POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL (15EE81)

MODULE – 1: Introduction:
Electricity is a converted form of energy and is used extensively in industrial, commercial, residential
agricultural and transportation sectors. It can be generated and transmitted in bulk, economically,
over long distances. AC systems have become the most popular system for use, over DC, for the
following reasons:
1. AC generators are simpler than DC generators.
2. Transformation of voltage levels is simple, providing great flexibility of different voltage levels at
generation, transmission and distribution.
3. AC motors, widely used, are simpler and more economical than DC motors.

In modern power systems, the grids are interconnected and vary widely in size and structure.
However, they comprise three phase systems, at both generation and transmission. Synchronous
generators are used for generation. The prime movers act to convert mechanical energy into electric
energy. Thermal plants use coal as the primary fuel and hydel plants use water to run the turbine.
The generated power is transmitted over a wide geographical area, at voltage levels higher than the
generated voltage. At the consumer end, the voltage is stepped down and distributed to various
consumers. Consumers of different types need voltages of different levels.

The transmission system interconnects all major generating stations. Normally, the generated
voltage is 11 kV or 22 kV. The transmission voltages are 220 kV and above. The voltage level is
stepped down at the distribution substations and transferred to the industrial consumers at voltages
between 4kV and 35 kV. The secondary distribution feeders supply to the residential and commercial
consumers at 230 V. Thus, the network is really large, consisting of a number of generating stations,
several transmission interconnections and the distribution network.

Operating States of Power System:

Fig.1 Operating states of a power system

The system operation is governed by equality and inequality constraints. The equality
constraints are nothing but the power balance between generation and load. The inequality
constraints set the limits on different operating parameters, such as voltage, generation limits,
currents, etc.
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 For purposes of analysing power system security and designing appropriate control
systems, it is helpful to conceptually classify the system-operating conditions into five states:
1. Normal operating state: In this state, the equality constraints (E) and inequality
constraints (I) are both satisfied. The generation is adequate to meet the demand, without any
equipment being overloaded. The system operates in a secure manner and is stable to withstand a
contingency without violating any of the constraints.
2. Alert state: In this state also, the equality and inequality constraints are satisfied.
However, the reserve margins are reduced. Therefore, there is a possibility that some inequality
constraints may be violated in the event of disturbances that places the system in an emergency
state. If the disturbance is very severe, the in extremis (or extreme emergency) state may result
directly from the alert state. Preventive action, such as generation shifting (security dispatch) or
increased reserve, can be taken to restore the system from the alert state to the normal state.
3. Emergency state: Due to severe disturbances, the system may enter an emergency
state. This could be because of imbalance between generation and loads, either at the system level
or at the local level. This could also be because of instability due to energy built-up in the system
after a fault. Some strong control measures, such as direct or indirect load shedding, generation
shedding, shunt capacitor or reactor switching, network splitting, fault clearing, excitation control,
fast-valving, called emergency control measures are to be taken. If these measures are not taken
on time, the system stability may be under threat and the system may eventually break down and
go to the In Extremis state.
4. In Extremis state: In this state, both the equality and the inequality constraints are
violated. The violation of the equality constraints implies that the generation and the load demand
do not match. This means that some part of the system load is lost. Emergency measures must be
taken to prevent cascading outages, total grid collapse and widespread blackout.
5. Restorative state: This is a transitional state, where the inequality constraints are satisfied
by the emergency control actions taken, i.e., reconnect all the facilities and to restore system load,
but the system has still not come to normalcy in terms of the equality constraints. We can have a
transition either to the alert state or to the normal state.

Objectives of Control:
The fundamental requirements of a power system irrespective of its size are the following:
1. The system must be able to meet the continually changing load demand for active and reactive
power. Unlike other types of energy, electricity cannot be conveniently stored in sufficient
quantities. Therefore, adequate spinning reserve of active and reactive power should be
maintained to take care of sudden variation in the load demand.
2. The power quality should meet certain standards with regard to frequency, amplitude and wave
shape of generated voltage and level of reliability.
3. The system should supply energy at a minimum cost.

