorders.  Recording an experience.
 Books, poems, songs and/or chants.  Discussing the experience.
 Related to the theme or focus.  Using the record of the experience

for reading and writing activities.
 Materials for writing and bookmaking.
 Whiteboard or blackboard and

markers or chalk.
 Chart paper and flip-chart board.
 Computers.
 Cameras and film for taking pictures of

the experience for use in developing
memory books and memory walls.

Table 6.2 shows an example of how a LEA class may proceed.
Table 6.2: Example of How a LEA Class May Proceed
Step 1
Procedure Themes
Teachers and  Possible themes include:

students decide
on a theme or – A favourite story that the learners have heard or viewed;
focus for creating
LEA reading – A favourite dish the learners have tasted or prepared.
materials based (Teacher records the recipe or procedure for preparing
on studentsÊ the dish);
personal
– A person the students admire;
experiences.
One or more – A frightening experience; and
students narrate
or describe the – A cultural event or party the students have attended.
experience and
the teacher or  Themes can also revolve around activities which the students
other adult are planning, in which case the materials could also take the
helpers write it form of „how to‰ charts with visuals. Possible themes
down, creating a include:
print record or
document of it. – An experiment;
– An arts-and-craft project;
– An agricultural project; and
– A field trip (making lists of things to bring, drawing and

labelling maps and stating regulations to be followed).

Step 2
Procedure
As students narrate experiences or discuss plans, teachers or helpers record what they
say. They demonstrate the print concepts as they record the experience. Initially, it is
the teacher who does the recording because the approach is intended to demonstrate to
students the match between what they say and its written form and to develop other
print concepts. The teacher should draw attention to these aspects of print while writing
the content on a whiteboard, blackboard or chart paper so that it is visible to all students.
The advantage of writing on chart paper is that the teacher will immediately have a
permanent record. A whiteboard or blackboard allows changes to be made easily, but
the contents need to be transferred to paper. A computer, if available, would allow both
flexibility and permanence of record, but there must be an LCD projector to make the
contents visible to the whole class, or there should be several computers that can be
used by smaller groups of students.
Procedure for Recording
Teachers must record the studentsÊ own languages as far as possible. The most
important aspect of recording is to use the studentsÊ own words. It is important to
ensure that what the students say and what the teacher writes matches up. However,
while first language students have an intuitive knowledge of the grammar of the
language, second language students may not have such tacit knowledge of the target
language. Thus, when working with ESL students, it may be necessary for the teacher
to make some changes to what the students say.
Teachers should use childrenÊs names as much as possible because oneÊs own name
is one of the first words young children in particular learn to recognise. This practice
also helps to maintain the studentsÊ connections to the experience in subsequent
readings of the material.
The records should take on a variety of forms. Some of the forms the written product
could take are:
(a) Big books that the whole class can see when the teacher is holding them up;
(b) Smaller books for individual reading;
(c) Displays for bulletin boards;
(d) Illustrated charts like flow charts;
(e) Class photo albums containing pictures that capture an experience. Students
can suggest captions for each photograph and teachers can discuss concepts of
print while recording; and
(f) StudentsÊ illustrations of part of the experience. They can dictate the
accompanying text for the teacher to write.

Step 3
Procedure Ways in Which Records Can be Used
The class uses the  Shared Reading

records for further The teacher holds up a big book and the whole class follows
literacy activities. as the teacher points to the words, while reading them aloud.
The main purpose
of LEA is to  Independent and „Take Home‰ Reading
provide Each student is given a copy of the record to illustrate, use for
meaningful texts independent reading or to take home to read to his family.
for students to
read either with  Child-led Reading Activities
the support of Students become teachers and lead other students through
others or alone. the materials. They may point out words they know, or read
To facilitate this, aloud specific sections they choose.
the records should
be displayed in a  Matching Exercise
prominent place Teacher or other students read aloud a word or sentence
for several weeks from the record and other students point it out.
following their
creation and
referred to
regularly.
It is often not possible to record a statement from every student every time a
language experience record is done. Thus, attention should be paid to those who
have not had an opportunity to narrate their experiences, in subsequent sessions.
The discussion and recording that goes on in each recording session should also
be stopped before the students lose interest.
The LEA benefits students in the following ways:
(a) It is student-centred and demonstrates that the studentsÊ experiences and

language are valued;
(b) It involves students in planning, participating in, responding to, recording

and retelling experiences;
(c) It helps students understand that what they think and say can be written,
thus promoting awareness that print conveys meaning and that everyoneÊs
thoughts and ideas can be expressed in spoken and written language;

(d) It provides reading material that is predictable and readable because it uses
the studentsÊ natural language as far as possible;
(e) It brings together writing, reading, art and language;
(f) It develops studentsÊ abilities to tell and retell personal experiences and
extends the studentsÊ creativity in storytelling through writing; and
(g) It develops studentsÊ abilities to report factual information using various

formats such as written reports, pictures and charts.
In short, the LEA supports studentsÊ concept development and vocabulary growth
while offering many opportunities for meaningful reading and writing activities.
It also supports the development of shared experiences which extend studentsÊ
knowledge of the world around them, while building a sense of classroom
community.
6.3 COLLABORATIVE AND COOPERATIVE

LEARNING
Collaborative and cooperative learning differ from traditional teaching
approaches because students work together rather than compete with each other
individually.
Collaborative learning can take place any time students work together, for
example, when they help each other with homework. Cooperative learning takes
place when students work together in the same place on a structured project in a
small group. Mixed-skill groups can be especially helpful to them in developing
their social abilities.
Panitz (1996) states that collaboration is a philosophy of interaction and personal

lifestyle, where cooperation is a structure of interaction designed to facilitate the
accomplishment of an end-product or goal.
Collaborative learning (CL) is a personal philosophy, not just a classroom

technique. In all situations where people come together in groups, it suggests ways
of dealing with people with respect and highlights individual group membersÊ
abilities and contributions. There is a sharing of authority and acceptance of
responsibility among group members for the groupÊs actions.

The underlying premise of collaborative learning is based on consensus-building

through cooperation by group members, in contrast to competition in which
individualsÊ contend against other group members. Collaborative practitioners
apply this philosophy in the classroom, at committee meetings, with community
groups, within their families and generally as a way of living with and dealing
with other people.
Collaborative learning is a method of teaching and learning in which studentsÊ

team-up together to explore a significant question or create a meaningful project.
A group of students discussing a lecture or students from different schools

working together over the Internet on a shared assignment are both examples of
collaborative learning.
Myers (1991) points out that dictionary definitions of „collaboration‰, are derived
from its Latin roots and focus on the process of working together. Collaborative
learning has British roots, based on the work of English teachers exploring ways
to help students respond to literature by taking a more active role in their own
learning. The collaborative tradition takes a more qualitative approach, analysing
studentsÊ responses to a piece of literature or a primary source of history.
According to Myers (1991), collaborative learning advocates distrust on structure
and gives students more say in forming friendships and interest groups. Student-
talk is stressed as a means of working things out. Discovery and contextual
approaches are used to teach them interpersonal skills.
Cooperative learning is a specific kind of collaborative learning. In cooperative

learning, students work together in a small group on a structured activity. They
are individually accountable for their work and the work of the group as a whole
is also assessed. A cooperative group works face-to-face and learn to work as a
team. In small groups, students can share their strengths and also develop their
weaker skills. They develop their interpersonal skills as well and learn to deal with
conflict. When cooperative groups are guided by clear objectives, students can
engage in numerous activities to improve their understanding of the subjects being
explored.
In order to create an environment in which cooperative learning can take place,

three things are necessary:
(a) Firstly, students need to feel safe but also challenged;
(b) Secondly, groups need to be small enough that everyone can contribute; and
(c) Thirdly, the tasks students work together on must be clearly defined.

As for cooperative learning, Panitz (1996) defined it as a set of processes which

helps people to interact together in order to accomplish a specific goal or develop
an end-product which is usually content specific. It is more directive than a
collaborative system of governance and is closely controlled by the teacher. While
there are many mechanisms for group analysis and introspection, the cooperative
approach is fundamentally teacher-centred, whereas collaborative learning is
more student-centred.
Spencer (1989ă1990), provides an excellent definition of cooperative learning by

looking at general structures which can be applied to any situation. According to
him:
„The structural approach to cooperative learning is based on the creation,

analysis and systematic application of structures, or content-free ways of
organising social interaction in the classroom. Structures usually involve a
series of steps with prescribed behaviour at each step. An important
cornerstone of the approach is the distinction between „structures‰ and
„activities‰. To illustrate, teachers can design many excellent cooperative
activities, such as making a team mural or a quilt. Such activities almost
always have a specific content-bound objective and thus, cannot be used to
deliver a range of academic content. Structures may be used repeatedly with
almost any subject matter, at a wide range of grade levels and at various
points in a lesson plan.‰
In cooperative learning, small groups provide a place where:
(a) Students actively participate;
(b) Teachers become students at times and students sometimes teach;
(c) Respect is given to every member;
(d) Projects and questions interest and challenge students;
(e) Diversity is celebrated and all contributions are valued;
(f) Students learn skills for resolving conflicts when they arise;

(g) Members draw upon past experiences and knowledge;
(h) Goals are clearly identified and used as a guide;
(i) Research tools such as Internet access are made available; and
(j) Students are invested in their own learning.
Research suggests that cooperative and collaborative learning bring positive

results such as deeper understanding of content, increased overall achievement
in grades, improved self-esteem and higher motivation to remain on task.
Cooperative learning helps students become actively and constructively involved
in content, to take ownership of their own learning and to resolve group conflicts
and improve teamwork skills.
Other more important attributes of collaborative and cooperative learning are

shown in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3: Important attributes of collaborative and cooperative learning

Despite the positive nature of group work, some critics, such as Randall (1999),
caution against abuse and overuse of group work. According to her, the many
benefits of cooperative learning sometimes blind us to its drawbacks. She identifies
the following practices as common weaknesses:
(a) Making members of the group responsible for each otherÊs learning. This
can place too high a burden on some students. In mixed-ability groups,
the result is often that stronger students are left to teach weaker students
and do most of the work; and
(b) Encouraging only lower-level thinking and ignoring the strategies necessary
for the inclusion of critical or higher-level thought. In small groups, there is
sometimes only enough time to focus on the task at its most basic level.
Some critics cite the mix of students as a source of potential difficulties, although
they disagree on which types or groups are problematic. Other dissenters highlight
the overuse of cooperative groups to be the detriment of students who benefit
more from learning alone. Yet, others recommend that we negotiate more with
students on how they learn best and apply these ideas to the way we structure
classes.
Others point to problems related to vague objectives and poor expectations for
accountability. Small group work, some claim, is an avoidance of teaching.
According to these critics, dividing the class into small groups allows the teacher
to escape responsibility.

Although group learning may vary in certain aspects, effective group learning
should include the following practices as shown in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4: Group learning practices

Figure 6.5 summarises the differences between collaborative and cooperative

learning.
Figure 6.5: Differences between collaborative and cooperative learning
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Based on your understanding, how do collaborative and

cooperative learning differ?
2. Define the terms learning, cooperative learning and collaborative

learning. Are these terms related to one another? If they are, how
would you practise them in an ESL lesson?

forum.

6.4 DISCOVERY LEARNING

Jerome Bruner (1962, 1966), was influential in defining discovery learning, which
uses cognitive psychology as its base.
Discovery learning is „an approach to instruction through which students

interact with their environment ă by exploring and manipulation of objects,
wrestling with questions and controversies or performing experiments ‰
(Ormrod, 1995). The idea is that students are more likely to remember
concepts they discover on their own.
Teachers have found that discovery learning is most successful when students
have the prerequisite knowledge and undergo some structured experiences
(Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, 1997). Other terms to label and characterise
such approaches include „interactive engagement‰ (Hake, 1997) and „guided
discovery‰ (Novak, 1979).
Discovery learning has various definitions (refer to Figure 6.6). Here are some of
them:
Figure 6.6: Discovery learning
(a) At one end of the spectrum, we find discovery learning in its simplest form.
The tools and information needed to solve a problem or learn a concept
are provided and the student „makes sense‰ of them.
(b) Another definition is that discovery learning involves experimentation

with some extrinsic intervention clues, coaching and a framework to help
students get to a reasonable conclusion.
(c) At the other end of the continuum is the expository teaching model of
discovery learning, where the student „discovers‰ what the teacher decides
he is to discover using a process prescribed by the teacher.

Discovery learning is used interchangeably with inquiry learning. However,

one distinction often made between the two is as follows:
(a) In discovery learning, students are provided with the data. By questioning
the teacher, they are expected to ascertain the particular principle hidden
in the lesson objective.
(b) In inquiry learning, the goal is for students to develop their own strategies
to manipulate and process information.
Discovery learning is one of the oldest and most common forms of learning. Adults
apply this principle daily, although they are usually not aware of it. So do children
in different stages of their development. Toddlers discover words and their
meanings accidentally. They become aware of the relations between words and
physical quantities and in particular, between cause and result. Children and
young adults pick up a lot of words without effort.
In the 70s, Piaget (1977) and Papert (1980) wrote extensively about this. As early
as the 60s, discovery learning was officially promoted by educationists in the US
as a method of learning. Cathy Greenblatt (1975), for example, discusses a lot
about the effect of games, simulations and role plays, while Vygotsky (1981) and
Dicheva and Kommers (1999), dealt around with micro-worlds, constructivism
and concept mapping all of which linger around the concept of discovery learning.
Discovery learning encompasses a scientific model. Students identify problems,

generate hypotheses, test each hypothesis against the collected data and apply
conclusions to new situations. The purpose of this type of instruction is to teach
students thinking skills.
In discovery learning, the teacher must carefully plan the questions that should be
asked in order to help students attain the principle of abstraction being taught.
The teacher must order the examples in the lesson and be certain that the reference
materials and equipment are readily available. Otherwise, valuable class time
will be wasted.
Discovery learning encourages students to actively use their intuition, imagination

and creativity because the approach starts from the specific and moves to the
general. The teacher presents examples and students work with the examples
until they discover the interrelationships. Bruner (1962) believes that classroom
learning should take place through inductive reasoning, that is, by using specific
examples to formulate a general principle. For instance, if students are presented
with enough examples of triangles and non-triangles, they will eventually discover
what the basic properties of a triangle must be.

