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Nanotechnology in Eco-efficient Construction
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Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and
Structural Engineering
Nanotechnology in
Eco-efficient Construction
Materials, Processes and Applications
Second Edition
Edited by
Fernando Pacheco-Torgal
Maria Vittoria Diamanti
Ali Nazari
Claes Goran Granqvist
Alina Pruna
Serji Amirkhanian
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
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Contents
List of contributors xv
1 Introduction to nanotechnology in eco-efficient construction 1

F. Pacheco-Torgal
1.1 Recent nanotechnology advancements and limitations 1
1.2 Nanotech-based materials for eco-efficient construction 3
1.3 Outline of the Book 5
References 8
Part One Mortars and concrete related applications 11
2 Influence of nanoparticles on the strength of ultra-high performance

concrete 13
Ksenija Jankovic, Dragan Bojovic and Marko Stojanovic
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Types of nanomaterials in cement-based composites 15
2.3 Role of nanoparticles in ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) 17
2.4 UHPC curing regimes 18
2.5 Strength of UHPC 27
2.6 Production problems and recommendations for practical application 32
Acknowledgments 33
References 34
3 The effect of nanoparticles on the self-healing capacity of high

performance concrete 43
J.L. García Calvo, G. Pérez, P. Carballosa, E. Erkizia, J.J. Gaitero and
A. Guerrero
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Self-healing systems based on nanoparticles used in cementitious
materials 45
3.3 Influence of self-healing systems in the characteristics of HPC 47
3.4 Durability of self-healing HPC under aggressive environments 58
3.5 Future trends 62
References 63
vi Contents
4 The impact of graphene oxide on cementitious composites 69

Alyaa Mohammed, Jay G. Sanjayan, Ali Nazari and Nihad T.K. Al-Saadi
4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Graphene materials 71
4.3 Graphene oxide 71
4.4 Effects of GO incorporation into cementitious composites 74
4.5 Some structural applications of GO/cement composites in repairing
of reinforced concrete 77
4.6 Summary of the chapter 88
Acknowledgments 89
References 89
5 Application of nanomaterials in alkali-activated materials 97

Q.L. Yu
5.1 Introduction 97
5.2 Nanotechnology in alkali-activated materials 98
5.3 Effects of nanosilica on alkali-activated materials 100
5.4 Effect of nanoclay on alkali-activated materials 105
5.5 Effect of nano-TiO2 on alkali-activated materials 108
5.6 Effects of carbon nanotube on alkali-activated materials 111
5.7 Conclusions and recommendations 114
References 115
6 Effects of nanofibers on properties of geopolymer composites 123

Akm Samsur Rahman
6.1 Introduction 123
6.2 Design of experiments approach 124
6.3 Experimental 125
6.4 Results and discussions 132
6.5 Summary 139
References 139
7 Nanoindentation for evaluation of properties of cement hydration

products 141
Saptarshi Sasmal and M.B. Anoop
7.2 Cement hydration 142
7.3 Hydration mechanism in cementefly ash system 144
7.4 Nanoindentation technique 144
7.5 Properties of cement hydration productsdexperimental
investigations 149
7.6 Results and discussion 151
Acknowledgments 158
References 158
Contents vii
Part Two Applications for pavements and other

infrastructure materials 163
8 Performance of asphalt mixture with nanoparticles 165

Shaban Ali Zangena
8.2 Types of nanoparticles modified asphalt mixture 166
8.3 Laboratory techniques for preparation of nanoparticles modified
asphalt mixtures 173
8.4 Materials and experimental design 174
8.5 Advantages and disadvantages of nanoparticles in the modification
of asphalt mixtures 177
8.6 Characteristic and performance evaluation of nanoparticles
modified asphalt mixtures 178
8.7 Durability of modified asphalt mixtures 183
8.8 Challenges of nanoparticles modification 183
8.9 Conclusion 184
Acknowledgments 184
References 185
9 Nanomodified asphalt mixture with enhanced performance 187

Shuaicheng Guo, Xu Yang, Zigeng Wang, Lingyun You, Qingli Dai and
Zhanping You
9.1 Introduction and background 187
9.2 Classification of nanomaterials applied for asphalt binder
modification 187
9.3 Enhanced performance of the nanomodified asphalt mixture 193
9.4 Conclusions and current achievement and knowledge gaps
on the application of nanomodified asphalt mixture 197
References 197
10 Effects of graphene oxide on asphalt binders 203

Yuanyuan Li, Shaopeng Wu and Serji Amirkhanian
10.2 Materials and experiments 204
10.3 Results and discussions 208
10.4 Aging characteristics of modified binders 220
10.5 Conclusions 224
References 224
11 NanoComposites for structural health monitoring 227

Qiaofeng Zheng, Baoguo Han and Jinping Ou
11.2 Types of nanocomposites for structural health monitoring 228
viii Contents
11.3 Fabrication and signal measurement of nanocomposites 232

11.4 Sensing properties of nanocomposites 237
11.5 Sensing mechanisms of nanocomposites 242
11.6 Application in structural health monitoring 246
11.7 Conclusions and future trends 251
References 251
Further reading 259
12 Concrete with nanomaterials and fibers for self-monitoring of strain

and cracking subjected to flexure 261
Yining Ding, Genjin Liu, Zhibo Han, F. Pacheco-Torgal and
Ant
onio Augusto Veloso de Costa
12.2 Experimental investigations 263
12.3 Influence of conductive admixtures on the mechanical
and electrical properties of concrete beam 268
12.4 Conclusion 277
References 278
13 Icephobic nanocoatings for infrastructure protection 281

Zaid Ayaz Janjua
13.2 Ice protection strategies 282
13.3 Types of infrastructure applications for ice protection 283
13.4 Basics of icephobic nanocoatings 284
13.5 Nanocoatings with organic fillers 286
13.6 Nanocoatings with inorganic fillers 287
13.7 Hybrid nanocoatings 294
13.8 Functionalized nanomaterials 295
13.9 Analysis 296
13.11 Conclusion 298
13.12 Sources of further information and advice 298
References 298
14 Self-healing nanocoatings for protection against steel corrosion 303

Alicja Stankiewicz
14.2 Corrosion and nanocoatings: ways of protection 304
14.3 Compendium of nanocoatings 306
14.4 Advanced nanocoatings: introduction of self-healing properties 314
14.5 Implementation of nanocoatings 319
References 325
Contents ix
15 Nanocoatings for protection against steel corrosion 337

A. Pruna
15.2 Nanofillers for anticorrosion coatings 338
15.3 Metallic nanofillers 341
15.4 Metal oxide nanofillers 341
15.5 Polymeric nanofillers 344
15.6 Carbon-based nanofillers 346
15.7 Conclusions and future perspectives 353
Acknowledgments 353
References 353
16 Fire retardant nanocoating for wood protection 361

L.N. Vakhitova
16.2 Requirements for fire safety of wooden building structures 362
16.3 Types of fire retardant treatment of wooden structures 364
16.4 Nanotechnologies for fire protection of wood 366
16.5 Mechanisms of fire-protective action of nanocompounds 375
16.6 Increasing of the durability and biological stability of wood 380
16.7 Perspectives and recommendations 382
References 383
Part Three Applications for building energy efficiency 393
17 Aerogel-enhanced insulation for building applications 395

U. Berardi
17.2 Aerogel synthesis and market 396
17.3 Aerogel properties 400
17.4 Aerogel-enhanced opaque systems 402
References 413
Further reading 416
18 Nano aerogel windows and glazing units for buildings’ energy

efficiency 417
Muhammad Abdul Mujeebu
18.2 Advanced glazing technologies 418
18.3 Aerogel and its properties 422
18.4 Aerogel manufacturing 423
18.5 Aerogel windows and glazing units 425
18.6 Conclusion 436
References 436
x Contents
19 Smart perovskite-based technologies for building integration:

a cross-disciplinary approach 441
Alessandro Cannavale and Francesco Martellotta
19.2 Perovskite-based photovoltaics (PVs) 442
19.3 The evolution of multifunctional chromogenics 450
19.4 Perovskite-based photovoltachromics (PVCDs) 453
19.5 Forthcoming perspectives for multifunctional windows 458
References 460
20 Electrochromic glazing for energy efficient buildings 467

Claes Goran Granqvist
20.2 On the energy saving potential and other assets 470
20.3 Operating principles and materials 474
20.4 Flexible electrochromic foils: a case study 480
20.5 Towards superior electrochromic glazing: some recent results 483
20.6 Conclusions and perspectives 488
References 489
21 VO2-based thermochromic materials and applications: flexible

foils and coated glass for energy building efficiency 503
Xun Cao, Ping Jin and Hongjie Luo
21.2 VO2 nanoparticles and thermochromic flexible foils 504
21.3 VO2 thin films and coated glass with multilayer design and
multifunctional structures 510
21.5 Sources of further information and advice 518
Acknowledgments 519
References 519
Part Four Photocatalytic applications 525
22 Photocatalytic performance of mortars with nanoparticles

exposed to the urban environment 527
Maria Vittoria Diamanti and MariaPia Pedeferri
22.1 Introduction: historical hints 527
22.2 The most common photocatalyst: titanium dioxide 529
22.3 Other photocatalysts in cement-based materials 530
22.4 Photocatalytic mortars and concretes 532
22.5 Existing standards on photocatalytic materials 546
References 548
Contents xi
23 Multifunctional photocatalytic coatings for construction materials 557

Marisol Faraldos and Ana Bahamonde
23.2 Composition of photocatalytic coatings 561
23.3 Coatings: application procedures and characteristics 566
23.4 Techniques for physico-chemical characterization 573
23.5 Photocatalytic performance 575
23.6 Challenges and future perspectives 583
References 584
24 Self-cleaning efficiency of nanoparticles applied on facade bricks 591