To achieve the above objectives, we have several levels of controls that are integrated in a
complex way. Some of the controls act exclusively on individual components as described below:
1. The generators are provided essentially with excitation control, to keep the voltage and reactive
power at the desired levels, and with prime mover control, to maintain the frequency and real
power at the desired levels.
2. The prime mover control is concerned with regulation of the speed, and the controls are for the
associated parameters such as water discharge quantity, boiler pressure, temperature, flows,
etc.
3. Power system stabilizers are used to damp oscillations of the generator following a disturbance.
A stabilizing signal is injected into the exciter system to damp the oscillations. Some of the
commonly used feedback signals are frequency and real power.
4. The system generation control maintains the required active power balance in the system. The
Automatic Generation Control (AGC) is responsible for maintaining this balance, which in turn
is required to hold the frequency around the nominal value. The AGC also maintains the
scheduled power flows in tie-lines, which are responsible for power transfer between different
control areas.
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 5. The transmission controls include power
and voltage control devices, which help
maintain the voltage levels within limits,
maintain system stability, protect the
system and result in reliable operation of
the system. The control devices are tap
changing transformers, Flexible AC
Transmission (FACTS) controllers,
shunt reactors, shunt capacitors, phase-
shifting transformers and HVDC
controls.
6. Distribution level controls such as
capacitors, wave shaping circuits, etc.,
are used to provide quality power to the
consumer. These devices maintain the
system voltage at the correct frequency
and amplitude, and also help in
removing harmonics injected into the
load or the system. ·

Fig.2 Various controls in a power system

The control objectives need to be defined properly. They are different under normal
conditions and disturbances. Under normal operating conditions, we just need to keep tracking the
load to match with the required generation, to maintain the frequency around the nominal value and
regulate the voltage. However, under a disturbance, we need to take suitable control actions to
prevent catastrophic collapse of the system. The control action depends on the state of the system.

The operation and control of the system should ultimately maintain the following:
1. Stability: Continued intact operation of the system, following a disturbance. This depends on the
operating condition and the nature of the disturbance.
2. Security: It is the degree of risk in the power system's ability to survive contingencies without
interruption to the customer. It is related to the robustness of the system.
3. Reliability: It is the probability of satisfactory operation over a long period. It denotes the ability
of the system to supply adequate service on a nearly continuous basis, with a few intermittent
interruptions over an extended time period.

Key Concepts of Reliable Operation:

The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) has proposed seven key
concepts for reliable operation of the power system. These are:

1. Balance the generation and the load: The load on the power system is dynamic and changing
all the time. The production by the generators must be scheduled to meet this constantly changing
load. The AGCs are used to match the generation with the demand. The demand, though
dynamic, is predictable and a load prediction is done, to keep the appropriate generation and
reserve on hand. Failure to match the generation with the demand will cause frequency deviation
from the nominal value. The frequency increases if the generation exceeds the demand and drops
if the demand exceeds the generation. Large deviations in frequency are detrimental to the life of
the equipment. Over-frequency and under-frequency relays operate when the frequency
deviations cross the preset values.

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2. Balance reactive power generation and demand: This balance is required to maintain the
scheduled voltages. Reactive power sources are generators and capacitor banks. They must be
constantly adjusted to maintain the voltages at all levels, within permissible range, to protect the
equipment. The generator automatic voltage regulators control the voltage level of the generators.
FACTS controllers are commonly used for reactive power control.
3. Ensure thermal limits are not exceeded: The heating limits of the overhead lines must not be
exceeded; otherwise, the lines will sag into the objects given below. There are many critical
blackouts which have resulted due to sagging of lines, leading to short circuits, relay tripping and
ultimately grid collapse.
4. Maintain system stability: The IEEE/CIGRE has defined the stability as follows: Power system
stability is the ability of an electric power system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain
a state of operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system
variables bounded so that practically the entire system remains intact. If a system loses stability,
the grid may face a total collapse. The stability limits will specify the maximum power that can be
transferred over the lines. Angle stability is the ability of the generators connected to the grid to
remain in synchronism. Voltage stability is the ability of the system to maintain steady acceptable
voltages at all buses in the system under normal operating conditions and also after a
disturbance. Both are vital for the health of the system.
5. Meet N – 1 reliability criteria: This means that the system should remain operational and secure
even after the loss of the largest generator in the system. (N is the number of generators, N - 1
indicates loss of one generator). Further after a contingency, the operators must assess the
health of the system in the eventuality of another contingency, and take suitable control actions
to maintain system security, if it were to occur.
6. Plan, design and maintain to operate reliably: The planning, design and maintenance should
be such that the system should be operated reliably and within safe limits at all times. Planning
involves both short-term and long-term planning.
7. Prepare for emergencies: In spite of thorough planning and good design, emergencies such as
weather fluctuations, operator error, software failure, equipment failure, etc., can occur. Operators
must be trained to prepare for such emergencies.