Proponents of discovery learning suggest that when students are asked to discover
information within the context of a discipline, they will be better able to remember
and apply what they have learnt. The contention is that when students are engaged
in discovering meaning and in learning materials, it is more meaningful than if
they were to rely on others. Bruner (1966) believes that for learning to be
meaningful, students must actively be engaged in identifying principles, rules, etc.
for themselves, rather than relying on a teacherÊs explanations. Therefore, learning
environments must provide situations in which students are called upon to
question, explore or experiment.
Inductive reasoning is a highly important aspect of discovery learning. In a typical

learning environment, information and examples are presented to students
and the students work with the information and examples until they „discover‰
the interrelationships.
Inductive approaches to learning require intuitive thinking. In many discovery

learning environments, the teacher can encourage intuitive thinking by having
students make guesses based on incomplete evidence and then having them
confirm or disprove the guesses.
As stated earlier, discovery learning is most noticeable in problem-solving

situations. The student calls on his past experience and prior knowledge to
discover the new information of skills. It is a personal, internal, constructivist- style
learning environment. Bruner (1962), states that „emphasis on discovery in
learning has precisely the effect on the learner of leading him to be a
constructionist, to organise what he is encountering in a manner not only designed
to discover regularity and relatedness, but also to avoid the kind of information
drift that fails to keep account of the uses to which information might have to be
put ‰.
Learning by discovery is centred around a series of problem-solving investigations

that actively involve students. A general pattern can have the following elements:
(a) A question or a series of questions is/are raised and through discussion, a

problem is identified (a question to be answered);
(b) With the help of the teacher, students propose ways to investigate the
problem and gather data;

(c) Working either individually or in small groups, the students conduct

investigations in which they manipulate phenomena, make observations,
gather and interpret data and draw inferences; and
(d) At the end of the activity, students figure out what their data mean or say,
draw conclusions, make generalisations and answer the questions.
Discovery learning has the following benefits:
(a) When you participate, you are paying more attention;
(b) The activities focus your attention on the key ideas or techniques that
are being examined;
(c) Active involvement forces you to construct a response and this results in
processing of information deeper than mere memorisation;
(d) Discovery learning provides you with an opportunity to get early feedback
of your understanding: gaps in your understanding cannot be ignored;
(e) Active learning results in a deeper kind of memory specific to an event so

that if you cannot at first remember the idea or technique, you can
reconstruct it from the event; and
(f) Discovery learning can be more motivating than other forms of learning,
incorporating the pleasures of solving puzzles and controlling an
environment.
You can visit the following website for more information on the benefits
and features of discovery learning:
https://principlesoflearning.wordpress.com/dissertation/chapter-3-
literature-review-2/the-constructive-perspective/discovery-learning-jerome-
bruner-1961/
Students must remember that discovery learning is not a method but an approach.
It is a way of viewing learning, on how it takes place and can be applied to different
subject areas, including language.

In order to understand the concept of discovery learning, it is essential to ask

ourselves the following questions:
(a) When did you most enjoy learning?
(b) Was it when material was presented using the discovery approach?
(c) Or was it when you worked independently to solve a given problem?
(d) Or was it when you were able to discover the information while going
through a problem-solving process?
Since this is an approach to instruction through which students interact with their
environment by exploring and manipulating objects and wrestling with questions
and controversies, students would be more likely to understand and remember
concepts they discovered through this approach.
This cognitive theory rests almost completely upon the notion that students
have an internal desire to learn by wanting to accommodate and assimilate new
information. According to this cognitivist view, the human mind seeks
equilibrium. Thus, when students are posed questions or situations that cause
a sense of disequilibrium, they will want to find answers in order for equilibration
to take place. This desire for new information is what motivates them to learn.
The teacherÊs role is to provide opportunities for exploring and to instil within
their students a sense of confidence in their ability to learn and to learn how to
learn.
However, although the approach encourages students to explore their

environment, Bruner does not propose that they need to discover every little bit of
information by themselves; rather, they are to discover the interrelatedness
between new ideas and concepts and old ones by using what they already know.
To encourage students to discover principles by themselves, the instructor and
students should engage in Socratic learning, that is, the teacher asks questions
that the students try to answer until they discover a concept or idea.
Students should not be left completely to their own devices. Teachers have found
that discovery learning is most successful when students have prerequisite
knowledge and undergo certain structured experiences. The task of the instructor
is to translate information to be learnt into a format appropriate to the studentÊs
current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organised in a spiral
manner, so that students continually build upon what they have already learnt.

The spiral curricula organisation lies at the heart of many, if not most, curricula
designed all over the world.
Instruction in the discovery learning approach needs to be:
(a) Concerned with experiences and contexts that make the student willing
and able to learn, that is, the student is in a state of readiness for learning;
(b) Spirally structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student; and
(c) Designed to facilitate extrapolation (going beyond the information provided)

and filling in the gaps (desire for equilibration).
6.5 SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

The concept of self-directedness in learning was first discussed in educational
literature as early as 1926 (Brookfield, 1984). From these studies and writings,
a preliminary description of self-directed learning emerged. According to
Lindeman (1926): „adults are motivated to learn as they experience needs and
interests that learning will satisfy⁄ that have a deep need to be self-directing;
therefore, the role of the teacher is to emerge in the process of mutual inquiry ‰.
Self-directed learning (SDL) actually has a long and rich history. Kulich (1970)
noted that prior to the evolution of formal schools, self-education was the primary
means individuals had of dealing with the changes going on about them.
Self-education has been an important tool in the lives of scholars throughout the
history of Western civilisation ă Socrates and Aristotle, for example (Tough, 1967).
Fundamental to contemporary studies of SDL was the pioneering work of Houle

(1961), who used an interview technique with adult students to develop a
motivational typology of learning styles. He discovered that people generally
were either goal-oriented, activity-oriented or learning-oriented. To add to the
typology posited by Houle (1961), Hiemstra (1976) added a fourth category
identified as a „self-reliant autonomous and independent learner‰.
Several features of SDL which have been identified include:
(a) Individual students can become empowered to take increasingly more

responsibility for various decisions associated with the learning endeavour;
(b) Self-direction is best viewed as a continuum or characteristic that exists to

some degree in every person and learning situation;

(c) Self-direction does not necessarily mean that all learning will take place in
isolation from others;
(d) Self-directed students appear able to transfer learning, in terms of both

knowledge and study skill, from one situation to another;
(e) Self-directed study can involve various activities and resources, such as
self-guided reading, participation in study groups, internships, electronic
dialogues and reflective writing activities; effective roles for teachers in
SDL are possible, such as dialogue with students, securing resources,
evaluating outcomes and promoting critical thinking; and
(f) Some educational institutions are finding ways to support self-directed

study through open learning programmes, individualised study options,
non-traditional course offerings and other innovative programmes.
In essence, much of this learning takes place based on the studentÊs initiative, even
if through formal settings. It is seen as any study form in which individuals
have primary responsibility for planning, implementing and even evaluating
their efforts. Participants who engage in SDL normally can be categorised into
three main areas (refer to Figure 6.7):
Figure 6.7: Areas in self-directed learning (SDL)
Knowles (1975) in his research on SDL has provided us with fundamental

definitions and assumptions which have guided subsequent research on the
subject. He reiterates that:
(a) SDL assumes that humans grow in capacity and need to be self-directing;
(b) StudentsÊ experiences are rich resources for learning;
(c) Individuals learn what is required to perform their evolving life tasks;
(d) An adultÊs natural orientation is either task-centred or problem-centred

learning; and
(e) Self-directed students are motivated by various internal incentives, such as

need for self-esteem, curiosity, desire to achieve and satisfaction of
accomplishment.
With the development of many new ideas of learning, there is some confusion
in regards to SDL in that many related concepts are often used interchangeably
or in similar ways. Examples include self-directed learning, self-planned learning,
learning projects, self-education, self-teaching, autonomous learning, independent
study and open or distant learning. Yet, these terms typically offer varied, though
sometimes subtly different emphases.
Despite their differences, several tenets are central to the SDL approach, as shown
in Figure 6.8.

Figure 6.8: Self-directed learning tenets

Next, we will examine learner characteristics and the teacherÊs roles in SDL,
as shown in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Student Characteristics and TeacherÊs Roles in SDL
Student Characteristics TeacherÊs Roles
 Self-directed students demonstrate a  One of the most important tasks of

greater awareness of their own the teacher in the SDL approach is
responsibility in making learning to raise studentsÊ awareness of their
meaningful for themselves. They roles in learning.
are motivated and persistent,
independent, self-disciplined, self-  One way in which awareness can
confident and goal-oriented. These be raised is by asking students to
characteristics make them more evaluate themselves in terms of their
effective learners and social beings. desire and ability to learn and their
attitude towards problems.
 Self-directed students have been
observed to possess the ability to  Similar discussions can be generated
search for information in multiple in language classrooms through the
texts, employ different strategies to use of questions designed to help
achieve goals and represent ideas students become aware of what
in different forms (drawing and good language students do and how
writing). to become one.
 For instance, teachers can encourage

students to ask themselves questions
such as: Did I read better today than
yesterday? Could I keep the ideas in
the book straight in my mind? Were
there words I did not know? How did
I figure them out?
 By becoming aware of successful

learning strategies, students can apply
them to new situations.

 Self-directed students are curious  Teachers who want to encourage SDL

and willing to try new things, view must free themselves from a
problems as challenges, desire change preoccupation with tracking and
and enjoy learning. They also monitor correcting errors, as it is a practice
themselves. that threatens studentsÊ egos and
confidence.
 Teachers need to exercise greater

tolerance of uncertainty and
encourage risk-taking. It is also
important to capitalise on studentsÊ
strong points instead of focusing on
weaknesses, as it is more beneficial for
students to achieve a few objectives
of importance to them than it is to
fulfil all the objectives that are
important to the teacher.
 Allowing students to explore ideas is

also encouraged in SDL, as peer
discussions ă even without complete
answers ă can yield new and valuable
insights.
 Student participation in decision-  Teachers should invite students to

making is another fundamental aspect formulate learning goals, activities
of the SDL approach. This approach and assessment criteria. When
advocates involving students in students work towards goals, they set
decisions concerning what is to be themselves and are assessed based on
learnt, when and how it should be criteria they themselves specify, the
learnt and how it should be evaluated. learning experience becomes more
meaningful and they will be more
 Students should thus be allowed to committed in their studies.
collaborate with the teacher in
determining deadlines and other  Teachers may be pleasantly surprised
regulations. at how insightful students can be in
making decisions.
 With proper planning and
implementation, SDL can encourage
students to develop their own rules
and leadership patterns.

Every proponent of SDL emphasises the importance of allowing students to

pursue their own interests so that learning becomes more meaningful. Research
has shown that when writers are allowed to choose their own topics, they write
more often and write longer pieces. The following details the methods in which
teachers can implement SDL methods:
(a) Students do not have to be given total freedom. Teachers could, for instance,
establish a thematic framework within which students are given choices.
This approach can be applied to reading, writing or speaking activities,
as well as projects that incorporate all three skills.
(b) The SDL approach suggests allowing students to pursue personal interests
without the threat of formal evaluation. Even if they make mistakes while
doing so, the activities will sustain their interest, transcend frustrations
and eventually break barriers to achievement. Uninterrupted sustained
silent reading may be one way of accomplishing this objective in the
reading classroom. Students are allowed to choose their own books to
read silently without the teacher checking on their pronunciation, reading
speed or comprehension.
(c) To establish the habit of self-monitoring, teachers need to encourage students

to reflect on what they have done and to revise attempted work. Getting
students to keep personal journals is one way of maintaining a record of
the learning process.
(d) Since SDL stresses meaningful learning, it advocates a situated learning

approach, in which teachers bring real-life problems into the classroom
for students to work on. Work need not be „sugar-coated‰ so that it is
presented as „fun‰. If the tasks are meaningful, students will work on them
willingly.
(e) Finally, teachers need to model learning strategies such as predicting,

questioning, clarifying and summarising, so that students will develop the
ability to use these strategies on their own. Teachers also need to allow
individual students to approach a task in different ways using different
strategies.

Researchers have found that as children grow, they have an increasing desire for
autonomy. SDL may be one way of harnessing that natural desire to achieve a
meaningful learning experience that will last throughout their adulthood.
The SDL approach is consistent with the whole language philosophy, which is a
set of beliefs about how language learning happens. These beliefs and principles
guide classroom practice. The whole language philosophy asserts that the
function of language is to construct meaning and that language is both personal
and social. Speaking, listening, reading and writing are all learnt best in authentic
speech and literacy events and students achieve expressive and communication
purposes in a genuine social context. Let us look at what happens in whole
language classrooms and their lesson procedures as shown in Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9: Whole language classrooms and lesson procedures
Teachers support student-centred learning by creating a literate environment,

stimulating interest by helping students connect new experiences with previous
one and facilitating the studentsÊ achievements of their own intentions.