Magdalena Janus and Kamila Zając
24.2 Degradation of building facades by natural and artificial agents 592
24.3 Self-cleaning facades 595
References 614
25 Nanotreatments to inhibit microalgal fouling on building stone

surfaces 619
Giovanni Battista Goffredo, Stefano Accoroni and Cecilia Totti
25.2 Biodegradation of building surfaces: nanomaterials to inhibit
microbial colonization 621
25.3 Nanostructured titanium dioxide to limit algal contamination 624
25.4 Effectiveness of TiO2-based nanoproducts to inhibit algal growth 631
25.5 Outlook and future research pathways 637
Acknowledgments 638
References 638
26 Self-cleaning cool paints 649

Hideki Takebayashi
26.2 Self-cleaning coating system 650
26.3 Field measurements 651
26.4 Cooling load calculation 659
26.5 Field observation of cooling energy savings 665
26.6 Summary 672
Acknowledgments 673
References 673
27 Photocatalytic water treatment 675

Lev Matoh, Bostjan Zener, Romana Cerc Korosec and

Urska Lavrencic Stangar
27.2 Advanced oxidation processes and semiconductor photocatalysis 676
xii Contents
27.3 Immobilization and characterization of titanium dioxide thin

films 682
27.4 Degradation of model contaminants 691
27.5 Conclusion and further perspectives 697
References 698
Part Five Toxicity, safety handling and environmental

impacts 703
28 Toxicity of nanoparticles 705

Cristina Buzea and Ivan Pacheco
28.2 The “nano” scale 705
28.3 Nanoparticle physicochemical characteristicedependent toxicity 706
28.4 Nanoparticle sizeedependent toxicity 710
28.5 Nanoparticle aggregation and shape dependent toxicity 715
28.6 Nanoparticle compositionedependent toxicity 717
28.7 Inhalation of nanoparticles 720
28.8 Nanoparticle biodistribution and persistence 734
28.9 Ingestion of nanoparticles 740
28.10 Outline of nanoparticle toxicity 742
28.11 Concluding remarks 745
References 745
29 Risk management: controlling occupational exposure to

nanoparticles in construction 755
F. Silva, P. Arezes and P. Swuste
29.1 Background 755
29.2 Risk management 756
29.3 Occupational risk assessment 759
29.4 Risk control 768
29.5 Construction processes and nanomaterials 775
29.6 Final remarks 777
References 778
30 Measurement techniques of exposure to nanomaterials in workplaces 785

Riccardo Ferrante, Fabio Boccuni, Francesca Tombolini and
Sergio Iavicoli
30.2 Measurement strategy 786
30.3 Devices and measurement techniques in the workplaces 792
References 807
Contents xiii
31 Life-cycle assessment of engineered nanomaterials 815

Stefano Cucurachi and Carlos Felipe Blanco Rocha
31.2 Potential release of and exposure to engineered nanomaterials
during different life cycle stages 817
31.3 Life cycle assessment standard practice and specificities
of the application to ENMs 822
31.4 State of the art and limitations of LCA studies applied
to engineered nanomaterials 825
31.5 Recent developments to fill gaps, and potential for integrating
life cycle assessment and risk assessment 833
References 839
Index 847
List of contributors
Stefano Accoroni Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell’Ambiente, Universita

Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
Nihad T.K. Al-Saadi Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia
Serji Amirkhanian State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures,
Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China
M.B. Anoop CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, CSIR Campus,
Chennai, India
P. Arezes Ergonomics & Human Factors Group, Centre Algoritmi, University of
Minho, Guimar~aes, Portugal
Ana Bahamonde Institute of Catalysis and PetrochemistrydCSIC, Madrid, Spain
U. Berardi Department of Architectural Science, Faculty of Engineering and
Architectural Science, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada
Fabio Boccuni Italian Workers’ Compensation AuthoritydDepartment of Occupa-
tional and Environmental Medicine, Epidemiology and Hygiene, Rome, Italy
Dragan Bojovic Institute for Materials TestingdIMS, Belgrade, Serbia
Cristina Buzea IIPB Medicine Corporation, Owen Sound, ON, Canada
Alessandro Cannavale Politecnico di Bari, Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Ingegneria
Civile e dell’ Architettura (DICAR), Bari, Italy
P. Carballosa Institute for Construction Sciences Eduardo Torroja, CSIC, Madrid,
Spain
Xun Cao State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine
Microstructure, Shanghai institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shanghai, China
J.L. García Calvo Institute for Construction Sciences Eduardo Torroja, CSIC,
Madrid, Spain
Ant
onio Augusto Veloso de Costa University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
xvi List of contributors
Stefano Cucurachi Leiden University, Faculty of Science, Institute of Environmen-

tal Sciences (CML), Leiden, The Netherlands
Qingli Dai Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Techno-
logical University, Houghton, Michigan, United States
Maria Vittoria Diamanti Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materi-
als and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, Milan, Italy
Yining Ding Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
E. Erkizia Tecnalia, Sustainable Construction Division, Derio, Spain
Marisol Faraldos Institute of Catalysis and PetrochemistrydCSIC, Madrid, Spain
Riccardo Ferrante Italian Workers’ Compensation AuthoritydDepartment of
Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Epidemiology and Hygiene, Rome, Italy
J.J. Gaitero Tecnalia, Sustainable Construction Division, Derio, Spain
Giovanni Battista Goffredo DICEA - Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile Edile e
Architettura, Universita Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
Claes Goran Granqvist Uppsala University, Sweden
A. Guerrero Institute for Construction Sciences Eduardo Torroja, CSIC, Madrid,
Spain
Shuaicheng Guo Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan
Technological University, Houghton, Michigan, United States
Baoguo Han School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian,
China
Zhibo Han Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
Sergio Iavicoli Italian Workers’ Compensation AuthoritydDepartment of Occupa-
tional and Environmental Medicine, Epidemiology and Hygiene, Rome, Italy
Zaid Ayaz Janjua Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham-
shire, United Kingdom
Ksenija Jankovic Institute for Materials TestingdIMS, Belgrade, Serbia
Magdalena Janus Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, West Pomeranian
University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
Ping Jin State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Micro-
structure, Shanghai institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai,
China
Romana Cerc Korosec Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University
of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
List of contributors xvii
Yuanyuan Li State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan

University of Technology, Wuhan, China
Genjin Liu Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
Hongjie Luo State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine
Microstructure, Shanghai institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Shanghai, China
Francesco Martellotta Politecnico di Bari, Dipartimento di Scienze dell’Ingegneria
Civile e dell’ Architettura (DICAR), Bari, Italy
Lev Matoh Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of
Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Alyaa Mohammed Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia
Muhammad Abdul Mujeebu Department of Building Engineering, College of
Architecture and Planning, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam,
Saudi Arabia
Ali Nazari Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia
Jinping Ou School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian,
China; School of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
F. Pacheco-Torgal C-TAC Research Centre, University of Minho, Guimar~aes,
Portugal; University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
Ivan Pacheco IIPB Medicine Corporation, Owen Sound, ON, Canada; Department
of Pathology, Grey Bruce Health Services, Owen Sound, ON, Canada; Department of
Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Sch€ ulich School of Medicine & Dentistry,
Western University, London, Ontario, ON, Canada
MariaPia Pedeferri Politecnico di Milano, Department of Chemistry, Materials and
Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, Milan, Italy
G. Pérez Institute for Construction Sciences Eduardo Torroja, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
A. Pruna Center for Surface Science and Nanotechnology, Polytechnic University
of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Akm Samsur Rahman Mechanical Engineering Technology, New York City
College of Technology, Brooklyn, NY, United States
Carlos Felipe Blanco Rocha Leiden University, Faculty of Science, Institute of
Environmental Sciences (CML), Leiden, The Netherlands
Jay G. Sanjayan Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia
xviii List of contributors
Saptarshi Sasmal CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, CSIR Campus,

Chennai, India
F. Silva Technological Centre for Ceramic and Glass, Coimbra, Portugal; Ergonom-
ics & Human Factors Group, Centre Algoritmi, University of Minho, Guimar~aes,
Portugal

Urska Lavrencic Stangar Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology,
University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Alicja Stankiewicz School of Engineering and the Built Environment, Edinburgh
Napier University, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Marko Stojanovic Institute for Materials TestingdIMS, Belgrade, Serbia
P. Swuste Safety Science Group, Delft University of Technology, Delft,
The Netherlands
Hideki Takebayashi Department of Architecture, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
Francesca Tombolini Italian Workers’ Compensation AuthoritydDepartment of
Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Epidemiology and Hygiene, Rome, Italy
Cecilia Totti Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell’Ambiente, Universita
Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
L.N. Vakhitova L. M. Litvinenko Institute of Physical-Organic Chemistry and Coal
Chemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine
Zigeng Wang College of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Beijing University of
Technology, Beijing, China
Shaopeng Wu State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan
University of Technology, Wuhan, China
Xu Yang Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria,
Australia
Lingyun You Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Tech-
nological University, Houghton, Michigan, United States
Zhanping You Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan
Technological University, Houghton, Michigan, United States
Q.L. Yu Department of the Built Environment, Eindhoven University of Technol-
ogy, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Kamila Zając Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, West Pomeranian
University of Technology, Szczecin, Poland
List of contributors xix
Shaban Ali Zangena Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Civil and Environ-
mental Engineering, Near East University, Turkey