Preventive and Emergency Controls:

Preventive control is meant to keep the system in the normal state or bring it back to the
normal state from the alert state. Automatic controls are provided for frequency and voltage control.
Preventive control measures commonly used are as follows:
1. Rescheduling of active power generated by various units, to match the changing load.
2. Scan-up of generation units and providing adequate spinning reserve.
3. Switching of shunt elements for reactive power control. This will help maintain the voltage within
desired limits.
4. Change of reference points of controllable devices such as FACTs controllers, phase-shifting
transformers, etc.
5. Change in the voltage reference points of generators and voltage control devices.
6. Change of substation configuration, like bus-bar splitting, etc.
Emergency control measures are taken to stop worsening of the situation, prevent
degradation of the system and cascading failure effects and to bring back the system to the alert
state. Under-frequency and under-voltage load shedding schemes are used. Some of the common
emergency control measures are as follows:
1. Tripping of generators.
2. Load shedding.
3. Fast valving or fast water diversion which leads to a fast reduction in generation.
4. Controlled disconnection of interconnected systems to prevent spreading of frequency
problems.
5. Controlled islanding to create local generation-load balance.
6. Blocking of tap changers of transformers.
7. Fast HVDC power transfer control.
8. Application of braking resistors.
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Energy Management Centres:
It can be seen that the control of the modern power system is extremely complex. Modern
energy management centres are embedded a number of functions. They comprise both hardware
and software to monitor and control the system. Monitoring is fully automated. Controlling is a
combination of automated and manual operations. Sophisticated computing machines have
enhanced the system operation and control facilities. A hierarchical structure is used for control. The
functions of energy centre can be divided into three subsystem blocks as follows:
1. The dispatch subsystem: This subsystem would involve the functions of unit commitment,
economic dispatch, automatic generation control and demand forecasting.
2. Data subsystem: This subsystem is essentially for data acquisition and processing. It contains
the units of SCADA, state estimation and all the associated alarms and displays.
3. Security subsystem: This subsystem is basically to oversee the secure operation of the power
system. The functions included are security monitoring, contingency analysis, decision on
control actions based on the state of the system, such as preventive control / emergency control
/ restorative control, etc., and decision on the VAR support to be provided in the system for the
voltage profile to be maintained.

The hierarchical control can be broadly classified into three levels:

Level 1: Load forecasting, unit commitment and trading (longer duration)
Level 2: Economic dispatch, optimal power flow, Interchange evaluation (duration 5 -10 min)
Level 3: Automatic generation control, voltage control, state estimation (time in seconds)

Level 1 functions require statistical data and hence probabilistic methods are used. The
results of level 1 are used in level 2 and level 3 functions. These are mainly deterministic in nature.

Major components of Energy Centres

The four major components of the energy management centres are as follows:
1. SCADA: The SCADA system consists of two subsystems - the supervisory control and the
data acquisition. The supervisory subsystem is responsible for: (a) display at the central location,
the status of circuit breakers and other devices such as tap changers, capacitor switching, generator
voltage regulators; and (b) facilitating remote tripping of breakers, tap changing of transformers, etc.
The dispatcher at the control centre will initiate actions to switch circuit breakers, change taps, etc.
The data acquisition subsystem consists of the Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) to interface the power
system instrumentation with the control devices and interface communication channels (wireless
communication and Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) systems) and control centre.
2. Computers: Modern computers are having immense capabilities in terms of memory and
speed. The structure of energy management centres has changed with advent of fast computing
facilities. Since the applications are crucial, redundancy is built in the hardware. Different schemes
are available for backup. The main functions of the computing facilities at the control centre are as
follows:
• Real-time monitoring and control
• User interface
• Operating studies
• Maintenance and testing
• Simulation studies
3. User interface (with extensive GUI and display facilities): The user interface consists
of consoles, data loggers, display units and screen projections to alert operators. Since there is
extensive interaction with human beings, modern interfaces use techniques of animation and
extensive graphics to make it more user friendly.
4. Application software: This section is to implement the various functions discussed,
namely, Unit Commitment (UC), economic dispatch, state estimation, optimal power flow,
contingency analysis, etc.