ACTIVITY 6.3
1. What are the merits and weaknesses of the LEA, collaborative

and cooperative learning, discovery learning and SDL?
2. Develop lesson plans based on any of the approaches discussed

thus far. Try them out in your class. What successes did you
encounter? What improvements would you make?

forum.
6.6 REFLECTIVE LEARNING

In its simplest definition, reflection can be seen as „consciously thinking about
and analysing what one has done (or is doing)‰. Of course, everyone does this
to some extent. However, what are the structured approaches which exist that
enable students to reflect upon their learning, to understand their learning
processes and thus allow them to become more autonomous?
Here are some of the things you can do to enable reflection:
(a) Ask questions that do not have a pre-determined answer;
(b) Ask questions that lead to personal evaluation; and
(c) Use self-reflection to guide your preparation.
Reflection may be viewed as an approach to learning or a method or technique

or an activity that is commonly learnt by educational professionals in the teaching
of adults. It requires an investment in terms of time and a willingness to approach
the classroom with a degree of flexibility. Reflection most likely will not happen
in a teacher-centred classroom where lecture is the primary methodology.
Having language students think about language learning, their own beliefs about
learning and their preferred learning strategies and raising their awareness of
the language learning process can be done through the studentsÊ own reflections
and how they learn. Reflection makes students active in a sense that they learn to
analyse their own strategies and make their own decisions, whether to improve
themselves or not and in what way. By doing so, reflection may transform failure
into feedback, where mistakes are treated as sources of information for progress.

Reflection also refers to thinking about and analysing the results of observations.
Reflective learning, thus, involves getting students to reflect on what they have
observed about their own behaviour, performance and underlying reasons for
the behaviour, as a critical aspect of development. The practice of reflection
encourages students to be aware of their own learning and to evaluate themselves
as students, so that they know what worked for them and how they should
approach value-learning tasks. When applied to group activity, reflection
motivates students to think about the circumstances or actions that made their
group efforts successful or which were less effective.
When delving into literature to learn more about reflection, one tends to be
confronted with a great deal of background theory, that is both complex and
wide-ranging with various disciplines presenting multiple interpretations of the
processes involved. Most of these theories see reflection as a cycle. It may be
viewed in terms of „reflection-in-action‰ (where understanding of new concepts
occurs through improvisation and experimentation during an exercise or
experience) or „reflection-on-action‰ (where the student looks back at an
experience and reviews what was learnt). The latter view is the one that we
are dealing with at this juncture.
Figure 6.10 espoused by McPartland (2003), clearly delineates the need to raise
the awareness strategies of reflection.
Figure 6.10: Strategies of reflection

Soulier (2004) came up with a six-step model (refer to Figure 6.11) which can be
used to encourage high levels of reflection in learning.
Figure 6.11: Steps to encourage high levels of reflection
Each step is explained through a series of questions as listed in the following (refer
to Table 6.4). These questions are samples of questions that could be asked to get
students to elaborate on their competencies based on their feelings and personal
learning experiences.

Table 6.4: Questions of Six-step Models
Model Questions
Acquisition  What standard, competency or concept am I trying to

and selection demonstrate?
 What does the competency or standard I am being asked to

demonstrate really mean to me?
 How would I restate it so that it reflects my own personal

beliefs and values?
 What evidence is available to me to demonstrate my ability

to meet the required standard, competency or concept?
 Which is the best of the available evidences?
Context and  What did the instructor intend for me to learn from this
purpose experience (purpose or goal)?
 What did I hope to learn from this experience?
 What was the learning context for this particular learning

experience, that is, who was involved?
 What were the circumstances? When did it occur? Where did

it occur?
 Why was this particular instructional practice utilised?
 How does this learning experience fit into other related

learning experiences?
 What prior experience did I bring that might have influenced

what you learnt?
Analyse  What did I learn from this experience?
 Why did I learn what I did from this experience?
 Did other students learn the same things I did? If not, what
do I think they learnt and why?
 What are some of the other things I have learnt that are closely
related to what you have learnt from this experience?
 How was what I learnt changed by prior experience or

knowledge?

Impact  How does this experience relate to my personal learning goals?
 How effective was the experience in helping me learn?
 What impact will this experience have on learning other related

concepts?
 What was the impact of this experience on others besides me?
 How will this new knowledge help me impact others?
Project and  How would I change the experience to improve it? Why?
transform
 How would I change my approach as a student? Why?
 How would these changes be better?
 What additional related experiences would I seek to continue

the learning process?
Self-assessment  How well do my artefacts and reflections demonstrate the

competences and standards I am being asked to meet?
 Is my presentation logical and accurate?
 If I were an outside evaluator, would I evaluate my

demonstrated competencies as being excellent, fair or poor?
 What changes and improvements would I suggest to improve

both my competencies and the presentation of those
competencies to other colleagues and professionals?
6.6.1 Benefits of a Reflective Approach to Learning

Most aspects of learning are common to all disciplines, however different subject
areas naturally place more emphasis on certain learning skills over others.
Consequently, the benefits of reflective practice mirror the particular skills that
characterise each subject. For example, in disciplines like mathematics, science,
and engineering, more emphasis is placed on the understanding of methodology
and the processes of problem-solving where solutions are mostly defined by
laws. In subjects where there is close interaction between academic work and
practical experience like health care, teaching and social work, the emphasis is
on personal competence or craft knowledge as much as technical expertise.

Whichever way in which reflection interacts with these disciplines, it should be

fundamental in providing students the opportunity to understand their own
thinking and influence their learning, which in turn encourages autonomy and
presents opportunities for them to identify and record their progression.
Another benefit of a reflective approach is that it encourages students to look

beyond their academic accomplishments to recognise the depth and range of other
transferable skills learnt. As teachers of English with vast and wide experiences in
teaching the subject and in dealing with studentsÊ behaviours, needs and interests,
reflection thus provides structured opportunities for you and your students to
fully recognise and value past experiences and the complete range of skills
developed at schools, colleges, universities and beyond.
When should you carry out this procedure? What are the steps to be followed by
students? The answers to these questions are in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5: Steps of Reflective Learning to be Followed by Students
Reflective Learning Timing Steps of Reflective Learning
Reflection is often thought of as an activity  Reflect on what happened or is

to be engaged in following a learning happening (this could be a reading or
task. It is important for students to reflect writing task; a project involving
on what they did and how they did it. reading, writing and interviewing; a
However, reflection can also be carried grammar exercise, etc.). Describe it.
out while students are engaged in a task.
The advantage of doing this is that  Reflect on thoughts and ideas,
students can think about whether their behaviour and lessons learnt.
present course of action is effective, or
whether they need to make changes to  Plan any action(s) required to further
improve their performance. The teacher develop ideas, change behaviour,
may have to be the one who calls a „time- improve performance, etc.
out‰ at certain stages of the learning
process or task activity, in order for the
students to think consciously about what
they are doing, how they are doing it
and whether to stay on the present course
of action.

Figure 6.12 highlights the most important activity in reflective learning.
Figure 6.12: The most important activity in reflective learning and the reasons for it
To summarise, reflective approach to learning fulfils several functions:
(a) It makes use of and builds on the existing experience of students and
enriches existing knowledge;
(b) The social context is part of the learning process itself and provides the
milieu for dialogue which is central to reflective learning;
(c) It does accept that individuals are confined to a single preferred style of
learning;
(d) It allows analysis of an individualÊs experiences and facilities like learning

from this experience;
(e) It encourages critical thinking, a questioning attitude and leads potentially

to greater student autonomy;

(f) It promotes professional competence by encouraging the recognition of

mistakes and weaknesses;
(g) If logged, it provides written proof of an individualÊs progression in thinking

and deeper understanding for use at the end of their degree to enhance
employability; and
(h) It has the added value of promoting „adult relationships‰; that is, an adult
learning model which is perhaps what we aspire to have in schools, colleges
and universities.
ACTIVITY 6.4
In the myINSPIRE online forum:
(a) List some reflective questions that you might want to pose to your
learners.
(b) Give your opinion on this:
„Reflecting is a skill which has to be learnt and practiced.‰
(Robles, 1988)
EXERCISE 6.1
How would you describe the teacherÊs role in student-centred

approaches to language learning and teaching?

 Student-centred approaches to language teaching are aimed at developing

strategies and procedures that are believed to maximise language learning.
Central to these approaches is a consideration of the preferred learning
processes, interests and concerns of the student.
 The main goal of student-centred approaches is to shape language learning

as far as possible in accordance to the needs of individual students. Such a
goal places less focus on the teacherÊs judgement of those needs and an
increased understanding of studentsÊ concerns and problems. The approaches
described in this topic share this goal. The language experience approach and
self-directed learning in particular value studentsÊ interests and experiences.
 Student-centred approaches also aim to make learning as close to real-life

learning as possible. On one hand, language students have to learn to be
autonomous, independent students who can monitor their own performances
and manage their own learning efforts.
 Self-directed learning and reflective learning encourage students to be aware

of how they go about accomplishing a task, and to be aware of what works
best for them. On the other hand, collaborative and cooperative learning
approaches reflect the collaborative practices students will have to participate
in when they operate in the real world.
 Preparing students for real-life learning also includes using language materials
and tasks that can be found in the world outside of school. For example, whole
language classes use unabridged reading texts instead of simplified ones that
may sound artificial.
 The self-directed learning approach suggests real-life tasks without trying to

turn them into fun activities. These tasks, however, must be meaningful to
the students, so that they are motivated to work on them.
 The discovery learning approach encourages students to become motivated,

independent language users by allowing them to explore situations, form
new ideas and concepts and obtain new information. These are the skills
they will have to put into practice later on in the real world.

Attributes Discovery
Autonomous Inductive reasoning
Collaborative learning Reflection
Cooperative learning Self-reliant
Brindley, G. (1989). Assessing achievement in the learner-centred curriculum.

Sydney, Australia: Macquarie University, National Centre for English
Language Teaching and Research.
Brookfield, S. (1984). Self-directed adult learning: A critical paradigm. Adult

Education Quarterly, 35(2), 59ă71.

Bruner, J. S. (1962). On knowing. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press.
Cohen, A. D. (1987). Studying language learning strategies. How do we get the

information? In A. L. Wenden, & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in
language learning (pp. 31ă40). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
International.
Cohen, A. D. (1994). Assessing language ability in the classroom (2nd ed.).

Boston, MA: Newsbury House/Heinle & Heinle.
Dicheva, D., & Kommers, P. A. (1999). Special issue: Microworlds for education
and continuous learning-editorial: Microworlds for education and
continuous learning. International Journal of Continuing Engineering
Education and Life Long Learning, 9(2ă4), 177ă182.

Douglas, D. (2000). Assessing languages for specific purposes. Cambridge,

Genesee, F., & Upshur, J. (1996). Classroom-based evaluation in second language

education. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Greenblat, C. S. (1975). Gaming-simulation as a tool for social research.

In Greenblat, C. S., & Duke, R. D. (Eds.), Gaming-simulation: Rationale,
design, and applications (pp. 320ă333). New York, NY: Sage Publications.
Hake, R. (1997). Interactive engagement methods in introductory mechanics

courses. Retrieved from http://www.physics.indiana.edu/~sdi/IEM-
2b.pdf
Hiemstra, R. (1976). Lifelong learning. Lincoln, NE: Professional Educators

Publications.
Houle, C. O. (1961). The inquiring mind. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin

Press.
Hughey, J. B., Wormuth, D. R., Hartfiel, V. F., & Jacobs, H. L. (1983). Teaching ESL
composition: Principles and techniques. Rowley, MA: Newsbury House.
Lindeman, E. (1926). The meaning of adult education. New York, NY: New
Republic.
Kasman Valenza, J. (2000). Students and teachers alike can benefit from rubrics:
Selections from an interview with Dr. Andi Stix. Retrieved from
https://www.uwstout.edu/soe/profdev/resources/upload/Students_and
_Teachers_Alike_Can_Benefit_from_Rubrics.pdf
Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning. Chicago, IL: Follet.
Kulich, J. (1970). A historical overview of the adult self-learner. Paper presented

at the Northwest Institute Conference on Independent Study: The adult as
a self-learner, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
Myers, J. (1991). Co-operative learning in heterogenous classes. Co-operative

Learning, 11(4), 36ă48.
Novak, J. (1979). The reception learning paradigm. Journal of Research in Science

Teaching, 16(6), 481ă488.

Ormrod, J. (1995). Educational psychology: Principles and applications.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Panitz, T. (1996). A definition of collaborative versus cooperative learning.

London, England: London Guildhall University, Education Development
Unit.
Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas.

New York, NY: Basic Books.
Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive structures.

New York, NY: Viking.
Randall, V. (1999, MarăApr). Cooperative learning: Abused and overused? Gifted

Child Today Magazine, 22(2), 14ă16.
Roblyer, M. D., Edwards, J., & Havriluk, M. A. (1997). Integrating educational

technology into teaching. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Spencer, K. (DecăJan 1989ă1990). The structural approach to cooperative learning.

Educational Leadership, 47(4), 12ă15.
Tough, A. M. (1967). Learning without a teacher (No. 3). Toronto, Canada: Ontario
Institute for Studies in Education.
Vygotsky, L. (1981). The instrumental method in psychology. In J. Wertsch (Ed.).