Bostjan Zener Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of
Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Qiaofeng Zheng School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology,
Dalian, China
Introduction to nanotechnology
in eco-efficient construction 1
F. Pacheco-Torgal
C-TAC Research Centre, University of Minho, Guimar~aes, Portugal
1.1 Recent nanotechnology advancements and

limitations
In the past decades, nanotechnology which is not considered a sector by itself but a
highly dispersed multidisciplinary area has been on a rise not only in terms of papers
and patents but also in terms of applications. A review on paper and patent production
for the period 2000e16 shows that United States is the dominant player both in pub-
lications in top journals and also in patents although China has shown a relevant
growth (Zhu et al., 2017). A recent survey has tracked the patent production in the
field of nanotechnology (Ozcan and Islam, 2017), using the patent provider Thomson
Innovation. The study shows that there are around 50,000 patent inventions, of which
around 30,000 are owned by corporations, around 14,000 by inventors, around
11,000 by academia, and almost 2,000 by government. The shared patents explain
the difference in the total. Of course, as Fig. 1 in the paper of Ozcan and Islam
(2017) shows, different countries show different proportion of owners in the patent
production. Inventors are the majority of the owners in United States. With regard
to corporates, the United States and Japan have similar levels of patent ownership.
France, for instance, has a higher proportion of government ownership, while in
China its academia has the largest proportion. Of course it is important to take into
account the method used for patent retrieval because the authors point out that there
are some patents on the nanotechnology class that are not related to this field. Sabatier
and Chollet (2017) using bibliometric data and a survey of French nanotechnology
scientists showed that promoting ground-breaking, innovative research provides an
important advantage for future scientific production. However, it is important not
to overemphasize the importance of patents because van Raan (2017) showed that
only a small amount of patents represent important, “radical,” technological break-
throughs. Also in an important essay, Archibugi (2017) mentioned that intellectual
property rights may delay the diffusion of knowledge and that disruption by itself
does not necessarily lead to progress or to greater economic efficiency, and if it is
not properly managed it can lead not only to company losses, but to societal damages
as well. In fact, Shapira and Youtie (2015) mentioned that many nanotech sales fore-
casts were adjusted downwards because some of the promised scale benefits are un-
likely to be realized. On one hand complex nanomaterials may not be very
environmental friendly and life cycle assessment (LCA) may require further
Nanotechnology in Eco-efficient Construction. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102641-0.00001-3

Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Nanotechnology in Eco-efficient Construction
investigations. Up to this date the recyclability of nanomaterials is not being

adequately tackled, as well as their environmental impacts in the end-of-life stage
(Pacheco-Blandino et al., 2012). On the other hand the toxicity of various nanomate-
rials for human health and for the environment is still under debate (Kim et al., 2016).
Safety management of nanoparticles and nanomaterials is also a critical issue
(Spitzmiller et al., 2013). Still the potentially revolutionary technologies may have
limited impact upon macroeconomic performance, if they do not give rise to a new
wave in terms of capital accumulation and public investment in infrastructure (Lund-
vall (2017). According to this author, countries and organizations promoting “expe-
rience based” knowledge and combining it with science-based knowledge are more
innovative than those that only give attention to codified knowledge. He also states
that learning from experience may feed wisdom and that learning societies where
men and women are expected to contribute to the production and use of knowledge
are to be preferred to societies where only small intellectual elites produce knowl-
edge. An interesting case in this regard is that of Russia, a country that shows a
declining share of nano papers in spite of an increase in research funding (Terekhov,
2017) and a rigid academic structure that does not allow newcomers nor does engage
in collaborations with the private sector (Karaulova et al., 2017). Also important in
the field of nanotechnology is the performance of Asian countries that Ludvall
(2017) deems crucial for the world economic growth. China being the new world sci-
entific powerhouse (Tollefson, 2018) also identified nanotechnology as a priority area
in its national agenda of science and technology development (2006e20), and has
increased R&D investment in the field. In fact, China has consequently emerged as
one of the key global players in nanotechnology, producing the second largest number
of nanotechnology papers after United States (Wang and Guan, 2010). China has
made significant advances and currently has the fastest growing nanotechnology pub-
lications. However it still lags behind in publication in leading nanotechnology jour-
nals. An analysis of papers published in nano-related journals with an impact factor
above 20 shows that USA published 1068 papers, Germany (221), UK (193), France
(149), Japan (121), and China only produced 76 papers (Dong et al., 2016). Of course,
this may change in the coming future because China’s one-thousand-talents plan
(www.1000plan.org) to attract its overseas researchers has already recruited more
than 2000 researchers, most of them trained in the USA (Gao et al., 2016). Still in
China, the pathways from laboratory research to successful commercialization remain
problematic. The Chinese nanotech industry is relatively weak in commercializing
basic research and in its production of nanotechnology devices (Shapira and Wang,
2009; Zhang et al., 2017). As to India, the other Asian giant, although and according
to the World Bank is now growing more than China and will be fifth largest world
economy in 2018, the fact is that concerning nanotechnology India is still lagging
behind several other countries (Momaya and Lalwani, 2017). It is a relevant fact
that these authors are aware of the fact that technological innovations can have nega-
tive externalities thus confirming the position of Archibugi (2017) previously
mentioned.
Introduction to nanotechnology in eco-efficient construction 3
1.2 Nanotech-based materials for eco-efficient

construction
Since 2013 when the first edition of this book was published, the number of publica-
tions in the field of nanotech-based eco-efficient construction materials saw a huge
rise. Back then, a search on the Scopus database showed only a few publications.
Now the same search returns several hundred. Of course let us not forget that in prac-
tical terms there are several and confusing definitions of what constitutes a nanomate-
rial and about the requirements to identify nano-enabled products. Some products are
advertised as having nanoenabled features, something that is simply not true, while
others fail to disclose the fact that they have nanoparticles or were obtained by nano-
manipulation (Jones, 2016). Also, in the introduction chapter of the first edition it was
argued that too little nanotech efforts were put in important construction materials like
concrete, the material most consumed by the construction industry. Scopus now shows
that nanotech concreteerelated publications have risen around 500%. Of course, some
publications have exaggerated the promises of nanotechnology in the field of construc-
tion industry, failing to produce evidence that support such claims. Hanus and Harris
(2013) wrote that “Nanotechnology has the potential to reduce the environmental
impact and energy intensity of structures, as well as improve safety and decrease costs
associated with civil infrastructure,” but no reference is given to back this statement.
Also no cost data is given concerning the use of nanoparticles in concrete and in
Section 2.2 the authors wrote that “The cost of CNTs is currently prohibitively high
to allow for the use of CNT/cement composites” thus contradicting their initial claim.
They also mention that the future implementation of advanced structural health moni-
toring systems will increase as the technology matures and associated costs decrease.
However, this is just an expectation, which is very far from the cost decrease of current
infrastructure mentioned in the introduction. Also they confirm that high cost is re-
ported to be a main drawback for the use of carbon nanotubes (CNT) sensors in con-
crete. They also mention that self-cleaning hydrophobic paints are potentially valuable
in the construction industry for the reduction of costs associated with maintaining
building walls and façades, but again no data is given concerning any possible life cy-
cle cost comparison. Instead, the authors prefer to “focus on up-front build costs over
long-term cost, performance, sustainability and safety.” However, instead of blaming
the construction industry because of the so-called “focus on up-front build costs over
long-term cost, performance, sustainability and safety,” it would make more sense to
highlight the fact that so far nanotechnology research has given very little importance
to the factors that are important for the construction industry and that show a gap be-
tween what researchers consider important and what the construction industry needs.
Taalbi (2017) showed that solving real-life problems was a source of innovation for
several industries, meaning that it is not understandable that those engaged in nanotech
for the construction industry have given so little attention to cost, because on the five
criteria that identify the emerging technologies of great impact (Archibugi, 2017) the
first one is precisely “drastic reduction in costs.” The contribution of nanotechnology
for sustainability and the 2030 agenda for sustainable development that are related to
the construction industry are also very important. Infrastructure resilience is the ninth
goal of 2030 United Nations Agenda for Sustainable Development. It is also one of the
14 Grand Challenges of Engineering. Overpopulation will not only require new infra-
structure, but it will put increased pressure on the existent infrastructures. That is why
almost 50% of the chapters of this book concern infrastructure materials including
health monitoringerelated materials. Concrete infrastructure encompasses bridges,
piers, pipelines, dams, pavements, or buildings that are crucial to services and eco-
nomic activities of modern civilization. European design codes now require a service
lifetime of more than 75 years for concrete structures in large public works. But, expe-
rience has shown that infrastructures begin to deteriorate after only 20 or 30 years.
Concrete deteriorates due to several causes including, for instance, mechanical deteri-
oration like impact or excessive loading or deterioration due to physical causes like
erosion or shrinkage, but also due to chemical detrimental reactions when it is exposed
to environmental conditions containing chlorides from seawater or from deicing salts,
atmospheric carbon dioxide, or other aggressive media (Glasser et al., 2008). In United
States alone, costs related to wasted fuel and time loss due to traffic congestion is esti-
mated to be between 50 and 100 billion dollars (Schlangen and Sangadji, 2013). Only
in the city of Hong Kong, more than 580,000 vehicles cross its 900 highway bridges on
a daily basis (Pei et al., 2015). This traffic volume is expected to duplicate in the next
decades and as a consequence by 2035 it is expected that there will be 2000 million
vehicles on the road (Pacheco-Torgal, 2017). This means that concrete highways
bridges will be subject to increased use and will reach the end of its service life sooner
than expected, and repair and rehabilitation costs will increase even further. The acting
decision however is related to the assessment of the infrastructure performance, but
monitoring activities are also costly and not all countries can afford it; in the United
States bridges are inspected every 2 years (Rehman et al., 2016). The lack of regular
inspections worsens the problem and contributes to premature infrastructure deteriora-
tion, thus leading to possible bridge failure with the inevitable loss of human lives.
This shows the importance of the development of materials with self-healing ability.
The development of materials that can provide real-time monitoring is extremely
important in this context. Energy efficiency is also a very important issue under the
2030 United Nations Agenda for Sustainable Development. That is why seven chap-
ters of this book are related to this theme as a way to minimize climate change impacts
(goal 13) because energy production is the main aspect that is responsible for global
greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions. As the source of two-thirds of global GHG emis-
sions, the energy sector is therefore pivotal in determining whether or not climate
change goals are achieved. Photocatalytic water treatment is also covered in this
book because it is a very important issue. For instance, Bhati and Rai (2017) show
a worrying water scarcity scenario in India in the next decades. Also limited freshwater
availability is identified as one of nine planetary boundaries and 4 billion people face
severe water stress during at least 1 month per year, and 1.8 billion at least 6 months
per year (Vanham et al., 2018). And that is why availability and sustainable manage-
ment of water is also a goal of the UN agenda for sustainable development. This
book’s structure gives an added value because other books concerning
nanotechnologies for the construction sector have preferred to focus on technologic