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Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
Introduction to SCADA and its Components: Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
is a combination of supervisory control and data acquisition, along with the associated telemetry.
They are used to control equipment which is geographically dispersed. It consists of both hardware
and software. SCADA systems have made substantial progress in the past decade in terms of their
performance, functionality, scalability and utility. SCADA is only for supervisory control and does not
include a full control system. In electric power systems, most supervisory systems are meant to
provide operators with sufficient information and control capabilities to operate the power system in
a safe and secure manner.

 Supervisory Control System: The intention of supervisory control is to control a specific device
to make it perform in accordance with a directed action. Some typical supervisory systems used
in power systems are:
1. SCADA: A SCADA system performs traditional operations of data acquisition and control
functions, including a limited amount of record keeping and data reporting.
2. SCADA / AGC: It is similar to SCADA, except that AGC capabilities are included to calculate
the area control error, monitor system frequency and tie-line interchanges, and perform
economic dispatch.
3. EMS: Energy management systems incorporate all features of SCADA and also includes other
computations, such as load flows, state estimation, contingency analysis, etc. It includes
extensive capabilities of record keeping and data exchange.
4. DMS: Distribution management systems are meant to monitor and control distribution feeder
loads. DMS today includes topology analysis and load flow programs that allow identification of
problems and restoration of services.
5. LMS: Load management system is meant to manage the peak load and is useful for, demand-
side management. It can be a stand-alone program or integrated into EMS or DMS.
6. AMR: Automatic meter reading is incorporated into LM systems.

 Telemetry: Telemetry refers to the technique used in transmitting and receiving information or
data over a medium. Typical data in a power system are the measurements of voltage, power
flows, circuit breaker status, etc. The information is transmitted over a medium, such as cable,
telephone, internet or radio. The information can come from multiple locations.
 Data Acquisition: It refers to the method used to access and control the information or data
from the equipment that is being controlled or monitored. The data are then forwarded via the
telemetry system. The information can be either in an analog or in a digital form. It is the data
obtained from sensors, meters, actuators, control equipment like relays, valves, etc. ,

With the above definitions, we can now define SCADA as a collection of equipment that will
provide an operator at a remote location with enough information to determine the status of a
particular piece of equipment or an entire substation/power system, and cause actions to take place
regarding that equipment or facility without being physically present at the location of the fault.

Components of SCADA System: The major components of a SCADA system are classified as:
1. Field instrumentation --- sensors and actuators generate the analog and digital signals that
are monitored by the remote station.
2. Remote stations --- Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) is a computer with good interfacing for
communication and flexible programmability, Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), which controls
local actuators and monitor sensors with good programmability.
3. Communication network --- RS-232/RS-442/RS-485, dial-up telephone lines or dedicated
landline, microwave, satellite, X.25 packet protocols and radio via trunked/VHF/UHF and Ethernet
4. Central Monitoring Station (CMS) --- the master unit of a SCADA system with a man-
machine interface (MMI) or human-machine interface (HMI) program, mimic diagram of the whole
system or plant displayed on screen for the operator, display of RTUs with present I/O reading,
window for alarms and trending display
5. Software --- Proprietary and open types based on real-time database (RTDB).
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Standard SCADA Configurations:
We have two distinct layers in a SCADA system: the client layer that caters to the MMI and
the data server layer that handles most of the data control activities. The data servers communicate
with the RTUs and are connected to them either directly or via networks or field buses that are
proprietary or non-proprietary. Data servers are connected to each other and to client stations via
LAN. The master station and the RTUs can be connected in a number of different ways. They are:

1. Single Master Station Configurations

a. Single master station and single RTU
b. Single master station and multiple RTUs
c. Single master station with multiple RTUs in multidrop
circuit.

2. Multiple Master Station Configurations

a. Single dual ported RTU, radial circuit
b. Multiple RTUs, multidrop circuit
c. Multiple master stations, multiple single ported RTUs
d. Multiple master stations, multiple dual ported RTUs.