The concept of activity in Soviet psychology (pp. 134ă143). Armouk, NY:
Sharpe.

Topic  Fundamentals
of CALT
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the fundamental characteristics of communicative
approach to language teaching (CALT);
2. Identify the four principles of CALT;
3. Describe the five principles of communicative methodology; and
4. List examples of activities used in CALT.
 INTRODUCTION
Previously you were introduced to various approaches and methodologies in
second or foreign language teaching. One of the teaching approaches that
has gained popularity in the last four decades is the communicative approach
to language teaching (CALT). This approach, which began in the 1970s is a
replacement for earlier methods of foreign language instruction such as
audio-lingual and grammar-translation methods, which emphasise the mastery
of language structures (refer to Figure 7.1).

TOPIC 7 FUNDAMENTALS OF CALT  179
Figure 7.1: CALT is a replacement for audio-lingual and grammar-translation methods
This topic will introduce you to the communicative approach to language teaching
or CALT. The topic begins by providing you with an overview of what CALT is,
followed by a discussion of the notion of communicative competence, guiding
principles of CALT and communicative methodology.
7.1 CALT: AN OVERVIEW

In the 1960s, various developments were noted in language teaching. One such
development was the introduction of a new teaching approach, known as the
communicative approach to language teaching (CALT). CALT grew from the
dissatisfaction with linguistic interpretations on the nature of language and the
methods of teaching it. In particular, it is a reaction to the earlier structural method
known as structural language teaching or SLT.
The following is a description of events which led to the development of CALT.
A Change in Emphasis on the Study of Language
The years culminating up to the 70s witnessed a change in emphasis on the

study of language. The once widely assumed grammatical structure, which
was held as the principal foundation of language teaching was no longer
regarded to be most essential. The outcome of this particular type of language
teaching is that usually students are well-versed in grammar and their
pronunciations are reasonably good, however, they appear to be incapable of
effective communication.

180  TOPIC 7 FUNDAMENTALS OF CALT
NewmarkÊs Study
Newmark (1966) expressed his discontent on existing language teaching

when he pointed out that most students were structurally competent, that is,
they have developed the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences,
however, they were unable to perform a simple communicative task like asking
for a light from a stranger. Expressions such as „Have you fire?‰ were used by
the students for making such a request. In other words, the students can be
said to be communicatively incompetent.
The New Emphasis
Achieving communicative competence became the main focus of CALT.
The change in emphasis in teaching was directed towards the use of language
for communication, in particular towards „appropriacy‰ (Johnson, 1981).
This new emphasis provided the theoretical background for CALT, which
aims at teaching communicative competence.
7.2 WHAT IS COMMUNICATIVE

COMPETENCE?
In discussing what communicative competence is, it is essential to first make a
distinction between competence and performance. Linguists appear to have
varying views of the two terms. In this module, however, it is sufficient to consider
ChomskyÊs view of the notions, as shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: ChomskyÊs Distinction between Linguistic Competence and Performance
Linguistic Competence Linguistic Performance
It refers to knowledge of rules of grammar It refers to the actual use of the language.
and the language system.
ChomskyÊs well-known distinction of linguistic competence and performance

provided a powerful stimulus in the development of language learning and
teaching.

Hymes takes communicative competence a step further by incorporating

sociocultural features in its definition. He emphasises the need for communicative
competence by which he implies the knowledge of when and how and to whom
it is appropriate to use these forms. His assertion that „there are rules of use
without which the rule of grammar would be useless‰ stresses that contextual
appropriacy is essential in communicative competence. For instance, there are
various ways of saying „be silent‰ and a person uses one way rather than another
according to its appropriateness to the real situation. Figure 7.2 summarises the
two different aspect of HymesÊ definition of communicative competence.
Figure 7.2: HymesÊ definition of communicative competence
In the same vein, Canale (1983) argues that communicative competence is as

depicted in Figure 7.3:
Figure 7.3: CanaleÊs definition of communicative competence

Canale views communicative competence as minimally including four areas of

knowledge and skills: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence,
discourse competence and strategic competence.
The theory of communicative competence, therefore, implies that in language

teaching, teachers should not just provide students with various language
structures to manipulate but also demonstrate how language items are used and
the situations in which they are appropriate to be used in. In short, students ought
to be shown language „use‰ as well as its „usage‰ (Widdowson, 1972). In language
teaching, it is fundamental to include the four components of communicative
competence as outlined by Canale.
In teaching communicative competence, it was proposed that the revision be

introduced at the level of syllabus design ă the level at which the teaching
content is specified (Johnson and Morrow, 1981). Yalden (1983) further adds
that in order to overcome the weakness of earlier syllabuses and to ensure that
learners acquire the ability to communicate in a more appropriate and efficient
way, a large number of components must be injected into the make-up of the
revised syllabus.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Get hold of the English Language syllabus that is currently taught in

your local schools (primary and secondary level). Scrutinise the syllabus
and see whether its contents reflect what is prescribed in CALT. If you
are an English Language teacher in school, have you taught a syllabus
of this nature?
Explain your answer to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
EXERCISE 7.1
1. What is CALT and when did it start?
2. What do you understand by the notion communicative

competence?

7.3 GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR CALT

Canale (1984) argues that to teach a language skill (precisely, communicative
skills) successfully, it is essential to have the knowledge in the first place.
He emphasises the need for having „knowledge orientation‰. In relation to this,
he introduces four guiding principles for CALT as shown in Figure 7.4, which
will be elaborated on further in this subtopic.
Figure 7.4: Four guiding principles introduced by Canale
7.3.1 Communicative Needs and Areas of Competence

To achieve communicative competence, its four components should be considered:
(a) Grammatical competence;
(b) Sociolinguistics competence;
(c) Discourse competence; and
(d) Strategic competence.
Therefore, in language teaching programmes, for instance, in the implementation

of the communication syllabus, a balance should be taken into consideration
without emphasising only in one area of competence at the expense of others.
In fact, the primary goal of a communicative approach is to facilitate the
integration of various types of competence for the learners.

StudentsÊ communication needs and interests are fundamental aspects in

constructing a communicative approach. These include the four components of
communicative competence proposed by Canale, as shown in Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5: CanaleÊs four components
7.3.2 Meaningful and Realistic Interactions

To improve a studentÊs ability to take part in genuine communication,
opportunities for taking part in meaningful communicative interaction with
speakers who have mastered the language should be provided (Canale, 1983).
Thus, in implementing the Communication syllabus, teachers (who presumably
have mastered the language) could participate in the communicative activities
carried out.
7.3.3 The Learner’s Target Language Skill

Making use of the communicative skills that the student has acquired is what is
addressed here. Canale (1983) suggests that:
„It is particularly important that the more arbitrary and less universal aspects
of communication in the second language (for example, certain features of the
grammatical code such as vocabulary) be presented and practiced in the context
of less arbitrary and more universal ones (such as basic sociolinguistic rules
involved in greeting a peer in French or English).‰

7.3.4 Curriculum-wide Approach

When communicating in a foreign language (especially with a native speaker or in
a foreign language country), a student not only needs to be competent from a
linguistic point of view, but also be aware of the culture. Widdowson (1978)
and Canale (1983), both in different ways, suggest exposing the student to this
through other subjects.
The preceding guiding principles may have interesting implications in four areas
of second or foreign language pedagogy. The four areas are shown in Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6: Implications in areas of second or foreign language pedagogy
We will now look at the principles of communicative methodology in the

following subtopic.
ACTIVITY 7.2
What should you do to teach language skills successfully? What are your
guiding principles which will make you achieve this result?

forum.

7.4 PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIVE

METHODOLOGY
A consistent methodology is more than just a collection of activities or techniques.
It requires an underlying set of principles in the light of which specific procedures,
activities or techniques can be evaluated, related and applied (Morrow, 1981).
These underlying principles are summarised under five main principles as

shown in Figure 7.7:
Figure 7.7: Five principles of communicative methodology
(a) Principle One: Know What You are Doing

An aim gives attention to the lesson. Both teacher and students alike should
thus understand and be synonymous with the aim of the lesson. Otherwise,
communicative activities can become pointless. Thus, it is desirable (though
not always feasible) to steer the aims of the classroom language activities
to suit the needs of the students.

In relation to this, Asmah Omar (1978) points out that:
„Teaching the students how to express themselves in English, say, in the

buying of stamps or in getting a taxi will be a futile exercise, because
they surely find it easier to do such things in Bahasa Malaysia. Hence the
language (English) will fall into disuse the moment the make-believe
classroom ends at the end of the selected hour‰.
(*Bahasa Malaysia is the national language of Malaysia. AsmahÊs study

is situated in Malaysia.)
Thus, a communicative approach to language teaching (CALT) teacher

should aim to capture and enhance a studentÊs interest by providing
classroom activities, which makes practical use of the language.
(b) Principle Two: The Whole is the Sum of Its Parts

Communication does not occur in terms of individual words or isolated
sentences, but as a whole discourse. A vital feature of the communicative
method of language teaching is thus to break the sentence barrier and
attempt to push beyond the sentence level to discover how discourse is
constructed from larger units of language (Bell, 1981). In other words, what
is required is the ability to work in the context of the whole (Morrow, 1981).
This requires the use of language in real situations. Thus, in CALT, it is
essential that lessons focus on real-life simulated activities.
(c) Principle Three: The Processes are as Important as the Forms

In developing a studentÊs ability to communicate in a target language
(for instance, English), we need to let our methods determine our goals, that
is, through practicing the forms of the target language in a communicative
framework. In teaching procedures of CALT, Morrow suggests the use of
three processes as in Figure 7.8:

Figure 7.8: Three processes in the teaching procedures of CALT
(d) Principle Four: To Learn It, Do It

A teacher can only guide the student, teach him as well as provide him with
opportunities to use the language, but only the student will learn what has
been taught in class. However, this does not necessarily take place; indeed,
teaching would be a simple task if this were so.

Table 7.2 provides a description of a CALT classroom and teacher.
Table 7.2: Description of a Communicative Approach

to Language Teaching (CALT) Classroom and Teacher
Communicative
Approach to Language
Description
Teaching (CALT)
Classroom and Teacher
CALT classroom To provide a room which allows flexibility and one

that does not restrict the movements of students in
carrying out the tasks required. Regimented rows,
under a dictatorial or magisterial teacherÊs control
may destroy all hopes for communication to take
place.
CALT teacher Has a smaller role ă he will be talking less and

listening more. In a typical CALT classroom, the role
of the teacher is to facilitate studentsÊ learning.
Students must therefore take the central role and
participate in communicative activities in order to
learn how to communicate.
(e) Principle Five: Mistakes are Not Always Mistakes

The proponents of CALT emphasise that errors should be viewed in a more
positive light, just like symptoms such as fever and pain assist a physician
in making her diagnosis. While phonological mistakes and pidginised
forms of language may seriously impair communication, grammatical
imperfections may also lead to a breakdown in communication. Although
it is important for teachers to correct the mistakes of students, as they
may affect the meaning of the intended message, niggling criticisms of
what the students produce will ultimately destroy the studentÊs confidence
in using the language. Thus, teachers should deal with studentsÊ errors
or mistakes with less enthusiasm.

ACTIVITY 7.3
1. Assuming that you are an English Language teacher, what are some
activities or strategies that you can employ in your classroom?
Besides those discussed, consider other types of activities and
strategies that can be used in CALT classrooms.
2. Morrow (1981) uses five underlying principles to guide him when

he uses the communicative methodology. Name the principles
and state their importance in communicative language teaching.

forum.
EXERCISE 7.2
1. List and briefly describe the four guiding principles of CALT.
2. Identify the fundamental characteristics of CALT.
7.5 ACTIVITIES AND STRATEGIES IN CALT

Some of the common activities and strategies that can be used in CALT classrooms
are shown in Figure 7.9.

Figure 7.9: Activities and strategies in CALT
The details mentioned earlier are some of the activities and strategies that can be
adopted in CALT classrooms. These activities will enable a teacher to conduct
lessons that incorporate simple or more challenging tasks, in accordance with the
level of his studentsÊ proficiencies. In addition, reinforcement activities can also be
incorporated into the lessons. It is, thus, left to the creativity of a teacher to make
his language classroom interesting, conducive, challenging and more rewarding
for the students.
ACTIVITY 7.4
Consider other types of activities and strategies that can be used in

CALT classrooms. Remember the focus of CALT. Assuming that you
are an English Language teacher, what are some activities or strategies
that you have employed in your classrooms?

forum.
 CALT is an approach that was introduced in the 1960s and is currently widely
used in foreign language teaching throughout the world.
 The notion of communicative competence is the essence of CALT. It includes

other types of competence such as grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and
strategic competence.
 The fundamental characteristics of CALT are as follows:
 Emphasises communication rather than structure;
 Stresses functional uses of language in different social contexts;
 Focuses on meaningful tasks;
 Emphasises meaning and fluency;
 Classroom activities focus on language forms and functions;
 Encourages collaborative work between students;
 Cultivates meaningful and purposeful interaction;
 Focuses on the students; the teacher is a facilitator, counsellor and

organiser;
 Provides students with opportunities to share and explore their attitudes,

feelings and opinions;
 Use of authentic, from life materials or language;

 Creates genuine, realistic learning situations;
 Creates a secure, non-threatening learning atmosphere;
 Uses a variety of materials, topics, activities and ways of interacting;
 Emphasises the acquisition of cultural knowledge; and
 Stresses tolerance of errors.
CanaleÊs four components Linguistic competence

Communicative approach to Linguistic performance
language teaching (CALT)
Strategic competence
Asmah Haji Omar. (1978). The use of the Malaysian national language in a
multilingual society. In A. L. Bryan (Ed.), Early man in America from a
circum-pacific perspective (pp. 532ă546). Archaeological Researches
International.
Bell, R. T. (1981). An introduction to applied linguistics: Approaches and methods

in language teaching. London, England: Bradford.
Brandl, K. (2008). Communicative language teaching in action: Putting principles

to work. Upper Saddle River. NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language

pedagogy. In J. C. Richards, & R. W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and
Communication (pp. 2ă27). New York, NY: Longman.