advancements and much less on societal challenges.
1.3 Outline of the Book

This book provides an updated state-of-the-art review on nanotechnologies for eco-
efficient construction materials. Part I encompasses mortars and concrete-related appli-
cations (Chapters 2e7).
Chapter 2 concerns the influence of nanoparticles on the mechanical strength of
ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC). The influence of various supplementary
cementitious materials such as metakaolin and fine ground fly ash and curing regimes
(in water, steam, and autoclave curing) on the properties of UHPC are analyzed. The
influence of the nanosilica as the most frequently applied nanomaterial and the curing
regimes on the strength of UHPC are studied. Nanomaterial dispersion and distribution
have significant influence on the properties of cement-based materials. Techniques for
better homogenization of nanoparticles are listed.
Chapter 3 discusses the effect of nanoparticles on the self-healing capacity of high
performance concrete. Additionally, modifications promoted in certain properties by
self-healing systems not based on nanoparticles in HPC are also given.
Chapter 4 overviews the findings of inclusion of graphene oxide (GO) in the cemen-
titious materials. This chapter describes in one way the improvements in the perfor-
mance of the cementitious composites and in the other way the new properties that
can be shaped.
Chapter 5 deals with applications of nanomaterials in alkali-activated binders. The
advantages and disadvantages of applying nanomaterials are assessed, and the health-
related issues on applying nanomaterials are discussed. The effects of different types of
nanomaterials, including nanosilica, nano-TiO2, nanoclay, and nanocarbon tube on the
performance of alkali-activated materials and their optimal dosage are summarized.
Chapter 6 covers the case of geopolymer composites reinforced with nanofibers.
The effects of reinforcements on fracture toughness of geopolymers are addressed.
A comparative analysis between the nanofibers with low and high interfacial bonding
with geopolymer is presented.
Chapter 7 provides a review of the use of nanoindentation for evaluation of prop-
erties of cement hydration products. The effect of fly ash addition on the mechanical
properties of hydration products is also discussed based on the results of experimental
nanoindentation studies.
Applications for pavements and other infrastructure materials are the subject of Part
II (Chapters 8e17).
Chapter 8 reviews the performance of asphalt mixture with nanoparticles. It in-
cludes the types of nanoparticles, laboratory techniques of preparation of nanoparticles
modified by asphalt mixture; properties like resilient modulus, dynamic creep, rutting
distress, moisture susceptibility, and aging.
Chapter 9 summarizes the current research and findings on performance enhance-