Fig.3 Single Master Station Configurations Fig.4 Multiple Master Station Configurations

3. Combination Systems
These are a combination of master stations and sub-master stations.

Fig.5 Combination systems

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4. Systems with Gateway Connections

With the prolific use of Ethernet, gateway

connections have become popular.

Fig.6 Multiple master stations with substation

gateway connection

5. Networked Systems

Drastic technological advancements in

networking have made such systems
popular. They use WAN/LAN for
networking, through routers. Fig.7 Networked systems with LAN connection via routers

Users of Power Systems SCADA:

The SCADA is useful to a number of people in the power utilities. Some of them are:
1. System operators: SCADA is meant to alert the operator to an event and help to initiate a
control action in a timely manner.
2. Relay operation: To determine the operation of relays for faults. The time-stamping and
sequence of events record helps the operator to analyse the operations and detect any
maloperation if it has occurred.
3. Maintenance department: To determine the maintenance schedule of breakers or relays.
4. Production department: Use centralized data collection relating to unit and plant generation,
station service, fuel use, efficiency, etc., to indicate how the power system has performed.

Thus, all the departments, in general, would be using the data and it is very essential to plan
completely all the requirements, before designing the SCADA system.

Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) for Power System SCADA:

The RTUs used for SCADA in power systems collect data of analog quantities acquired from
transducers, status of equipment and perform analog/digital conversions, check data, perform pre-
processing tasks and send/receive messages from/to master station via interfaces. The parameters
required are active power, reactive power, voltage, frequency, on load tap, status of circuit breakers,
switches and isolators, sequence of events. The protocols commonly used are TN101 and DNP3.

The RTU mainly consists of:

1. Analog input card: This module accepts analog voltage and current inputs for transmission
through the A/D converter to the main processor. Analog input interface up to 32 bipolar or
unipolar inputs is available.
2. Status input card: This is responsible for collection, processing and reporting of various types
of contact inputs for the RTU. The module should be capable of reading a number of discrete
digital inputs. All digital inputs are bipolar and optically isolated.
3. Control input card: RTU control commands are handled by this module. Reliability and security
are of utmost importance in issuing controls. Some functions available are master trip/close
relay, select check - execute functions to provide security, local/remote switch to manually
disable relay coil power and contact wetting during maintenance, etc.
4. Central processing unit: This contains a powerful processor to handle data collection and
delivery to host computers, run local automation algorithms and maintain reliability in a
substation. Serial ports are available for communication to master station, other RTUs and IEDs
such as relays and meters. The RTU firmware resides on the main processor and it has to
support all required system function applications.
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Functions of RTUs:
Some of the functions of RTUs are briefly described below:
1. Time synchronisation: Events occurring in the power system have to be updated and recorded
in the main server in the same chronological order in which they have occurred. This requires that
the time of the clocks of all RTUs of all the substations is same and RTU time is synchronised with
the standard time acquired from their GPS at predefined short periodic intervals. This ensures data
integrity.
2. Select before execute: When a control function such as opening or closing of a circuit
breaker/isolator is to be performed by the operator, the select before execute sequence is
performed. (A select message is first sent from the master station to the RTU to ensure selection of
the correct equipment. The RTU reciprocates with a positive or negative acknowledgment signal for
confirmation by the operator. The master station then sends an execute command to the RTU to
complete the control cycle.)
3. Reports by exception: This function is provided to reduce the number of data transfers to the
master station from the RTU, thereby reducing the load on the communication channel. (A dead
band is defined for each analog signal such as voltage, current, power, etc. The RTU calculates the
difference at every scan cycle and the analog value is transmitted to the MCC only when the
difference is greater than the defined dead band. With respect to digital data such as status of circuit
breakers, isolators, etc., the data are sent whenever there is a change.)

Other important functions of the RTU are:

1. Scanning of data from the field continuously
2. Sending data to FEP (Front End Processor) without interruption
3. Sequencing of event (SOE) recording with time-stamping
4. Display of data to local systems
5. Logging of data
6. Executing control commands
7. Self-diagnostics
8. Configuration of data from host and vice versa
9. Time synchronization with host computer.