Canale, M. (1984). A communicative approach to language proficiency assessment

in a minority setting. In C. Rivera (Ed.), Communicative competence
approaches to language proficiency assessment: Research and application
(pp. 107ă22). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Cohen, A. D. (1994). Assessing language ability in the classroom (2nd ed.). Boston,
MA: Newbury House/Heinle & Heinle.

England: Longman.
Green, A. J. F. (1998). Using verbal protocols in language testing research:

A handbook. Cambridge, England. Cambridge University Press.
Johnson, K., & Morrow, K. (Eds.). (1981). Communication in the classroom:

Applications and methods for a communicative approach. London, England:
Longman.
Johnson, K. (1981). National syllabus and communicative language teaching.

London, England: Pergamon Press.
Morrow, K. (1981). Principles of communicative methodology. In K. Johnson, &

K. Morrow (Eds.), Communication in the classroom. London, England:
Longman.
Newmark, L. (1966). How not to interfere with language learning. International

Journal of American Linguistics, 32(1), 77ă83.
Underhill, N. (1987). Testing spoken language. Cambridge, England: Cambridge

University Press.
Widdowson, H. G. (1972). The teaching of English as communication. ELT Journal,

27(1), 15ă19.
Widdowson, H. G. (1978). Teaching language as communication. Oxford,

England: Oxford University Press.

Yalden, J. (1983). The communicative syllabus: Evolution, design, and

implementation. Oxford, England: Pergamon.
Zimmerman, C. B. (1997). Historical trends in second language vocabulary

instruction. In J. Coady, & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary
acquisition (pp. 5ă19). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Topic  Issues and
Current
8 Trends
in CALT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the role of grammar and how it can be taught in
communicative language teaching;
2. List five examples of technologies that may be used in a CALT
classroom; and
3. Describe the characteristics of communicative language testing.
 INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you were introduced to a syllabus designed for the
implementation of the communicative approach to language teaching (CALT).
In this topic, various issues related to communicative language teaching will be

discussed. The first part of the topic, will take you through the role of grammar
in CALT. Then, you will learn about the features of grammar teaching in CALT
and some guidelines for teaching grammar. The last part of this topic, deals with
testing in the context of CALT.

TOPIC 8 ISSUES AND CURRENT TRENDS IN CALT  197
8.1 THE ROLE OF GRAMMAR IN CALT

Since the main principle of CALT is to teach language students to understand
and use real and purposeful communication, thus, as pointed out in the
previous topics, the focus of CALT is on fluency. Although accuracy is still
regarded as an important aspect of communication, it has a less significant role
in CALT.
Bearing this in mind, an important question to ask is:
„How is grammar taught in a CALT classroom?‰
In practice, generally, there are two views regarding this matter, as explained
in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Two views on how grammar is taught in a CALT classroom
Which method proves to be more fruitful is an issue that needs to be investigated.

Both methods have their pros and cons, as explained in Table 8.1.

198  TOPIC 8 ISSUES AND CURRENT TRENDS IN CALT
Table 8.1: Pros and Cons of the Two Views
View Pros Cons
View 1 Emphasis on grammatical However, these students are not

accuracy may produce students able to function well in terms of
who are structurally competent communication (the reason for the
in the language. birth of CALT).
View 2 Students will have the confidence Students who do not receive
of communicating well. emphasis on grammar are claimed
to often develop the habit of using
ungrammatical forms, which may
lead to fossilisation of their
grammatical errors (Chitravelu,
Sithamparam, & Teh, 1995). Errors
that are fossilised are difficult to
correct and should therefore be
avoided.
What is important in the language teaching-learning process is to ensure that a

balance is achieved between the teaching of accuracy and fluency.
In light of this, Chitravelu et al. (1995) advised that both types of activities ă
focusing on accuracy and fluency ă be included in language classrooms to help
learners improve their communication skills. In the context of CALT, the teaching
of grammar should thus focus on the provision of language forms and functions.
Now, let us answer the following questions.
EXERCISE 8.1
1. How important is grammar in CALT?
2. What are the two views of teaching grammar in CALT?

8.1.1 How to Teach Grammar in CALT

Two approaches, namely, covert and overt grammar teaching (Harmer, 1987)
may be employed by teachers in teaching grammar in CALT classrooms.
The characteristics of the two approaches are summarised in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Characteristics of Covert and Overt Grammar Teaching
Approach Focus TeacherÊs Role
Covert  Use of structure with  To maintain a warm and

grammar ample opportunity to supportive atmosphere.
teaching practise the language
forms.
 Errors are tolerated

and dealt with at a
later session.
Overt  Explanation of rules of  To present rules or patterns of

grammar the language. generalisations and provide
teaching practice later on.
 Students attempt to
derive rules for or
themselves.
 To provide students with sample
sentences containing target forms
and to guide them to derive rules
from structures used, which they
have been exposed to.
Source: Chitravelu et al. (1995)
8.1.2 Guidelines for Teaching Grammar in the Context

of CALT
Despite having a less emphasised role in CALT, the following guidelines can be
considered in the teaching of grammar in the context of CALT:
(a) Grammar is an essential component in language, for every language is

rule-governed. Thus, whatever view a teacher holds, it is crucial that
grammar be incorporated in a lesson, indirectly, directly or integratively;

(b) In order to achieve mastery of a language, ample opportunities for practising

the language structure must be provided in every lesson. The rules of the
language can be acquired simultaneously and in a more meaningful way.
Thus, grammar should not be taught in isolation but in meaningful contexts;
and
(c) At some point of learning, the correct usage of language needs to be

emphasised, as „old habits die hard‰. This will prevent any fossilisation of
errors, which will be difficult to remove at a later stage.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Identify the two approaches that can be adopted in the teaching of

grammar in CALT and state other approaches that may be appropriate
to teach this subject.

forum.
8.2 USES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN

CALT
The revolution of information technology has had a great impact on society and
education. Its impact and influence can also be seen in language teaching; for
example, computer-assisted language learning is becoming the trend in foreign
language teaching and learning. The incorporation of technology in language
classrooms is seen as a means of reducing studentsÊ anxiety. In fact, it is not
exaggerating to claim that its use in the classroom seems to motivate students
and sustain their interest in learning the language.
In CALT classrooms, interactive computer networks enable students to test the

result of learning without the risk of being punished for any mistake (Huang,
1997). This makes learning both enjoyable and interesting.

Some examples of technologies that can be employed in CALT classrooms include

the following as explained in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: Technologies in CALT Classrooms
Technology Uses
Cassette Cassettes which contain songs or recorded dialogues serve as

useful materials in CALT. They can provide opportunities for
students to practise and learn new vocabulary, phrases as well as
new listening comprehension skills. These include activities
such as guessing meaning in context and understanding the
general idea.
Video Videos containing authentic language materials can expose

students to various dialectal variations in a language as well as
cross-cultural differences among different groups of speakers
of a language. They can also provide students with paralinguistic
features in spoken language such as facial expressions, body
language, intonation and guessing meaning from contextual clues.
Sitcoms such as Mind Your Language will provide interesting
materials for the learning of phrases, cultural differences as well as
identifying erroneous phrases. Teachers can select suitable
language input that is appropriate for the level of the students it
is intended for. Activities that can be included in a lesson using
videos can be divided into two stages, namely, pre-viewing and
post-viewing activities.
Pre-viewing activities are useful for helping students to

comprehend the topic that will be used in the lesson. These
activities will provide students with opportunities to think about
the topic and contextual clues in aiding comprehension. The types
of activities that may be used for this purpose include practising
new vocabulary, semantic mapping of key points, a short
introductory reading as well as comprehension questions.
Post-viewing activities serve as a means of checking

comprehension and provide platforms for discussing and
elaborating on the topic. Examples of activities may include true
or false questions, identifying key people and events, narrating
what happens in the video, etc.

E-mail E-mail correspondence can be used to illustrate authentic informal

language in use. However, teachers need to be selective in choosing
materials for the classroom. A point that needs to be remembered
is that not all students are privileged to have access to a computer.
If access to computers is provided, students can be asked to
communicate with each other and participate in meaningful
interactive sessions.
Internet Provided there is access to a computer laboratory, the Internet

will provide good resources for language learning and teaching.
Websites containing pages of online exercises and activities for
language learning may be useful for both teachers and students
in CALT.
Commercial Computer software that is available in the market can be helpful

software to students for several reasons:
(a) It can provide students with opportunities for obtaining

immediate feedback in learning. However, teachers need to
remind their students regarding the limitations of the kind
of feedback given by the software.
(b) It allows interactive and meaningful learning. Saz (1996)

stated that it is particularly useful for „someone who
responds particularly well to kinaesthetic modes of
learning‰.
(c) It may also help students to review grammar and vocabulary

in a more attractive manner ă a move away from the
traditional modes of reviewing. A word of caution, however,
sometimes not all recommended corrections for language
can be accepted. Teachers, therefore, need to facilitate this
activity or interfere with the activity when the need arises.

Multimedia A multimedia lab may be a suitable place for CALT. It offers

laboratory possibilities for students to visualise a topic-specific situation, in
which they are able to make use of language as much as they can
(Huang & Liu, 2002). A teacher in a multimedia lab will have to
assume the role of a coordinator ă coordinating the flow of
communication between himself with each student and between
each student with the computer.
Teaching a language via computer software may enhance studentsÊ

interests in learning. Their motivation and independence on
learning may also be elevated, as the tasks presented in the
software are interesting and challenging. Moreover, learning
through the use of computer software is fun and interactive.
However, a teacher using the multimedia lab for language teaching
and learning must ensure that students are given sufficient input
on how to manipulate the computer software. Otherwise, teachers
may find that their effort in making learning interesting is
hampered by learnersÊ frustration due to their difficulty in
handling the computer. This may also undermine the studentsÊ
interest in the class.
ACTIVITY 8.2
Design a lesson for the teaching of English using one of the technologies
listed earlier.
Share it with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.
8.3 TESTING IN CALT

In the communicative paradigm, the issue that is central for testing an individualÊs
language ability is the definition of what constitutes „language proficiency‰.
In this context, Weir (1990) argues that BachmanÊs definition of „communicative
language ability‰ which includes both knowledge and competence and the
capability for implementing that competence in language use is consistent with
WiddowsonÊs term in providing a more inclusive and satisfactory definition of
language proficiency.

Thus, the testing of language proficiency in CALT must demonstrate the ability to
use language communicatively, involving both competence and demonstration
of the ability to apply this competence in practice. In other words, a typical
communicative language test must incorporate tasks that are representative of
the kind of tasks that candidates may encounter in real-life situations and those
which correspond to normal language use.
The features of ideal communicative language tests can be summarised as follows

(refer to Figure 8.2):
Figure 8.2: Features of ideal communicative language tests

The inclusion of features that are demanded by the principles of the

communicative paradigm is however not easily achievable. Whilst striving to
achieve reliability, language tests which are communicative in nature also face
problems of validity. In addition, whilst attempting to be as representative of
the various real-life tasks as possible, a test must also be practical. Thus, it would
be impossible to include all possible real-life tasks in a test, for it may not be
possible and practical in terms of time and cost. For language practitioners of
the communicative paradigm, what is important is to provide „a specification,
coarse but robust, of the general communicative tasks facing target students in
their specified context ‰ (Weir, 1990).
Some examples of communicative tests are as shown in Table 8.4:
Table 8.4: Examples of Communicative Tests
Example of Communicative Test Its Purpose
CITO Functional Dialogue Language To test oral communicative ability in the

Tests: performance of speech acts in the second
language (French, German or English).
Developed for Dutch Secondary School
students by CITO (The National Institute
for Educational Measurement).
Certificates in Communicative Skills in To offer candidates the chance to obtain

English: certification for what they can do, without
being penalised for what they cannot do.
Originally developed from the Cambridge
English For Life or CEFL exams run by
the Royal Society of Arts Examinations
Boards from 1981 until 1988. It was later
produced by the University of Cambridge
Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES).
It contains separate certificates in the
four areas of language skills, namely,
reading, writing, listening and oral
interaction. It focuses on task-based
assessment and comprises tasks and
texts that are authentic and relevant.

EXERCISE 8.2
1. Identify the two approaches that can be adopted in the teaching

of grammar in CALT.
2. What are some technologies that can be used in CALT?
3. List down the features that should be included in communicative

language tests.
ACTIVITY 8.3
Describe the features of an ideal communicative language test and

cite examples of each feature.

forum.
 This topic has taken us through various issues that are related to
communicative language teaching. The main focus of CALT is on fluency.
There are two views regarding how grammar is taught in a CALT classroom.
 The first view stresses that a student must be equipped with sound knowledge
of the grammatical rules of the language for the basis of developing fluency
in the target language.
 The second view stresses on teaching of communication skills prior to the

teaching of grammar. So, teaching of grammar has a less important role in
CALT as the emphasis of CALT is on fluency. Covert and overt grammar
teaching has to be used while teaching grammar in CALT classrooms.
 Uses of information technology in CALT classrooms will motivate students

and sustain their interest in learning the language.