ment of the nanomodification on asphalt mixture. It reviews the main nanomaterials
applied for the modification, and it also addresses the dispersion protocol for these
nanomaterials into the asphalt binder.
Chapter 10 addresses the case of graphene oxide-GOemodified asphalt. The per-
formance of this material is assessed through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
(FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS),
and thermogravimetric (TG) analysis.
Chapter 11 reviews the recent progress of classification, fabrication and signal mea-
surement, sensing mechanism, and application of nanocomposites for structural health
monitoring.
Chapter 12 presents a case study chapter on concrete with nanomaterials and fibers
for self-monitoring of strain and cracking subjected to flexure. The effect of nanocar-
bon black (NCB) and conductive fibers on the workability of fresh concrete is
analyzed, the relationships between the FCR and the strain of initial geometrical
neutral axis (IGNA) are established, and the self-sensing ability to the load-
deflection process and cracking behavior of triphasic conductive concrete beam sub-
jected to bending are investigated.
Chapter 13 is related to icephobic nanocoatings for infrastructure protection. This
review focuses on organic, inorganic, and hybrid nanocoatings, especially from the
past decade, that have shown promise for future infrastructure applications. The chem-
ical components of different coatings along with the application technique, anti/deic-
ing tests and results have been summarized.
Chapter 14 presents a review on nanocoatings for protection against corrosion.
A range of coating materials, including polymers, metals, and ceramics, is described.
The focus is on self-repairing nanocoatings. Various self-healing mechanisms and at-
titudes for achieving self-healing anti-corrosion coatings are examined. Developments
and trends in coating technology are also discussed. The final section emphasizes
particularly on functional nanocoatings in commercial applications.
Taking into account the toxicity of the conventional coatings based on heavy
metals, Chapter 15 covers the protection against corrosion by using nanofiller-based
coatings. Various aspects of nanocoating performance against steel corrosion are
focused in this chapter including the nanofiller type, their incorporation into varying
corrosion coatings, and efficiency towards corrosion protection of steel substrate.
Chapter 16 concerns fire retardant nanocoating for wood protection. The prospects
and multifunctionality of nanocoatings for wood were demonstrated using as example
the influence of layered aluminosilicates, nanooxides, nanosilica sol, and nanostruc-
tured carbon materials on the fire resistance of polymers, as well as on the flame retar-
dant effectiveness of intumescent coatings and impregnations.
Part III encompasses applications for building energy efficiency (Chapters 18e23).
Chapter 17 reviews the current state-of-the-art of the aerogel-enhanced opaque
systems. First cement-based products are reviewed. Then, the chapter describes
aerogel-enhanced renders and plasters, proposed by different companies worldwide
or developed by the author. Later, the focus moves on to aerogel-enhanced blankets.
Finally, future research challenges for making aerogel-enhanced products more com-
mon in buildings are presented.
Chapter 18 presents an overview of advanced glazing technologies, various aspects
of aerogel windows and glazing units including: application in buildings, research
progress, commercial status, case studies, and challenges ahead.
Chapter 19 reports a review of current research trends aiming at the design of multi-
functional architectural glazings. Challenges, opportunities, and technological evolu-
tions are reported, with special reference to highly performing materials, like
perovskites.
Chapter 20 introduces the basics of electrochromic technology with a view towards
its nanotechnology aspects, presents a case study on electrochromic foil for glass lami-
nation, and ventures into some forward-looking aspects. Special consideration is given
to the energy savings and other assets that are possible with electrochromic glazing.
Chapter 21 addresses the case of VO2-based thermochromic materials (flexible foils
and coated glass) for energy building efficiency. Future issues about the direction of
these materials are discussed.
Part IV is concerned with photocatalytic applications (Chapters 24e29).
Chapter 22 provides a short overview of these mechanisms, focusing then on con-
struction materials modified through the addition of titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Ex-
amples will be given of laboratory experiments carried out in the recent years, and of
current applications in the built environment; attention will also be paid to the Interna-
tional standards that have been, and are still being, developed for this technology.
Chapter 23 addresses the formulation of new photocatalysts with wider range of ra-
diation harvesting by doping with metals or nonmetals, composites, or mixtures to in-
crease interaction with substrate, and promoting pollutant adsorption has been
discussed. Different techniques for coating application; main characterization method-
ologies to determine properties of substrate, photocatalyst, and coated thin film; and
demonstration of photodegradation activity are examined.
Chapter 24 presents an overview about the self-cleaning efficiency of nanoparticles
applied on façade bricks. It covers the degradation of building façade s by natural and
artificial agents. It also includes a short description of superhydrophobic additives.
Photocatalytic and superhydrophilic additives are also discussed. The methods for
façade preparation, the determination of self-cleaning properties, and the assessment
of durability are also covered.
Chapter 25 covers nanotreatments to inhibit microalgal fouling on building stone
surfaces. Ananalysis of the biocidal ability of photocatalytic TiO2-based nanocom-
pounds (in combination with Ag and Cu nanoparticles) sprayed on travertine surfaces
to limit or inhibit algal colonization (using accelerated test in laboratory conditions) is
presented.
Chapter 26 describes the features of self-cleaning coating system. The chapter in-
cludes case studies concerning cooling load reduction for sites in Japan, Malaysia,
and Thailand.
Chapter 27 addresses the case of photocatalytic water treatment. Oxidation pro-
cesses and photocatalysis are reviewed. Synthesis and characterization of titanium
dioxide thin films are addressesd. The chapter also covers the degradation of different
contaminants.
Finally, Part V concerns toxicity, safety handling, and environmental impacts
(Chapter 31; Chapters 28e31).
Chapter 28 reviews nanoparticle toxicity and their adverse health effects. The
following aspects are covered: nanoparticle size, shape and aggregation, and compo-
sition. Inhalation and ingestion of nanoparticles are addressed.
Chapter 29 is concerned with managing risks related to the use of nanomaterials in
the construction industry, including management of emission and exposure scenarios.
Chapter 30 covers measurement techniques of exposure to nanomaterials in work-
places. Definitions as well as techniques and parameters for exposure measurements
are reviewed. Devices and measurement techniques for workplaces are analyzed.
Chapter 31 closes Part V with a chapter on the life cycle of engineered
nanoparticles.
In this chapter, we analyze potential releases across the life cycle of engineered
nanomaterials (ENMs), and then focus on the application of the methodology of
LCA to quantify the environmental impacts of ENMs throughout their life cycle.
We use a review of available studies to highlight the benefits of applying LCA to
ENMs, and describe data and methodological gaps that still require increased research
efforts.
References
Archibugi, D., 2017. Blade runner economics: will innovation lead the economic recovery?
Research Policy 46 (3), 535e543.
Bhati, M., Rai, R., 2017. Nanotechnology and water purification: Indian know-how and chal-
lenges. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 24 (30), 23423e23435.
Dong, H., Gao, Y., Sinko, P., Wu, Z., Xu, J., Jia, L., 2016. The nanotechnology race between
China and the United States. Nano Today 11, 7e12.
Glasser, F., Marchand, J., Samson, E., 2008. Durability of concrete. Degradation phenomena
involving detrimental chemical reactions. Cement and Concrete Research 38, 226e246.
Hanus, M.J., Harris, A.T., 2013. Nanotechnology innovations for the construction industry.
Progress in Materials Science 58 (7), 1056e1102.
Jones, W., Gibb, A.G., Goodier, C.I., Bust, P.D., Song, M., Jin, J., 2016. Nanomaterials in
construction-what is being used, and where? ICE-Construction Materials In Press.
Karaulova, M., Shackleton, O., Liu, W., Goek, A., Shapira, P., 2017. Institutional change and
innovation system transformation: a tale of two academies. Technological Forecasting and
Social Change 116, 196e207.
Kim, J., Rivera, J., Meng, T., Laratte, B., Chen, S., 2016. Review of life cycle assessment of
nanomaterials in photovoltaics. Solar Energy 133, 249e258.
Lundvall, B.Å., 2017. Is there a technological fix for the current global stagnation?: A response
to Daniele Archibugi, Blade Runner economics: will innovation lead the economic re-
covery? Research Policy 46 (3), 544e549.
Momaya, K., Lalwani, L., 2017. Systems of technological innovation: a review of research
activities taking the case of nanotechnology and India. Technology Analysis and Strategic
Management 29 (6), 626e641.
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their own strength; that women are strong by sentiment; that the
same mental height which their husbands attain by toil, they attain by
sympathy with their husbands. Man is the will, and Woman the
sentiment. In this ship of humanity, Will is the rudder, and Sentiment
the sail: when Woman affects to steer, the rudder is only a masked
sail. When women engage in any art or trade, it is usually as a
resource, not as a primary object. The life of the affections is primary
to them, so that there is usually no employment or career which they
will not with their own applause and that of society quit for a suitable
marriage. And they give entirely to their affections, set their whole
fortune on the die, lose themselves eagerly in the glory of their
husbands and children. Man stands astonished at a magnanimity he
cannot pretend to. Mrs. Lucy Hutchinson, one of the heroines of the
English Commonwealth, who wrote the life of her husband, the
Governor of Nottingham, says, “If he esteemed her at a higher rate
than she in herself could have deserved, he was the author of that
virtue he doted on, while she only reflected his own glories upon him.
All that she was, was him, while he was hers, and all that she is now,
at best, but his pale shade.” As for Plato’s opinion, it is true that, up
to recent times, in no art or science, nor in painting, poetry or music,
have they produced a masterpiece. Till the new education and larger
opportunities of very modern times, this position, with the fewest
possible exceptions, has always been true. Sappho, to be sure, in
the Olympic Games, gained the crown over Pindar. But, in general,
no mastery in either of the fine arts—which should, one would say,
be the arts of women—has yet been obtained by them, equal to the
mastery of men in the same. The part they play in education, in the
care of the young and the tuition of older children, is their organic
office in the world. So much sympathy as they have makes them
inestimable as the mediators between those who have knowledge
and those who want it: besides, their fine organization, their taste
and love of details, makes the knowledge they give better in their
hands.
But there is an art which is better than painting, poetry, music, or
architecture,—better than botany, geology, or any science; namely,
Conversation. Wise, cultivated, genial conversation is the last flower
of civilization and the best result which life has to offer us,—a cup for
gods, which has no repentance. Conversation is our account of
ourselves. All we have, all we can, all we know, is brought into play,
and as the reproduction, in finer form, of all our havings.
Women are, by this and their social influence, the civilizers of
mankind. What is civilization? I answer, the power of good women. It
was Burns’s remark when he first came to Edinburgh that between
the men of rustic life and the polite world he observed little
difference; that in the former, though unpolished by fashion and
unenlightened by science, he had found much observation and much
intelligence; but a refined and accomplished woman was a being
almost new to him, and of which he had formed a very inadequate
idea. “I like women,” said a clear-headed man of the world; “they are
so finished.” They finish society, manners, language. Form and
ceremony are their realm. They embellish trifles. All these
ceremonies that hedge our life around are not to be despised, and
when we have become habituated to them, cannot be dispensed
with. No woman can despise them with impunity. Their genius
delights in ceremonies, in forms, in decorating life with manners, with
properties, order and grace. They are, in their nature, more relative;
the circumstance must always be fit; out of place they lose half their
weight, out of place they are disfranchised. Position, Wren said, is
essential to the perfecting of beauty;—a fine building is lost in a dark
lane; a statue should stand in the air; much more true is it of woman.
We commonly say that easy circumstances seem somehow
necessary to the finish of the female character: but then it is to be
remembered that they create these with all their might. They are
always making that civilization which they require; that state of art, of
decoration, that ornamental life in which they best appear.
The spiritual force of man is as much shown in taste, in his fancy
and imagination,—attaching deep meanings to things and to
arbitrary inventions of no real value,—as in his perception of truth.
He is as much raised above the beast by this creative faculty as by
any other. The horse and ox use no delays; they run to the river
when thirsty, to the corn when hungry, and say no thanks, but fight
down whatever opposes their appetite. But man invents and adorns
all he does with delays and degrees, paints it all over with forms, to
please himself better; he invented majesty and the etiquette of courts
and drawing-rooms; architecture, curtains, dress, all luxuries and
adornments, and the elegance of privacy, to increase the joys of
society. He invented marriage; and surrounded by religion, by
comeliness, by all manner of dignities and renunciations, the union
of the sexes.
And how should we better measure the gulf between the best
intercourse of men in old Athens, in London, or in our American
capitals,—between this and the hedgehog existence of diggers of
worms, and the eaters of clay and offal,—than by signalizing just this
department of taste or comeliness? Herein woman is the prime
genius and ordainer. There is no grace that is taught by the dancing-
master, no style adopted into the etiquette of courts, but was first the
whim and the mere action of some brilliant woman, who charmed
beholders by this new expression, and made it remembered and
copied. And I think they should magnify their ritual of manners.[202]
Society, conversation, decorum, flowers, dances, colors, forms, are
their homes and attendants. They should be found in fit surroundings
—with fair approaches, with agreeable architecture, and with all
advantages which the means of man collect:
“The far-fetched diamond finds its home

Flashing and smouldering in her hair.
For her the seas their pearls reveal,
Art and strange lands her pomp supply
With purple, chrome and cochineal,
Ochre and lapis lazuli.
The worm its golden woof presents.
Whatever runs, flies, dives or delves
All doff for her their ornaments,
Which suit her better than themselves.”[203]
There is no gift of Nature without some drawback. So, to women,

this exquisite structure could not exist without its own penalty. More
vulnerable, more infirm, more mortal than men, they could not be
such excellent artists in this element of fancy if they did not lend and
give themselves to it. They are poets who believe their own poetry.
They emit from their pores a colored atmosphere, one would say,
wave upon wave of rosy light, in which they walk evermore, and see
all objects through this warm-tinted mist that envelops them.
But the starry crown of woman is in the power of her affection and
sentiment, and the infinite enlargements to which they lead. Beautiful
is the passion of love, painter and adorner of youth and early life: but
who suspects, in its blushes and tremors, what tragedies, heroisms
and immortalities are beyond it? The passion, with all its grace and
poetry, is profane to that which follows it. All these affections are only
introductory to that which is beyond, and to that which is sublime.
We men have no right to say it, but the omnipotence of Eve is in
humility. The instincts of mankind have drawn the Virgin Mother—
“Created beings all in lowliness

Surpassing, as in height above them all.”[204]
This is the Divine Person whom Dante and Milton saw in vision.
This is the victory of Griselda, her supreme humility. And it is when
love has reached this height that all our pretty rhetoric begins to
have meaning. When we see that, it adds to the soul a new soul, it is
honey in the mouth, music in the ear and balsam in the heart.
“Far have I clambered in my mind,