Common Communication Channels for SCADA in Power Systems:

SCADA in power systems use different communication channels. These are:
1. Power Line Carrier Communication: The power lines are used to carry the communication.
This channel is common, has a simple technique, is easy to maintain and cheap. It is used for
speech and data transmission. The speed of data transmission is limited and long distance,
point-to-point communication is not easy. Modems are used at the sending as well as at the
receiving end to modulate and demodulate power and data, respectively. In this system, since
the conductor acts as a medium of transmission there is attenuation in the transmitted signal.

2. Microwave Communication: The frequency range is from 1 GHz to 1000 GHz. A choice of 10
GHz would limit the transmission distance to 5 miles. The main advantage is that the data
carrying capacity is high due to the large bandwidth and the data are totally protected from
noise.

3. Fiber-Optic Communication: This is becoming very popular in the power sector because of
the wide bandwidth and high transmission rate over long distances. It produces no emission
outside the cable and is nor affected by external radiation, and hence preferred where security
is an issue. Further, it is totally not affected by (immune to) electromagnetic interferences,
corrosion and noise.

4. Satellite Communication: Satellite communications for SCADA networks form a reliable

alternative to traditional methods. The benefits include broadcast networks (wherein multiple
stations can receive a single message), cost effectiveness when compared to landlines or radio
towers, highly reliable with world-wide coverage and easy to integrate with RTUs.
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Challenges for Implementation of SCADA:

Though they are widely used, there are a number of challenges in applications of SCADA to
power systems. Some are:
1. Ensuring fail safe system functionalities on a 24 x 7 basis.
2. Implementation of innovative techniques to ensure situational awareness for the grid
operator.
3. Ensuring total observability of the system in real time.
4. Ensuring availability of correct data.
5. Integration of EMS functions to predict grid behaviour.

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 GENERATOR CAPABILITY CURVE

The generator operating point limits are stated and visualized in the form of the
generator capability curve. The generator load capability curve and generator operating
capability include active power (MW), reactive power (MVAr), and apparent power
(MVA).

The capability curve is drawn on the PQ axis. Where P is in MW and Q is in MVAr.

Information derived from the Generator Capability Curve:

1. Maximum generation limit.

2. Determine the operating limit of the generator’s steady-state stability.
3. Limitation of the constraints on the various elements of the generator.
4. To improve the active power pricing mechanism by considering the reactive
power component.
5. Determine the settings of the protection system by knowing the safe operating
limits of the generator.
6. Minimum limit in under-excitation conditions.

Generator Characteristics:

 Synchronous generators are rated in terms of the maximum MVA at a specified

voltage and power factor (usually 0.85 or 0.9 lagging).
 The active power output is limited by the prime mover.
 The continuous reactive power output capability is limited by three
considerations: Armature current limit, Field current limit, and End region heating
limit.

A Synchronous machine cannot be operated at all points inside the region bounded by
the circle shown in the below figure without exceeding the machine rating.
Generator Capability Curve

Generator Limitations:

There are 6 principal limitations on the generator operation.

1. Stator winding heating limit.

2. MW limit.

3. Rotor heating limit.

4. Steady-state Stability limit.

5. Stator core end heating limit.

6. VOLTAGE Instability at Leading Power factors.

1. Stator Winding Heating Limit:

The generator stator conductors are operating at their thermal limit. This limit is due to I
square R heating in the stator conductors.

If the generator power factor is altered to a value nearer to UPF, then due to the lower
stator current, the generator stator conductors would be operating well within their
thermal limit.
One of the limitations of generator rating is the maximum current that can be carried by
the armature without exceeding the heating limitations. Therefore, in the P-Q plane the
armature current limit, as shown in Figure, appears as a circle with a center at the origin
and a radius equal to the MVA rating.

Synchronous Machine Capability Curves

 The circle with center at the origin O and radius S= Vt*Ia defines the region
of operation for which armature heating will not exceed a specified limit.

2. MW Limit:

MW output is limited by turbine output and stator conductor heating. The real power
output of the generator is usually limited to a value within the apparent power rating by
the capability of its prime mover. Maximum prime mover capability is generally smaller
than the maximum active power that is limited by the generator stator current.

3. Rotor Heating Limit:

Rotor currents caused heat resulting from I square R losses, the field current imposes a
second limit on the operation of the generator. Due to this limitation rotor conductors are
unable to carry larger currents to the rotor. This limit affects the capability of the
machine in over-excited conditions.