Communicative language ability Overt

Covert Software
Interactive
Brown, J. D. (2001). Pragmatic tests: Different purposes, different tests.

In G. Kasper, & K. R. Rose (Eds.), Pragmatics in language teaching
(pp. 301ă325). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, J. D. (Ed.). (1998). New ways of classroom assessment. Alexandria, VA;

Teachers of English to Speakers of other languages.
Chitravelu, N., Sithamparam, S., & Teh, S. C. (1995). ELT methodology: Principles
and practice. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Fajar Bakti.

England: Longman.
Cohen, A. D., & Hosenfeld, C. (1981). Some uses of mentalistic data in second-
language research. Language Learning, 31(2), 285ă313.
Cohen, A. D., Glasman, H., Rosenbaum-Cohen, P. R., Ferrara, J., & Fine, J. (1979).
Reading English for specialized purposes: Discourse analysis and the use of
student informants. TESOL Quarterly, 13(4), 551ă564.
Dunkel, P. A. (1999). Considerations in developing or using second/foreign

language proficiency computer-adaptive tests. Language Learning &
Technology, 2(2), 77ă93.
Fransson, A. (1984). Cramming or understanding? Effects of instrinsic and

extrinsic motivation on approach to learning and test performance.
In J. C. Alderson, & A. H. Urquhard (Eds.), Reading in a foreign language
(pp. 86ă121). London, England: Longman.
Harmer, J. (1987). Teaching and learning grammar. Harlow, England: Longman.

Huang, S. J. (1997). The preliminary study of the indirect use of computer

simulation in EFL teaching. Paper presented at the First International
Conference of CALL, Naval Academy, Taiwan.
Huang, S. J., & Liu, H. F. (2002). Communicative language teaching in a

multimedia language lab. The Internet TESL Journal, 6(2). Retrieved from
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Huang-CompLab.htm
Hughey, J. B., Wormuth, D. R., Hartfiel, V. F., & Jacobs, H. L. (1983). Teaching ESL
composition: Principles and techniques. Rowley, MA: Newsbury House.
Marinova-Todd, S. H., Marshall, D. B., & Snow, C. E. (2000). Three misconceptions

about age and L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly, 34(1), 9ă34.
McNamara, T. (1996). Measuring second language performance. London, England:

Longman.
Omaggio, A. (1986). Teaching language in context. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Read, J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University

Press.
Sandrock, P. (2002). Planning guide for learning world languages. Madison, WI:
Department of Public Instruction.
Shrum, J., & Glisan, E. (2010). Teachers handbook. Contextualized language

instruction (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Heinle Cengage Learning.
Technology and the communicative approach to language teaching. (n.d.).

Examples of technologies. Retrieved from https://community.plu.edu/~
yadenlbe/examples.html
Weir, C. J. (1990). Communicative language testing. London, England: Prentice

Hall.
Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design (2nd ed.). Alexandria,
VA: ASCD.
Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (1998). Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA:

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Willis. S. (1995). Refocusing the curriculum: Making interdisciplinary efforts work.

ASCD Education Update, 37(1), 1ă8.

Topic  The Internet
and the TESL
9 Teacher
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain a brief history of CALL;
2. Describe CALL and communicative teaching objectives; and
3. Utilise online resources to enhance their planning and teaching.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic explores the use of information technology as a tool to help us teach
English. We will explore computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and also
some areas related to CALL.
CALL or computer-assisted language learning is the umbrella term encompassing

many forms of using computers in language learning and teaching. Levy (1996)
broadly defines CALL as „the search for and study of applications of the computer
in language teaching and learning‰.
CALL began in the 1960s when universities began experimenting with using
computers to enhance language teaching and learning. Traditionally, CALL
focused on stimulus-response programs with an emphasis on error analysis and
feedback. Explorative CALL involved using data-driven learning using
concordances and similar programs. Multimedia CALL introduced interactive
CD-based video, audio and programs. Web-based CALL started in 1992 with
the World Wide Web.

210  TOPIC 9 THE INTERNET AND THE TESL TEACHER
CALL also involved authoring programs: self-authoring programs that allows

users to program their own CALL programs and CALL journals. CALL developed
over the last 30 years through roughly three gradual interrelated phases (refer to
Figure 9.1):
Figure 9.1: Phases of CALL
9.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF CALL

Behaviouristic CALL (1950s to 1970s) mainly uses the behaviourist theories of
learning. This meant a lot of repetitive language practice and drills. These
CALL programs delivered language instruction materials followed by practice
and drills to enhance learning of the material presented. This approach is still used
today with greater emphasis on interactivity. In open and distance learning (ODL),
this approach appears to be useful. Moreover, computers are ideal for repeated
drills because of their impartial unemotional responses. Moreover, computers
can provide immediate feedback and allow learners to progress at their own pace.

TOPIC 9 THE INTERNET AND THE TESL TEACHER  211
CALL tutoring systems were developed for the mainframe computers. The
programs evolved and became more ubiquitous when personal computer (PC)
became more prevalent. Personal computer availability of the late 70s onwards
and increasingly sophisticated operating systems and programs gave CALL,
a greater range of possibilities.
9.2 CALL AND COMMUNICATIVE TEACHING

OBJECTIVES
In the 1980s, the communicative approach guided CALL thus people thought
that the drill and practice programs was not as valuable because they did not
offer communication that was „authentic enough‰. John Underwood (1984)
proposes the „Premises for ÂCommunicativeÊ CALL‰. The following are principles
adapted from UnderwoodÊs Premises:
(a) CALL programs should focus more on using forms rather than on the
forms themselves;
(b) CALL should teach grammar implicitly rather than explicitly;
(c) CALL should allow and encourage learners to generate original utterances
rather than just manipulate prefabricated language through preset
responses;
(d) CALL programs should not judge and evaluate the learners nor reward
them. The congratulatory messages, lights or bells that were prominent
in earlier programs are unnecessary;
(e) CALL programs should avoid telling learners that they are wrong. The
programs should be flexible enough to handle a variety of learner responses;
(f) CALL programs should use the target language exclusively. This is to
create an environment where using the target language feels natural, both
on and off the screen; and
(g) CALL programs are not a replacement for books, so they should not do
anything that a book can do just as well.

Vance Stevens, a behaviouristic CALL critic, proposes that CALL courseware

and activities should build on intrinsic motivation and foster interactivity
(Stevens, 1989). CALL programs of the communicative phase took several forms
as follows:
(a) Programs that provide skill practice but do not use drills. This includes
such things as paced reading programs, text reconstruction programs, and
language games (Healey & Johnson, 1995b). These programs enable the
computers to play the role of the tutor by providing the right answers;
(b) Programs now provide learners with more choices, control and interaction
in finding the right answer. The key to supplement the search for the right
answer with more stimuli for discussion, writing, and critical thinking.
This is also the time when games took on more educational roles like the
SIM programs; and
(c) CALL programs in this era also took the form of tools. Instead of teaching
language per se, these programs helped learners to use the target language
actively. These programs also helped learners and users to study the
target language. Among these programs are word processors, spelling and
grammar checkers, desktop publishing programs and concordancers
(Taylor, 1980; Taylor & Perez, 1989).
These programs focus more on making the learners better users of the target
language rather than learning the language. For example, word processors enable
the learners to be better writers, especially when they incorporated reference
functions directly into the programs. This includes spell-checkers, thesaurus,
readability checker, encyclopedia function and group collaboration function.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. What is the level of the introduction of CALL schools in your

country? (You can ascertain this in many ways, among them; reflect
on your own school experience, ask relatives who are still in school,
talk to teachers whom you know, or read up on the matter in
the mass media and electronic media. It all depends on what is
available to you.)
2. What does the government expect to achieve by this decision? (Try

looking at the website of the relevant authorities).

forum.

9.3 STEPS TOWARDS INTEGRATIVE CALL:

MULTIMEDIA
Integrative CALL really got its impetus with the advent of hypertext, multimedia
and, later, the Internet. Hypermedia enhanced CALL more when it could link
multiple multimedia resources and made them available to the learner at a click
of the mouse (refer to Figure 9.2).
Figure 9.2: Example of hypermedia

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/An-example-hypermedia-
presentation_fig5_2430955
Hypermedia is said to take language learning to new heights for the following
reasons:
(a) It provides a more authentic learning environment, for example by

combining listening and seeing like in the real world;
(b) It integrates skills using the variety of media trying to emulate natural
combinations of reading, writing, speaking and listening in each activity;

(c) It gives learners better control over their learning process because it allows
them to proceed at their own pace and even, to a limited extent, in their own
direction including going forward, skipping parts and reviewing parts
they have already done at any time in the program; and
(d) Hypermedia enables central focus on the content, while enabling secondary
focus on language form or learning strategies. For example, while working
on the main lesson, learners can access to background links which will allow
them rapid access to grammatical explanations or exercises, vocabulary
glosses, pronunciation information or tips on adopting appropriate learning
strategies.
At present there are several hypermedia CALL programs, some use simulations
like placing the learner in a virtual airport or other places where they need to use
the target language to accomplish a given purpose.
Hypermedia CALL offers significant advantages, but hypermedia programs have

not had the impact that they are expected to have. This is because they also involve
several major problems in using hypermedia for CALL. These problems include
the following:
(a) Hypermedia programs are not easily nor readily available to teachers and
learners. The reason is simple ă they are mostly expensive. Today, some
teachers develop their own multimedia programs using authoring software
such as Hypercard (for the Macintosh) or Toolbook (for the PC) but most
may not have the training or, more importantly, the time to make them.
(b) Even if commercial developers may have the time and resources to develop
hypermedia CALL programs, they often lack the pedagogical knowledge,
training and experience. Also, the product they develop can make them too
expensive to be used for many English language teaching programmes.
(c) Computers are not sophisticated or intelligent enough yet to power truly
interactive CALL programs. To be truly interactive, CALL program would
have to do the following:
(i) Understand a userÊs input: spoken or written input;
(ii) Evaluate a userÊs input and determine the correctness and

appropriateness;

(iii) Diagnose a student's linguistic problems involving pronunciation,

syntax or usage; and
(iv) Decide from a range of options (e.g., repeating, paraphrasing, slowing

down, correcting or directing the student to background explanations).
All these require artificial intelligence which is only in its infancy today. TodayÊs
microtechnology and multimedia allow us to integrate the use of language skills
but that has yet to be able to provide non-predetermined responses.
ACTIVITY 9.2
1. In your opinion, did CALL achieve its target in your local schools?
2. With all the latest developments in the modern world, do you think
there is a need for a new approach in teaching English?
Justify your answers to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
9.4 STEPS TOWARDS INTEGRATIVE CALL:

THE INTERNET
Computer-mediated communication (CMC) has existed in primitive form since
the 1960s but has only become widespread in the last five years. The most
widespread use of CMC is the Internet, and this has the greatest impact on
CALL as a whole. Communicating with other language learners, sometimes across
the globe, can now be done directly, inexpensively and conveniently, 24 hours
a day, from almost anywhere. There are two main ways that we can communicate
through CMC:
(a) Asynchronous communication is when we are not interacting instantly or

simultaneously. This is when we use tools like electronic mail (e-mail)
and the various messengers (WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter). These tools
allow us to compose messages at our own time and pace and send them.
It should be noted that they can also be synchronous „real time‰ if the
other person is on the Internet at the same time.