But nought so great as Love I find.
What is thy tent, where dost thou dwell?
‘My mansion is humility,
Heaven’s vastest capability.’
The further it doth downward tend,
The higher up it doth ascend.”[205]
The first thing men think of, when they love, is to exhibit their
usefulness and advantages to the object of their affection. Women
make light of these, asking only love. They wish it to be an exchange
of nobleness.
There is much in their nature, much in their social position which
gives them a certain power of divination. And women know, at first
sight, the characters of those with whom they converse. There is
much that tends to give them a religious height which men do not
attain. Their sequestration from affairs and from the injury to the
moral sense which affairs often inflict, aids this. And in every
remarkable religious development in the world, women have taken a
leading part. It is very curious that in the East, where Woman
occupies, nationally, a lower sphere, where the laws resist the
education and emancipation of women,—in the Mohammedan faith,
Woman yet occupies the same leading position, as a prophetess,
that she has among the ancient Greeks, or among the Hebrews, or
among the Saxons. This power, this religious character, is
everywhere to be remarked in them.[206]
The action of society is progressive. In barbarous society the
position of women is always low—in the Eastern nations lower than
in the West. “When a daughter is born,” says the Shiking, the old
Sacred Book of China, “she sleeps on the ground, she is clothed
with a wrapper, she plays with a tile; she is incapable of evil or of
good.” And something like that position, in all low society, is the
position of woman; because, as before remarked, she is herself its
civilizer. With the advancements of society, the position and
influence of woman bring her strength or her faults into light. In
modern times, three or four conspicuous instrumentalities may be
marked. After the deification of Woman in the Catholic Church, in the
sixteenth or seventeenth century,—when her religious nature gave
her, of course, new importance,—the Quakers have the honor of
having first established, in their discipline, the equality in the sexes. It
is even more perfect in the later sect of the Shakers, where no
business is broached or counselled without the intervention of one
elder and one elderess.
A second epoch for Woman was in France,—entirely civil; the
change of sentiment from a rude to a polite character, in the age of
Louis XIV.,—commonly dated from the building of the Hôtel de
Rambouillet.[207] I think another important step was made by the
doctrine of Swedenborg, a sublime genius who gave a scientific
exposition of the part played severally by man and woman in the
world, and showed the difference of sex to run through nature and
through thought. Of all Christian sects this is at this moment the most
vital and aggressive.
Another step was the effect of the action of the age in the
antagonism to Slavery. It was easy to enlist Woman in this; it was
impossible not to enlist her. But that Cause turned out to be a great
scholar. He was a terrible metaphysician. He was a jurist, a poet, a
divine. Was never a University of Oxford or Göttingen that made
such students. It took a man from the plough and made him acute,
eloquent, and wise, to the silencing of the doctors. There was
nothing it did not pry into, no right it did not explore, no wrong it did
not expose. And it has, among its other effects, given Woman a
feeling of public duty and an added self-respect.
One truth leads in another by the hand; one right is an accession
of strength to take more. And the times are marked by the new
attitude of Woman; urging, by argument and by association, her
rights of all kinds,—in short, to one half of the world;—as the right to
education, to avenues of employment, to equal rights of property, to
equal rights in marriage, to the exercise of the professions and of
suffrage.
Of course, this conspicuousness had its inconveniences. But it is
cheap wit that has been spent on this subject; from Aristophanes, in
whose comedies I confess my dulness to find good joke, to Rabelais,
in whom it is monstrous exaggeration of temperament, and not borne
out by anything in nature,—down to English Comedy, and, in our
day, to Tennyson,[208] and the American newspapers. In all, the body
of the joke is one, namely, to charge women with temperament; to
describe them as victims of temperament; and is identical with
Mahomet’s opinion that women have not a sufficient moral or
intellectual force to control the perturbations of their physical
structure. These were all drawings of morbid anatomy, and such
satire as might be written on the tenants of a hospital or on an
asylum for idiots. Of course it would be easy for women to retaliate in
kind, by painting men from the dogs and gorillas that have worn our
shape. That they have not, is an eulogy on their taste and self-
respect. The good easy world took the joke which it liked. There is
always the want of thought; there is always credulity. There are
plenty of people who believe women to be incapable of anything but
to cook, incapable of interest in affairs. There are plenty of people
who believe that the world is governed by men of dark complexions,
that affairs are only directed by such, and do not see the use of
contemplative men, or how ignoble would be the world that wanted
them. And so without the affection of women.
But for the general charge: no doubt it is well founded. They are
victims of the finer temperament. They have tears, and gayeties, and
faintings, and glooms and devotion to trifles. Nature’s end, of
maternity for twenty years, was of so supreme importance that it was
to be secured at all events, even to the sacrifice of the highest
beauty. They are more personal. Men taunt them that, whatever they
do, say, read or write, they are thinking of themselves and their set.
Men are not to the same degree temperamented, for there are
multitudes of men who live to objects quite out of them, as to politics,
to trade, to letters or an art, unhindered by any influence of
constitution.
The answer that lies, silent or spoken, in the minds of well-
meaning persons, to the new claims, is this: that though their
mathematical justice is not to be denied, yet the best women do not
wish these things; they are asked for by people who intellectually
seek them, but who have not the support or sympathy of the truest
women; and that, if the laws and customs were modified in the
manner proposed, it would embarrass and pain gentle and lovely
persons with duties which they would find irksome and distasteful.
Very likely. Providence is always surprising us with new and unlikely
instruments. But perhaps it is because these people have been
deprived of education, fine companions, opportunities, such as they
wished,—because they feel the same rudeness and disadvantage
which offends you,—that they have been stung to say, ‘It is too late
for us to be polished and fashioned into beauty, but, at least, we will
see that the whole race of women shall not suffer as we have
suffered.’
They have an unquestionable right to their own property. And if a
woman demand votes, offices and political equality with men, as
among the Shakers an Elder and Elderess are of equal power,—and
among the Quakers,—it must not be refused. It is very cheap wit that
finds it so droll that a woman should vote. Educate and refine society
to the highest point,—bring together a cultivated society of both
sexes, in a drawing-room, and consult and decide by voices on a
question of taste or on a question of right, and is there any absurdity
or any practical difficulty in obtaining their authentic opinions? If not,
then there need be none in a hundred companies, if you educate
them and accustom them to judge. And, for the effect of it, I can say,
for one, that all my points would sooner be carried in the State if
women voted. On the questions that are important,—whether the
government shall be in one person, or whether representative, or
whether democratic; whether men shall be holden in bondage, or
shall be roasted alive and eaten, as in Typee, or shall be hunted with
bloodhounds, as in this country; whether men shall be hanged for
stealing, or hanged at all; whether the unlimited sale of cheap liquors
shall be allowed;—they would give, I suppose, as intelligent a vote
as the voters of Boston or New York.
We may ask, to be sure,—Why need you vote? If new power is
here, of a character which solves old tough questions, which puts me
and all the rest in the wrong, tries and condemns our religion,
customs, laws, and opens new careers to our young receptive men
and women, you can well leave voting to the old dead people. Those
whom you teach, and those whom you half teach, will fast enough
make themselves considered and strong with their new insight, and
votes will follow from all the dull.
The objection to their voting is the same as is urged, in the lobbies
of legislatures, against clergymen who take an active part in politics;
—that if they are good clergymen they are unacquainted with the
expediencies of politics, and if they become good politicians they are
worse clergymen. So of women, that they cannot enter this arena
without being contaminated and unsexed.
Here are two or three objections: first, a want of practical wisdom;
second, a too purely ideal view; and, third, danger of contamination.
For their want of intimate knowledge of affairs, I do not think this
ought to disqualify them from voting at any town-meeting which I
ever attended. I could heartily wish the objection were sound. But if
any man will take the trouble to see how our people vote,—how
many gentlemen are willing to take on themselves the trouble of
thinking and determining for you, and, standing at the door of the
polls, give every innocent citizen his ticket as he comes in, informing
him that this is the vote of his party; and how the innocent citizen,
without further demur, goes and drops it in the ballot-box,—I cannot
but think he will agree that most women might vote as wisely.
For the other point, of their not knowing the world, and aiming at
abstract right without allowance for circumstances,—that is not a
disqualification, but a qualification. Human society is made up of
partialities. Each citizen has an interest and a view of his own, which,
if followed out to the extreme, would leave no room for any other
citizen. One man is timid and another rash; one would change
nothing, and the other is pleased with nothing; one wishes schools,
another armies, one gunboats, another public gardens. Bring all
these biases together and something is done in favor of them all.
Every one is a half vote, but the next elector behind him brings the
other or corresponding half in his hand: a reasonable result is had.
Now there is no lack, I am sure, of the expediency, or of the interests
of trade or of imperative class interests being neglected. There is no
lack of votes representing the physical wants; and if in your city the
uneducated emigrant vote numbers thousands, representing a brutal
ignorance and mere animal wants, it is to be corrected by an
educated and religious vote, representing the wants and desires of
honest and refined persons. If the wants, the passions, the vices, are
allowed a full vote through the hands of a half-brutal intemperate
population, I think it but fair that the virtues, the aspirations should be
allowed a full vote, as an offset, through the purest part of the
people.
As for the unsexing and contamination,—that only accuses our
existing politics, shows how barbarous we are,—that our policies are
so crooked, made up of things not to be spoken, to be understood
only by wink and nudge; this man to be coaxed, that man to be
bought, and that other to be duped. It is easy to see that there is
contamination enough, but it rots the men now, and fills the air with
stench. Come out of that: it is like a dance-cellar. The fairest names
in this country in literature, in law, have gone into Congress and
come out dishonored. And when I read the list of men of intellect, of
refined pursuits, giants in law, or eminent scholars, or of social
distinction, leading men of wealth and enterprise in the commercial
community, and see what they have voted for and suffered to be
voted for, I think no community was ever so politely and elegantly
betrayed.
I do not think it yet appears that women wish this equal share in
public affairs. But it is they and not we that are to determine it. Let
the laws be purged of every barbarous remainder, every barbarous
impediment to women. Let the public donations for education be
equally shared by them, let them enter a school as freely as a
church, let them have and hold and give their property as men do
theirs;—and in a few years it will easily appear whether they wish a
voice in making the laws that are to govern them. If you do refuse
them a vote, you will also refuse to tax them,—according to our
Teutonic principle, No representation, no tax.
All events of history are to be regarded as growths and offshoots
of the expanding mind of the race, and this appearance of new
opinions, their currency and force in many minds, is itself the
wonderful fact. For whatever is popular is important, shows the
spontaneous sense of the hour. The aspiration of this century will be
the code of the next. It holds of high and distant causes, of the same
influences that make the sun and moon. When new opinions appear,
they will be entertained and respected, by every fair mind, according
to their reasonableness, and not according to their convenience, or
their fitness to shock our customs. But let us deal with them greatly;
let them make their way by the upper road, and not by the way of
manufacturing public opinion, which lapses continually into
expediency, and makes charlatans. All that is spontaneous is
irresistible, and forever it is individual force that interests. I need not
repeat to you—your own solitude will suggest it—that a masculine
woman is not strong, but a lady is. The loneliest thought, the purest
prayer, is rushing to be the history of a thousand years.
Let us have the true woman, the adorner, the hospitable, the
religious heart, and no lawyer need be called in to write stipulations,
the cunning clauses of provision, the strong investitures;—for woman
moulds the lawgiver and writes the law. But I ought to say, I think it
impossible to separate the interests and education of the sexes.
Improve and refine the men, and you do the same by the women,
whether you will or no. Every woman being the wife or the daughter
of a man,—wife, daughter, sister, mother, of a man, she can never
be very far from his ear, never not of his counsel, if she has really
something to urge that is good in itself and agreeable to nature.
Slavery it is that makes slavery; freedom, freedom. The slavery of
women happened when the men were slaves of kings. The
melioration of manners brought their melioration of course. It could
not be otherwise, and hence the new desire of better laws. For there
are always a certain number of passionately loving fathers, brothers,
husbands and sons who put their might into the endeavor to make a
daughter, a wife, or a mother happy in the way that suits best.
Woman should find in man her guardian. Silently she looks for that,
and when she finds that he is not, as she instantly does, she betakes
her to her own defences, and does the best she can. But when he is
her guardian, fulfilled with all nobleness, knows and accepts his
duties as her brother, all goes well for both.
The new movement is only a tide shared by the spirits of man and
woman; and you may proceed in the faith that whatever the woman’s
heart is prompted to desire, the man’s mind is simultaneously
prompted to accomplish.[209]
XXI
ADDRESS
TO THE INHABITANTS OF CONCORD AT THE