(b) Synchronous communication is when people who are right next to one
another or across the globe have a simultaneous conversation through the
Internet. This communication allows for one-to-many, or one-to-one
communication. At OUM, for example, we often use Skype to conduct
one-to-one oral assessment with students who are unable to meet tutors
face to face. These students are often staying in other countries and on
different continents.
Today, the distinction between asynchronous and synchronous communication is

often broken down. When conducting oral communication on Skype, OUM tutors
and students also send each other documents pertaining to the conversation
(assignments, questions, etc.) either through Skype itself or through e-mail.
9.4.1 The Internet and the CALL Teacher

The relationship between the Internet and CALL teachers is undeniable.
Specifically speaking, CALL teachers really depend on the Internet, especially in
language learning classes with students are keen information technology.
Table 9.1 lists several websites which could assist CALL teachers when they are
conducting language learning classes.
Table 9.1: Suggested Websites for CALL
Aspect Suggested Websites
Planning  Curriculum toolkit:

your class https://www.curriculumonline.ie/Primary/Curriculum-Areas/
Language-New-Junior-infants-2nd-class/Language-
Home/Introduction/(ii)-Using-the-Curriculum-and-Toolkit
 BetterLesson:
http://betterlesson.com/
 ReadWriteThink:
http://www.readwritethink.org/
 Teacher Planet templates:

http://www.teacherplanet.com/taxonomy/term/266

Online  ISL Collective:

worksheets https://en.islcollective.com/
 Busy Teacher:
https://busyteacher.org/
 Teach-nology:
http://www.teach-nology.com/worksheets/
 ESL Galaxy:
http://www.esl-galaxy.com/
Making  How to use MS-Word and MS-Excel to make your own worksheets:
your own https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ehVYXYGRiE
worksheets
 Worksheet in five easy steps:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ehVYXYGRiE
 „Teach This‰ worksheet guide:

http://www.teachthisworksheet.com/created_worksheets/create
 Mindmaple:
http://www.mindmaple.com/
 Wisemap:
http://www.wisemapping.com/
 Freemind:
https://sourceforge.net/projects/freemind/
Assessment  ESL assessment guide:

material http://esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/eslAssess.htm
 How to make authentic assessments:

http://jfmueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/toolbox/howdoyoudoit.htm
 How to prepare formative assessments:

http://www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Resources/Positions/
formative-assessment_single.pdf
 Using informal assessment:

http://www.colorincolorado.org/article/using-informal-
assessments-english-language-learners

Self-access  British Council English language learning:

language http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en
learning
 Learn English free:
https://www.learnenglish.de/
 Duolingo 2-minute:
https://www.duolingo.com/course/en/ar/Learn-English-Online
 Cambridge English:
https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/learning-english/
 Talk English:
https://www.talkenglish.com/
Teacher  Sharing with other teachers

learning The Internet TESL Journal ă iteslj.org
resources
 Looking for more options in teaching English
ESL methodologies:
http://esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/method.htm
 Looking for other ideas from other teaching theories

100 teaching and learning theories:
https://www.learning-theories.com/
9.4.2 Computer as Tutor

Computer may act as a tutor in language learning classes. Most of the language
skills may be taught using CALL programs. Let us look at them one by one.
(a) Grammar
CALL programs designed for teaching grammar include drill and practice
on a single topic (Irregular Verbs, Definite and Indefinite Articles), drills on
a variety of topics (Advanced Grammar Series, English Grammar
Computerized I and II), games (Code Breaker, Jr. High Grade Builder) and
programs for test preparation (50 TOEFL SWE Grammar Tests). Grammar
units are also included in a number of comprehensive multimedia packages
(Dynamic English, Learn to Speak English Series). The following are
several CALL programs that are related to learning grammar:
(i) Grammar check online grammar checker:

https://www.grammarcheck.net/editor/

(ii) Ginger spellchecker:

https://www.gingersoftware.com/grammarcheck
(iii) Scribens free:

https://www.scribens.com/
(iv) Sentence checker:

https://sentencechecker.top/
(v) Grammatix:
https://grammarix.com/
(vi) Language tools:

https://languagetool.org/
(b) Listening
This category includes programs which are specifically designed to promote
second language listening (Listen!), multi-skill drill and practice programs
(TOEFL Mastery), multimedia programs for second language learners
(Accelerated English, Rosetta Stone) and multimedia programs for children
or the general public (AesopÊs Fables, The Animals).
(c) Pronunciation
Pronunciation programs (Sounds American, Conversations) generally allow
students to record and playback their own voice and compare it to a model.
Several comprehensive multimedia programs (Firsthand Access, The Lost
Secret) include similar features. The following are several CALL programs
that are related to learning pronunciation, especially audio analysis:
(i) WaveSurfer:
http://www.speech.kth.se/wavesurfer/
(ii) Speech Analyzer:

http://www.sil.org/computing/speechtools/SATdownloads2.htm
(iii) Speech Filing System package:

http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/resource/software.html
(iv) Praat:
http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/praat/
(v) Akustyk:
http://bartus.org/akustyk/index.php

(vi) Audacity:
http://audacity.sourceforge.net/download/windows
(vii) STx Analyser (paid):

http://www.kfs.oeaw.ac.at/content/blogsection/11/443/lang,8859-
1/
(viii) Transana basic:

https://www.transana.com/products/transana-basic/
These programs are useful for analysing speeches.
(d) Reading
This category includes reading programs designed for ESL learners (Reading
Adventure 1 ESL), tutorials designed for children or the general public
(MacReader, Reading Critically, Steps to Comprehension) and games
(HangWord). Also included are more general educational programs
which can assist reading (Navajo Vacation, The Night Before Christmas)
and text reconstruction programs. The following are several readability
tests that are commonly used in reading classes:
(i) PageFX:
https://www.webpagefx.com/tools/read-able/
(ii) Online test:

http://www.readabilityformulas.com/free-readability-formula-
tests.php
(iii) Online test 2:

https://www.online-
utility.org/english/readability_test_and_improve.jsp
(iv) Flesch-Kincaid scale:

https://www.perrymarshall.com/grade/
(e) Text Reconstruction

Text reconstruction programs allow students to manipulate letters, words,
sentences or paragraphs in order to put texts together. They are usually
inexpensive and can be used to support reading, writing or discussion
activities. Popular examples include Eclipse, Gapmaster, Super Cloze, Text
Tanglers and Double Up.

(f) Vocabulary
This category includes drill and practice programs (Synonyms), multimedia
tutorials (English Vocabulary) and games (Hangman, Scrabble). Also useful
are several references and searching tools (such as concordancers) which
will be described in the following subtopic, Computer as Tool.
(g) Writing
Most software for supporting writing falls under the following subtopic,
Computer as Tool. Exceptions include tutorials such as Sentence Combining,
SentenceMaker and Typing Tutor.
(h) Comprehensive
Several comprehensive multimedia programs are designed to teach ESL
students a variety of skills. They range in price, but many are quite expensive.
Among the better known are Dynamic English, Ellis Mastery, English
Discoveries and Rosetta Stone.
9.4.3 Computer as Stimulus

The computer as stimulus category includes software which is used not so much
as a tutorial in itself but to generate analysis, critical thinking, discussion and
writing. Of course, a number of the earlier-mentioned programs (e.g., The
Animals, Navajo Vacation, Night Before Christmas) can be used as a stimulus.
Especially effective for a stimulus are programs which include simulations.
Examples of this latter group include London Adventure, Oregon Trail, SimCity,
Sleuth, Crimelab, Amazon Trail, Cross Country Canada/USA, and Where in the
World is Carmen Sandiego?
9.4.4 Computer as a Tool

Computer also may act as a tool in language learning classes in this 21st century
environment. We will discuss the tools in a more detailed manner as follows:
(a) Word Processing

The most common use of computer as tool, and probably the most common
use overall of the computer for language learning, is word processing.
High quality programs like Microsoft Word can be useful for certain
academic or business settings (Healey & Johnson, 1995a). Programs such as
ClarisWorks and MicrosoftWorks are cheaper and simpler to learn and still
have useful features. SimpleText and TeachText are simpler yet and may be
sufficient for many learners.

(b) Grammar Checkers

Grammar checkers (e.g., Grammatik) are designed for native speakers and
they typically point to problems believed typical of native speaker writing
(e.g., too much use of passives). They are usually very confusing to language
learners and are not recommended for an ESL/EFL context.
(c) Concordancers
Concordancing software searches through huge files of texts (called corpora,
which is the plural of corpus) in order to find all the uses of a particular word
(or collocation). While very confusing for beginners, concordancers can be a
wonderful tool for advanced students of language, linguistics or literature.
The best concordancer for language students and teachers is OxfordÊs

MicroConcord. The program includes as an optional extra several large
database (total 1,000,000 words) taken from British newspapers. Or this
program, and other concordancers as well, can be used with any other text
files available in electronic form.
The Bulgarian students further test out their hypotheses regarding the lexical
and grammatical meanings of expressions they find in the stories by using
concordancing software to search for other uses of these expressions in a
variety of English language corpora stored on CD-ROM. The following are
several concordancers that are commonly used in language learning classes:
(i) Simple Concordance Program:

http://www.textworld.com/scp/ (Classified as dangerous)
(ii) Textstat:
http://neon.niederlandistik.fu-berlin.de/en/textstat/
(iii) ANT programs:

http://www.laurenceanthony.net/software.html
(iv) Wordsmith (paid):

https://lexically.net/wordsmith/index.html
(v) AdTAT:
https://www.adelaide.edu.au/carst/resources-tools/adtat/
(vi) Lextutor programs:

https://www.lextutor.ca/conc/
(vii) A longer list of concordance:

http://martinweisser.org/corpora_site/concordancers.html

(d) Collaborative Writing

Several tools exist to help students work on their writing collaboratively on
computers linked in a local area network. The most popular among language
teachers is Daedalus Integrated Writing Environment, which includes
modules for real-time discussion, word processing, electronic mail and
brainstorming, as well as citation software and a dictionary. Other programs
with some similar features are Aspects and MacCollaborator. E-mail
communication is one of the examples of collaborative writing due to its
functions as follows:
(i) Exchange of typed messages.
(ii) Exchange of files via attachments, such as:
 Document text;
 Spreadsheets; and
 Visuals.
E-mail communication used to be offline programs but today the online ones are
more popular mainly because many of them are free. One of the best free e-mails
in 2018 would be https://www.lifewire.com/best-free-email-accounts-1356641.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Write a lesson plan using the Internet to seek information and to enquire
about a trip to London (or any major city anywhere in the world). In the
lesson plan, come up with activities to arouse the interest of students
and to attract their attention in the use of language. Do not forget to
include other relevant information in the lesson plan. The main condition
is, this lesson plan MUST be in ENGLISH.
Share your lesson plan with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online
forum.

9.5 MOVING FORWARD

The history of CALL suggests that the computer can serve a variety of uses for
language teaching. It can be a tutor which offers language drills or skill practice;
a stimulus for discussion and interaction; or a tool for writing and research.
With the advent of the Internet, it can also be a medium of global communication
and a source of limitless authentic materials.
However, as pointed out by Garrett (1991), „the use of the computer does not
constitute a method‰. Rather, it is a „medium in which a variety of methods,
approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented‰ (p. 75).
The effectiveness of CALL cannot reside in the medium itself but only in how it
is put to use.
As with the audio language lab „revolution‰ of 40 years ago, those who expect to
get magnificent results simply from the purchase of expensive and elaborate
systems will likely be disappointed. But those who put computer technology to
use in the service of good pedagogy will undoubtedly find ways to enrich their
educational programme and the learning opportunities of their students.
9.5.1 Reference
There are numerous CD versions of encyclopedias and dictionaries. Two of which
are highly recommended (Healey & Johnson, 1995a) for language learners are the
encyclopedia ENCARTA and the Longman Dictionary of American English.
The three most popular uses of the Internet for language teaching are electronic
mail (e-mail), the World Wide Web and multi-user-domains object oriented
(MOOs). Numerous programs exist for using electronic mail. The Eudora program
has several nice features, including „point-and-click‰ word processing capacity,
easy attachment of formatted files, and the ability to include foreign characters
and alphabets. The free version (Eudora Light) is suitable for most purposes; there
is also a more powerful commercial version (Eudora Pro).
Eudora requires a direct connection to the Internet. Additional programs which

run through the Unix system and do not require a direct Internet connection are
Pine and Elm.
To access the World Wide Web, one needs a special program called a browser.
By far the most popular browser among educators is Netscape, which until now
has been free to teachers and students.

MOOs allow for real-time communication, simulation and role playing among
participants throughout the world, and a special MOO has been set up for ESL
teachers and students (schmOOze University homepage, 1995). The use of MOOs
is greatly facilitated if one uses a special client software program such as
TinyFugue (for Unix), MUDDweller (for Mac) or MUDwin (for Windows).
9.5.2 Authoring
Authoring allows teachers to tailor software programs either by inserting new
texts or by modifying the activities. Authoring runs on a spectrum from set
programs which allow for slight modifications (e.g., inclusion of new texts) to
complex authoring systems.
Many of the programs listed earlier (e.g., MacReader, Eclipse, Gapmaster, Super
Cloze, Text Tanglers and Double Up) allow teachers to insert their own texts and
thus make the programs more relevant to their own lessons (and greatly extend
their shelf life too). By allowing the students themselves to develop and insert the
texts, the programs can be made even more communicative and interactive.
On the other end of the spectrum, authoring systems allow teachers to design their
own multimedia courseware. These can take a lot of time and effort to master
and are most often used by true enthusiasts. Some are specifically designed for
language teachers (CALIS, DASHER), some for educators (Digital Chiseler) and
others for the general public (Hypercard, Hyperstudio, Supercard, Toolbook,
Macromind Director).
9.5.3 Teaching Resources

Teaching resources include worksheets, input ideas, teaching ideas, assessment
ideas, assessment sheets and grading guides. The following links are some
examples of teaching resources:
(a) Matador network:

https://matadornetwork.com/abroad/30-free-online-resources-for-
teaching-and-learning-esl/
(b) ESL network:

http://www.esl.net/esl_resources.html
(c) TEFL resources:

https://www.eslbase.com/teaching/

(d) Oxford seminars:

https://www.oxfordseminars.com/esl-teaching-resources/
(e) English resources for teachers:

https://www.englishlearner.com/teachers/
(f) The English language educator:

https://www.fluentu.com/blog/educator-english/esl-teaching-resources/
 Computer-assisted language learning and teaching helps students to learn

better, communicate effectively and be internationally intelligible.
 The main objective of CALL is to enable students to understand any form of

instruction and communication better. Overall, the implementation of this
technology helps students to learn something that will increase their
communicational effectiveness in some of the areas of the language learned
and use it in some situations that they are likely to encounter after leaving
school.
 CALL is generally viewed as an effective extension to the English language

curriculum and educational curriculum in general.
Asynchronous communication MOO (Multi-user-domains object

oriented)
Concordancer
Synchronous communication
Hypermedia

Ahmad, K., Corbett, G., Rogers, M., & Sussex, R. (1985). Computers, language
learning and language teaching. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
Athelstan. (1995). Technology and language learning yearbook. Vol. 6. Houston,

TX: Athelstan.
Barson, J., & Debski, R. (in press). Calling back CALL: Technology in the service of
foreign language learning based on creativity, contingency and goal-oriented
activity. In M. Warschauer (Ed.). Telecollaboration in Foreign Language
Learning: Proceedings of the HawaiÊi Symposium. Honolulu, HI: University
of HawaiÊi Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.
Bowers, R. (1995). WWW-Based Instruction for EST. In T. Orr (Eds.), English for
science and technology: Profiles and perspectives (pp. 5ă8). Aizuwakamatsu,
Japan: Center for Language Research, University of Aizu.
Bowers, R. (in press). Web publishing for students of EST. In M. Warschauer

(Eds.), Virtual connections: Online activities and projects for networking
language learners. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Second
Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.
Brierley, B., & Kemble, I. (1991). Computers as a tool in language teaching.