CONSECRATION OF SLEEPY HOLLOW
SEPTEMBER 29, 1855
SLEEPY HOLLOW
“No abbey’s gloom, nor dark cathedral stoops,

No winding torches paint the midnight air;
Here the green pines delight, the aspen droops
Along the modest pathways, and those fair
Pale asters of the season spread their plumes
Around this field, fit garden for our tombs.
And shalt thou pause to hear some funeral-bell

Slow stealing o’er the heart in this calm place,
Not with a throb of pain, a feverish knell,
But in its kind and supplicating grace,
It says, Go, pilgrim, on thy march, be more
Friend to the friendless than thou wast before;
Learn from the loved one’s rest serenity;

To-morrow that soft bell for thee shall sound,
And thou repose beneath the whispering tree,
One tribute more to this submissive ground;—
Prison thy soul from malice, bar out pride,
Nor these pale flowers nor this still field deride:
Rather to those ascents of being turn

Where a ne’er-setting sun illumes the year
Eternal, and the incessant watch-fires burn
Of unspent holiness and goodness clear,—
Forget man’s littleness, deserve the best,
God’s mercy in thy thought and life contest.”
William Ellery Channing.
ADDRESS
TO THE INHABITANTS OF CONCORD AT THE CONSECRATION OF SLEEPY
HOLLOW SEPTEMBER 29, 1855
Citizens and friends: The committee to whom was confided the

charge of carrying out the wishes of the town in opening the
cemetery, having proceeded so far as to enclose the ground, and cut
the necessary roads, and having laid off as many lots as are likely to
be wanted at present, have thought it fit to call the inhabitants
together, to show you the ground, now that the new avenues make
its advantages appear; and to put it at your disposition.
They have thought that the taking possession of this field ought to
be marked by a public meeting and religious rites: and they have
requested me to say a few words which the serious and tender
occasion inspires.
And this concourse of friendly company assures me that they have
rightly interpreted your wishes. [Here followed, in the address, about
three pages of matter which Mr. Emerson used later in his essay on
Immortality, which may be found in the volume Letters and Social
Aims, beginning on page 324, “The credence of men,” etc., and
ending on pages 326-27 with the sentence, “Meantime the true
disciples saw, through the letters, the doctrine of eternity which
dissolved the poor corpse and nature also, and gave grandeur to the
passing hour.”]
In these times we see the defects of our old theology; its inferiority
to our habit of thoughts. Men go up and down; Science is
popularized; the irresistible democracy—shall I call it?—of chemistry,
of vegetation, which recomposes for new life every decomposing
particle,—the race never dying, the individual never spared,—have
impressed on the mind of the age the futility of these old arts of
preserving. We give our earth to earth. We will not jealously guard a
few atoms under immense marbles, selfishly and impossibly
sequestering it from the vast circulations of Nature, but, at the same
time, fully admitting the divine hope and love which belong to our
nature, wishing to make one spot tender to our children, who shall
come hither in the next century to read the dates of these lives.
Our people accepting this lesson from science, yet touched by the
tenderness which Christianity breathes, have found a mean in the
consecration of gardens. A simultaneous movement has, in a
hundred cities and towns in this country, selected some convenient
piece of undulating ground with pleasant woods and waters; every
family chooses its own clump of trees; and we lay the corpse in
these leafy colonnades.
A grove of trees,—what benefit or ornament is so fair and great?
they make the landscape; they keep the earth habitable; their roots
run down, like cattle, to the water-courses; their heads expand to
feed the atmosphere. The life of a tree is a hundred and a thousand
years; its decays ornamental; its repairs self-made: they grow when
we sleep, they grew when we were unborn. Man is a moth among
these longevities. He plants for the next millennium. Shadows haunt
them; all that ever lived about them cling to them. You can almost
see behind these pines the Indian with bow and arrow lurking yet
exploring the traces of the old trail.
Modern taste has shown that there is no ornament, no architecture
alone, so sumptuous as well disposed woods and waters, where art
has been employed only to remove superfluities, and bring out the
natural advantages. In cultivated grounds one sees the picturesque
and opulent effect of the familiar shrubs, barberry, lilac, privet and
thorns, when they are disposed in masses, and in large spaces.
What work of man will compare with the plantation of a park? It
dignifies life. It is a seat for friendship, counsel, taste and religion. I
do not wonder that they are the chosen badge and point of pride of
European nobility. But how much more are they needed by us,
anxious, overdriven Americans, to stanch and appease that fury of
temperament which our climate bestows!
This tract fortunately lies adjoining to the Agricultural Society’s
ground, to the New Burial Ground, to the Court House and the Town
House, making together a large block of public ground, permanent
property of the town and county,—all the ornaments of either adding
so much value to all.
I suppose all of us will readily admit the value of parks and
cultivated grounds to the pleasure and education of the people, but I
have heard it said here that we would gladly spend for a park for the
living, but not for a cemetery; a garden for the living, a home of
thought and friendship. Certainly the living need it more than the
dead; indeed, to speak precisely, it is given to the dead for the
reaction of benefit on the living. But if the direct regard to the living
be thought expedient, that is also in your power. This ground is
happily so divided by Nature as to admit of this relation between the
Past and the Present. In the valley where we stand will be the
Monuments. On the other side of the ridge, towards the town, a
portion of the land is in full view of the cheer of the village and is out
of sight of the Monuments; it admits of being reserved for secular
purposes; for games,—not such as the Greeks honored the dead
with, but for games of education; the distribution of school prizes; the
meeting of teachers; patriotic eloquence, the utterance of the
principles of national liberty to private, social, literary or religious
fraternities. Here we may establish that most agreeable of all
museums, and agreeable to the temper of our times,—an
Arboretum,—wherein may be planted, by the taste of every citizen,
one tree, with its name recorded in a book; every tree that is native
to Massachusetts, or will grow in it; so that every child may be shown
growing, side by side, the eleven oaks of Massachusetts; and the
twenty willows; the beech, which we have allowed to die out of the
eastern counties; and here the vast firs of California and Oregon.
This spot for twenty years has borne the name of Sleepy Hollow.
Its seclusion from the village in its immediate neighborhood had
made it to all the inhabitants an easy retreat on a Sabbath day, or a
summer twilight, and it was inevitably chosen by them when the
design of a new cemetery was broached, if it did not suggest the
design, as the fit place for their final repose. In all the multitudes of
woodlands and hillsides, which within a few years have been laid out
with a similar design, I have not known one so fitly named. Sleepy
Hollow. In this quiet valley, as in the palm of Nature’s hand, we shall
sleep well when we have finished our day. What is the Earth itself
but a surface scooped into nooks and caves of slumber—according
to the Eastern fable, a bridge full of holes, into one or other of which
all the passengers sink to silence? Nay, when I think of the mystery
of life, its round of illusions, our ignorance of its beginning or its end,
the speed of the changes of that glittering dream we call existence,
—I think sometimes that the vault of the sky arching there upward,
under which our busy being is whirled, is only a Sleepy Hollow, with
path of Suns, instead of foot-paths; and Milky Ways, for truck-roads.
The ground has the peaceful character that belongs to this town;—
no lofty crags, no glittering cataracts;—but I hold that every part of
Nature is handsome when not deformed by bad Art. Bleak sea-rocks
and sea-downs and blasted heaths have their own beauty; and
though we make much ado in our praises of Italy or Andes, Nature
makes not so much difference. The morning, the moonlight, the
spring day, are magical painters, and can glorify a meadow or a rock.
But we must look forward also, and make ourselves a thousand
years old; and when these acorns, that are falling at our feet, are
oaks overshadowing our children in a remote century, this mute
green bank will be full of history: the good, the wise and great will
have left their names and virtues on the trees; heroes, poets,
beauties, sanctities, benefactors, will have made the air timeable and
articulate.
And hither shall repair, to this modest spot of God’s earth, every
sweet and friendly influence; the beautiful night and beautiful day will
come in turn to sit upon the grass. Our use will not displace the old
tenants. The well-beloved birds will not sing one song the less, the
high-holding woodpecker, the meadow-lark, the oriole, robin, purple
finch, bluebird, thrush and red-eyed warbler, the heron, the bittern
will find out the hospitality and protection from the gun of this asylum,
and will seek the waters of the meadow; and in the grass, and by the
pond, the locust, the cricket and the hyla, shall shrilly play.
We shall bring hither the body of the dead, but how shall we catch
the escaped soul? Here will burn for us, as the oath of God, the
sublime belief. I have heard that death takes us away from ill things,
not from good. I have heard that when we pronounce the name of
man, we pronounce the belief of immortality. All great natures delight
in stability; all great men find eternity affirmed in the promise of their
faculties. Why is the fable of the Wandering Jew agreeable to men,
but because they want more time and land to execute their thoughts
in? Life is not long enough for art, nor long enough for friendship.
The evidence from intellect is as valid as the evidence from love.
The being that can share a thought and feeling so sublime as
confidence in truth is no mushroom. Our dissatisfaction with any
other solution is the blazing evidence of immortality.
XXII
ROBERT BURNS
SPEECH DELIVERED AT THE CELEBRATION OF

THE BURNS CENTENARY, BOSTON JANUARY
25, 1859
“His was the music to whose tone

The common pulse of man keeps time
In cot or castle’s mirth or moan,
In cold or sunny clime.
Praise to the bard! his words are driven,

Like flower-seeds by the far winds sown,
Where’er, beneath the sky of heaven,
The birds of fame have flown.”
Halleck.
ROBERT BURNS
MR. PRESIDENT, and Gentlemen: I do not know by what
untoward accident it has chanced, and I forbear to inquire, that, in
this accomplished circle, it should fall to me, the worst Scotsman of
all, to receive your commands, and at the latest hour too, to respond
to the sentiment just offered, and which indeed makes the occasion.
But I am told there is no appeal, and I must trust to the inspirations of
the theme to make a fitness which does not otherwise exist. Yet, Sir,
I heartily feel the singular claims of the occasion. At the first
announcement, from I know not whence, that the 25th of January
was the hundredth anniversary of the birth of Robert Burns, a
sudden consent warmed the great English race, in all its kingdoms,
colonies and states, all over the world, to keep the festival. We are
here to hold our parliament with love and poesy, as men were wont
to do in the Middle Ages. Those famous parliaments might or might
not have had more stateliness and better singers than we,—though
that is yet to be known,—but they could not have better reason. I can
only explain this singular unanimity in a race which rarely acts
together, but rather after their watch-word, Each for himself,—by the
fact that Robert Burns, the poet of the middle class, represents in the
mind of men to-day that great uprising of the middle class against
the armed and privileged minorities, that uprising which worked
politically in the American and French Revolutions, and which, not in
governments so much as in education and social order, has changed
the face of the world.
In order for this destiny, his birth, breeding and fortunes were low.
His organic sentiment was absolute independence, and resting as it
should on a life of labor. No man existed who could look down on
him. They that looked into his eyes saw that they might look down
the sky as easily.[210] His muse and teaching was common sense,
joyful, aggressive, irresistible. Not Latimer, nor Luther struck more
telling blows against false theology than did this brave singer. The
Confession of Augsburg, the Declaration of Independence, the
French Rights of Man, and the Marseillaise, are not more weighty
documents in the history of freedom than the songs of Burns. His
satire has lost none of its edge. His musical arrows yet sing through
the air. He is so substantially a reformer that I find his grand plain
sense in close chain with the greatest masters,—Rabelais,
Shakspeare in comedy, Cervantes, Butler, and Burns. If I should add
another name, I find it only in a living countryman of Burns.[211]
He is an exceptional genius. The people who care nothing for
literature and poetry care for Burns. It was indifferent—they thought
who saw him—whether he wrote verse or not: he could have done
anything else as well. Yet how true a poet is he! And the poet, too, of
poor men, of gray hodden and the guernsey coat and the blouse. He
has given voice to all the experiences of common life; he has
endeared the farmhouse and cottage, patches and poverty, beans
and barley; ale, the poor man’s wine; hardship; the fear of debt; the
dear society of weans and wife, of brothers and sisters, proud of
each other, knowing so few and finding amends for want and
obscurity in books and thoughts.[212] What a love of Nature, and,
shall I say it? of middle-class Nature. Not like Goethe, in the stars, or
like Byron, in the ocean, or Moore, in the luxurious East, but in the
homely landscape which the poor see around them,—bleak leagues
of pasture and stubble, ice and sleet and rain and snow-choked
brooks; birds, hares, field-mice, thistles and heather, which he daily
knew. How many “Bonny Doons” and “John Anderson my jo’s” and
“Auld lang synes” all around the earth have his verses been applied
to! And his love-songs still woo and melt the youths and maids; the
farm-work, the country holiday, the fishing-cobble are still his debtors
to-day.
And as he was thus the poet of the poor, anxious, cheerful,
working humanity, so had he the language of low life. He grew up in
a rural district, speaking a patois unintelligible to all but natives, and
he has made the Lowland Scotch a Doric dialect of fame. It is the
only example in history of a language made classic by the genius of
a single man. But more than this. He had that secret of genius to
draw from the bottom of society the strength of its speech, and
astonish the ears of the polite with these artless words, better than
art, and filtered of all offence through his beauty. It seemed odious to
Luther that the devil should have all the best tunes; he would bring
them into the churches; and Burns knew how to take from fairs and
gypsies, blacksmiths and drovers, the speech of the market and
street, and clothe it with melody. But I am detaining you too long.
The memory of Burns,—I am afraid heaven and earth have taken too
good care of it to leave us anything to say. The west winds are
murmuring it. Open the windows behind you, and hearken for the
incoming tide, what the waves say of it. The doves perching always
on the eaves of the Stone Chapel opposite, may know something
about it. Every name in broad Scotland keeps his fame bright. The

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Nanotechnology in eco-efficient

construction: materials, processes and

Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

For information on all Woodhead publications visit our

Publisher: Matthew Deans

1 Introduction to nanotechnology in eco-efﬁcient construction 1

Part One Mortars and concrete related applications 11

2 Inﬂuence of nanoparticles on the strength of ultra-high performance

3 The effect of nanoparticles on the self-healing capacity of high

4 The impact of graphene oxide on cementitious composites 69

5 Application of nanomaterials in alkali-activated materials 97

6 Effects of nanoﬁbers on properties of geopolymer composites 123

7 Nanoindentation for evaluation of properties of cement hydration

Part Two Applications for pavements and other

8 Performance of asphalt mixture with nanoparticles 165

9 Nanomodiﬁed asphalt mixture with enhanced performance 187

10 Effects of graphene oxide on asphalt binders 203

11 NanoComposites for structural health monitoring 227

11.3 Fabrication and signal measurement of nanocomposites 232

12 Concrete with nanomaterials and ﬁbers for self-monitoring of strain

13 Icephobic nanocoatings for infrastructure protection 281

14 Self-healing nanocoatings for protection against steel corrosion 303

15 Nanocoatings for protection against steel corrosion 337

16 Fire retardant nanocoating for wood protection 361

Part Three Applications for building energy efﬁciency 393

17 Aerogel-enhanced insulation for building applications 395

18 Nano aerogel windows and glazing units for buildings’ energy

19 Smart perovskite-based technologies for building integration:

20 Electrochromic glazing for energy efﬁcient buildings 467

21 VO2-based thermochromic materials and applications: ﬂexible

Part Four Photocatalytic applications 525

22 Photocatalytic performance of mortars with nanoparticles

23 Multifunctional photocatalytic coatings for construction materials 557

24 Self-cleaning efﬁciency of nanoparticles applied on facade bricks 591

25 Nanotreatments to inhibit microalgal fouling on building stone

26 Self-cleaning cool paints 649

27 Photocatalytic water treatment 675

27.3 Immobilization and characterization of titanium dioxide thin

Part Five Toxicity, safety handling and environmental

28 Toxicity of nanoparticles 705

29 Risk management: controlling occupational exposure to

30 Measurement techniques of exposure to nanomaterials in workplaces 785

31 Life-cycle assessment of engineered nanomaterials 815

Stefano Accoroni Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell’Ambiente, Universita

Stefano Cucurachi Leiden University, Faculty of Science, Institute of Environmen-

Yuanyuan Li State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan

Saptarshi Sasmal CSIR-Structural Engineering Research Centre, CSIR Campus,

1.1 Recent nanotechnology advancements and

Nanotechnology in Eco-efﬁcient Construction. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102641-0.00001-3

investigations. Up to this date the recyclability of nanomaterials is not being

1.2 Nanotech-based materials for eco-efﬁcient

nanotechnologies for the construction sector have preferred to focus on technologic

1.3 Outline of the Book

Chapter 9 summarizes the current research and ﬁndings on performance enhance-

“The far-fetched diamond finds its home

There is no gift of Nature without some drawback. So, to women,

“Created beings all in lowliness

“Far have I clambered in my mind,

TO THE INHABITANTS OF CONCORD AT THE

“No abbey’s gloom, nor dark cathedral stoops,

And shalt thou pause to hear some funeral-bell

Learn from the loved one’s rest serenity;