New York, NY: Ellis Horwood.
Dunkel, P. (Ed.). (1991). Computer-assisted language learning and testing:

Research issues and practice. New York, NY: Newbury House.
Garrett, N. (1991). Technology in the service of language learning: Trends and

issues. Modern Language Journal, 75(1), 74ă101.
Graham, D. (n.d.). CALL (computer assisted language learning). Retrieved from

www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/61
Hardisty, D., & Windeatt, S. (1989). CALL. Oxford, England: Oxford University
Press.
Healey, D. (1995). Something to do on Tuesday. Houston, TX: Athelstan.

Healey, D., & Johnson, N. (1995b). A brief introduction to CALL. In D. Healey,

& N. Johnson (Eds.), 1995 TESOL CALL interest section software list
(pp. iiiăvii). Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.
Healey, D., & Johnson, N. (Ed.). (1995a). 1995 TESOL CALL interest section
software list. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications.
Higgins, J. (1988). Language, learners, and computers. London, England:

Longman.
Jones, C., & Fortescue, S. (1987). Using computers in the language classroom.
London, England: Longman.
Kenning, M. M., & Kenning, M. J. (1990). Computers and language learning:

Current theory and practice. New York, NY: Ellis Horwood.
Levy, M. (1996). CALL: Context and conceptualisation. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.
Meskill, C., & Rangelova, K. (in press). U.S. language through literature:
A transatlantic research project. In M. Warschauer (Ed.). Virtual connections:
Online activities and projects for networking language learners. Honolulu,
HI: University of HawaiÊi Second Language Teaching and Curriculum
Center.
Pennington, M. (Ed.). (1989). Teaching languages with computers: The state of

the art. La Jolla, CA: Athelstan.
Pusack, J. P., & Otto, S. K. (1990). Applying instructional technologies. Foreign

Language Annals, 23(5), 409ă417.
Rüschoff, B. (1993). Language learning and information technology: State of the

art. CALICO Journal, 10(3), 5ă17.
Schank, R. C., & Cleary, C. (1995). Engines for education. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Stevens, V. (Ed.). (1989). A direction for CALL: From behavioristic to humanistic

courseware. In M. Pennington (Ed.), Teaching languages with computers:
The state of the art (pp. 31ă43). La Jolla, CA: Athelstan.

Taylor, M. B., & Perez, L. M. (1989). Something to do on Monday. La Jolla, CA:

Athelstan.
Taylor, R. (1980). The computer in the school: Tutor, tool, tutee. New York, NY:
Teachers College Press.
Thompson, J., & Parsons, J. (1995). ReCALL software guide #4, 1995. Hull, UK: CIT
Centre for Modern Languages, University of Hull.
Underwood, J. (1984). Linguistics, computers, and the language teacher:

A communicative approach. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Underwood, J. (1989). On the edge: Intelligent CALL in the 1990s. Computers and
the Humanities, 23, 71ă84.
Tribble, C., & Jones, G. (1990). Concordances in the classroom. Harlow, England:
Longman.
Warschauer, M. (1995a). E-mail for English teaching. Alexandria, VA: TESOL

Publications.
Warschauer, M. (Ed.). (1995b). Telecollaboration in foreign language learning.

Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Second Language Teaching and
Curriculum Center (University of Hawaii Press).
Warschauer, M. (1996a). Computer-assisted language learning: An introduction.

In S. Fotos (Ed.). (March 1998). Multimedia language teaching. Volume 3,
Number 2. (pp. 3ă20). Tokyo: Logos International.
Warschauer, M. (Ed.) (1996b). Virtual connections: Online activities and projects

for networking language learners. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii
Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center (University of Hawaii
Press).

230  ANSWERS
Answers
TOPIC 1: APPROACHING CURRICULUM
Exercise 1.1
1. The answer would depend upon the individual teacherÊs educational
philosophy, the school administration, the specifics of the national
curriculum and the prevailing political forces. Refer to 1.3 and 1.4 for
discussions on theoretical underpinnings.
2. To call the philosophy behind the curricula mentioned by Cheah and

Marimuthu „perennialism‰ would be an understatement. No doubt, the
curricula treats students as passive recipients of „knowledge‰ but they do
much more damage than that. That is to say, they perpetuate radical
inequality in society by encouraging students to believe in the goodness of
conforming to norms and rules which directly oppress them. Refer to 1.2
on the hidden curriculum for discussion on the ways in which social
inequality is perpetuated through schools.
TOPIC 4: STRUCTURALIST APPROACH
Exercise 4.1
The audio-lingual method supports the introduction of grammatically correct
target language structures that students need to learn. The context of dialogue
advocated by the method makes it likely that the words and sentence
patterns introduced will be those that students encounter in basic, everyday
communication in the target language. If these dialogues are audio-recorded
using native speakers as participants, ESL students will be exposed to
native-speaker pronunciation and intonation. In a society with very few native
speakers of English who can act as speech models for ESL learners, this facility
would be a plus factor.

ANSWERS  231
While drills are often considered meaningless and boring, they can nevertheless
provide ESL students with a „safe‰ and relatively stress-free way to engage in
the spoken use of English. Although drills must not be the only means of learning
a language, they can be inserted appropriately into the learning process to provide
the needed practice.
TOPIC 5: NON-STRUCTURALIST APPROACH
Exercise 5.1
1. The direct method places emphasis on oral skills and rejects the use of the
printed word. One argument against this orientation is that the printed word
does not necessarily interfere with pronunciation. In fact, reading and
writing help to consolidate language development and may actually
reinforce retention of language items. Exposing students to all four skills
at the same time need not be detrimental to learning, if the students are
not pressured to master them all at once.
2. According to the natural approach, the level of the materials will need to be
just beyond the studentÊs current language level, in order for them to provide
comprehensible input necessary for language acquisition to take place.
3. Some advantages of CLL:
(a) Meaningful Content

Since students decide the topics and what they want to practise, the
content of learning is meaningful to them.
(b) High Motivation

Students feel they have more ownership of their learning and are likely
to become more self-motivated.
(c) Less Stress

Learning follows the studentÊs pace, not the teacherÊs expectations
where teachers act as guides and helpers.

232  ANSWERS
(d) Freedom of Expression

Students do not feel they have to reproduce content specified by an
institution. They are free to learn to express what they want, in the
target language.
(e) Social Support

Students support and learn with each other.
Some disadvantages of CLL:
(a) Lack of Specific Guidance

Not every teacher can work without a carefully designed text and
syllabus. There are also no clearly specified objectives. Some students
who are not used to this kind of method may feel uncomfortable
with the apparent lack of planning.
(b) Need for Special Training for the Teacher

Teachers need special training to act as effective counsellors and
guides in a community language learning situation. This kind of skill
goes beyond knowing how to present the language content.
TOPIC 6: LEARNER-CENTRED APPROACHES
Exercise 6.1
Teachers take a decentralised position in the student-centred classroom as the
focus has to be on the student, yet they do have an array of roles to play.
In a student-centred approach, teachers may be facilitators who need to move

students along when they do not know how to proceed during a task or when they
do not know where to look for resources. Teachers are resource people when
students have nowhere else to turn, but they have to step aside to allow students
to first seek other sources of information.
Teachers have to be patient and tolerant of mistakes, as risk-taking is encouraged

in student-centred approaches. They, in fact, have to encourage risk-taking
behaviour and must be willing to wait while students explore possible avenues.
They have to help students build self-confidence in order to become independent.

ANSWERS  233
As group activity is important in student-centred approaches, teachers have to be

mediators as well. They have to ensure that tasks are delegated fairly, although
they should leave that task largely to the students. They have to see that individual
and group needs and interests are met as far as possible, while ensuring that
learning objectives are met.
Teachers also have to be learning models who model thinking and learning
strategies, so that students can see what needs to be done during the learning
process in order to be successful. Teachers, thus, have to focus on the learning
process rather than the end-product.
TOPIC 7: FUNDAMENTALS OF CALT
Exercise 7.1
1. The CALT is an approach to foreign language teaching that emphasises
communicative competence. It is a product of the growing dissatisfaction
with the prevailing methodology, which emphasises the mastery of language
structure amongst language teaching practitioners and applied linguists.
The CALT began in the 1970s.
2. Communicative competence refers to competence in learning a language,

which includes sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence,
grammatical competence and strategic competence. (You can discuss the
details by referring to the subtopic on „What is Communicative
Competence?‰)
Exercise 7.2
1. The four guiding principles of the CALT are:
(a) Communication needs and area of competence;
(b) Meaningful and realistic interaction;
(c) The studentÊs target language skill; and
(d) Curriculum-wide approach.
(Elaborate on these points)

234  ANSWERS
2. The CALTÊs fundamental characteristics include:
(a) Emphasis on communication rather than structure;
(b) Stresses functional uses of language in different social contexts.
(c) Focuses on meaningful tasks;
(d) Emphasises meaning and fluency;
(e) Classroom activities focus on language forms and functions;
(f) Collaborative work between learners;
(g) Meaningful and purposeful interaction;
(h) Focuses on the learner; the teacher is a facilitator and counsellor;
(i) Provides learners with opportunities to share and explore their

attitudes, feelings and opinions;
(j) Use of authentic from life materials or language;
(k) Creates genuine, realistic learning situations;
(l) Creates a secure, non-threatening learning atmosphere;
(m) Uses a variety of materials, topics, activities and ways of interacting;

and
(n) Emphasises acquisition of cultural knowledge and tolerance of errors.

ANSWERS  235
TOPIC 8: ISSUES AND CURRENT TRENDS IN

CALT
Exercise 8.1
1. Grammar has a less significant role in CALT. The emphasis of CALT is
on fluency.
2. The two views of teaching grammar in CALT are:
(a) The teaching of explicit rules of language followed by practice of use

of language (fluency); and
(b) The teaching of communication skills, that is, the exposure to use of
language followed by the teaching of explicit rules of the target
language.
Exercise 8.2
1. The two approaches that can be adopted in the teaching of grammar in
CALT are:
(a) Covert Grammar Teaching

Using structure with ample opportunity to practice the language forms.
(b) Overt Grammar Teaching

Explanation of rules of the language.
2. Some technologies that can be used in CALT classrooms are cassettes,

videos, e-mail, the Internet and commercial software.
3. The features that are typical of communicative language tests include:
(a) They should comprise tasks that reflect the attributes of activities in real
life;
(b) The sample of communicative language ability included in the test

must be as representative as possible;
(c) The test must adopt an integrative approach to assessment;

236  ANSWERS
(d) The tasks and texts used in the test must be authentic;
(e) The test should be as „direct‰ as possible (reflecting real-life situations)

and the tasks that candidates need to perform should involve realistic
discourse processing. The emphasis is on the expression and the
understanding of functional meaning; and
(f) The test, as far as possible, should aim at providing criterion referenced
assessment and the establishment of meaningful cut-off scores.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-78012140
Fax No.: 03-78875911 / 03-78875966


HBET1503 Principles &amp; Practice of TESL Methodology Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

HBET1503 Principles &amp; Practice of TESL Methodology Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

HBET1503

Principles and Practice of TESL Methodology

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Approaching Curriculum 1

Topic 2 Curriculum Development 35

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

2.8 The Comprehensive Curriculum Principle 51

Topic 3 The Curriculum Development Process 64

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 4 Structuralist Approach 85

Topic 5 Non-structuralist Approach 101

Topic 6 Student-centred Approaches 139

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 7 Fundamentals of CALT 178

Topic 8 Issues and Current Trends in CALT 196

Topic 9 The Internet and the TESL Teacher 209

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

This is a foundation course in which learners are introduced to various terms

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 3

Study the module 60

Attend tutorial sessions 6ă8

Assignment(s) and Examination(s) 20

TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Identify issues in curriculum development in the context of TESL;

2. Evaluate the various teaching principles in TESL; and

3. Appraise contemporary trends and issues in TESL methodology.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 2 deals with curriculum development. It begins with a brief history of

Topic 6 focuses on student-centred approaches, where teaching/learning assumes

Topic 7 explains the fundamentals of CALT or communicative approach to

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 8 analyses a communicational syllabus analyses, its needs, objectives,

Topic 9, discusses issues and current trends in CALL (computer-assisted language

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Similar to Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Brown, J. D. (2001). Pragmatic tests: Different purposes, different tests. In G.

Brown, J. D. (Ed.). (1998). New ways of classroom assessment. Alexandria, VA:

Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. Harlow,

Johnson, R. K. (1989). The second language curriculum. Cambridge, MA:

McNeil, J. D. (1990). Curriculum: A comprehensive introduction. Los Angeles,

Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language

Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. London,

Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. Harlow, England: Longman.

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 DEFINING CURRICULUM

Spend a minute or two to consider what you understand by the term

(a) An instructional plan;

(b) A course of study;

(c) A proposal for action;

HBET1503 Principles & Practice of TESL Methodology Notes

HBET1503 Principles & Practice of TESL Methodology Notes