4. Steady-state Stability Limit:

The steady-state stability limit is the maximum power that can be transferred without the
system becoming unstable when the load is increased gradually, under steady-state
conditions.

In the case of a generator operating with a leading power factor, the excitation and
hence flux produced by the rotor is weak. Consequently, the magnetic coupling between
the rotor and stator rotating magnetic fields is also weak. If the generator is loaded
under this condition, a large load angle (rotor angle) is produced.

When this load angle reaches 90°, the generator is producing the maximum amount of
power for the excitation being used and is said to be operating at its steady-state
stability limit.

Generator
Power Angle Curve

Any further increase in load will cause the magnetic fluxes to stretch further and the
load angle to increase further. A point is reached when the rotor is at the 180 Deg
position, where there is no magnetic coupling between the rotor and stator.

When this occurs, the rotor will speed up and the generator, instead of giving a steady
output, will only give surges of power as the rotor N pole passes the stator S pole. This
effect is known as “pole slipping” and the generator is now unstable.
The large surges of power, from a mechanical point of view, puts great strain on the
generator to turbine coupling, the bearings, and foundations. From an electrical point of
view, the surges of power will cause current surges and hence magnetic stresses to all
load-carrying components. These surges of power will also cause the voltages to
fluctuate rapidly and cause lights to flash.

To make sure that the generator will remain stable, it must not be operated with more
leading vars than is shown by the stability limit line.

 The horizontal line XYZ specifies the steady-state stability limit.

5. Stator Core End Heating Limit:

When a generator is operating at unity or lagging power factor, a strong flux is produced
by the rotor. Under this condition, little flux is able to leak out from the ends of the stator
-core and there is no excessive heating at the core ends.

Stator
Core End Region Heating

When the generator is operating at a leading power factor, the flux produced by the
rotor is weaker and more flux is able to leak out from the ends of the stator core. When
this flux leaks out from the ends of the stator core, it passes through the face of each
lamination and causes large eddy currents to flow in these laminations. These eddy
currents can cause excessive heating.

6. Voltage Instability at Leading Power Factors:

Terminal voltage output is limited by the heating of the stator iron core, as distinct from
the core end heating.

CONCLUSION:

Therefore, for a generator operating at its rated speed (frequency) the:

 MW output is limited by turbine output and stator conductor heating.
 Mvar output (lag) is limited by the rotor heating.
 Mvar output (lead) is limited by stator core end heating and also by stability
considerations.
 Terminal voltage output is limited by the heating of the stator iron core.
Transmission Line Constraints
 Thermal limitations
• Excessive temperature may result in expansion
and resultant sag of conductors causing
decreased clearance to ground. Temperature
extremes also reduces mechanical strength of
aluminum.
• Since thermal time constants are large, it is useful
to distinguish between steady state and transient
thermal ratings.
• Function of i) ambient temperature, ii) Wind
conditions, iii)Condition of conductor, iv)
Conductor type and v) ground clearance.
• ACSR (aluminum conductor steel reinforced) Moose
Conductor (520 mm2): For an ambient temperature of
40 degree C, and a maximum conductor temperature of
75 degree C, ampacity is 700 A (approx.). Typically, two
moose conductors form a bundle of 400 kV line so that
the total ampacity is 1400A for such a line.
• For AAAC (all aluminum alloy conductor) of 520 mm2 :
With an ambient temperature of 40 degree C, and a
maximum conductor temperature of 85 degree C,
ampacity is 850 A (approx.) for a 400 kV line.
• Thermal ratings are a strong function of ambient
conditions (wind flows, solar radiation) and absorption
and emmisivity of the conductor material.
• Evaluate the actual ampacity during real time operation
(season to season, day to day or hour to hour).
 Dielectric Limits
• Exceeding dielectric limits (maximum electric field strength)
results in failure of insulation, causing faults.
• Electric fields may be excessive (due to overvoltage) under
low loading conditions on long ac transmission lines
Ferranti Effect) or during abnormal conditions like lightning
strokes.
• Deviation of voltages beyond certain limits can also be
considered to be an unacceptable compromise on the
quality of power being supplied to consumers. Low or high
voltages can also damage electrical equipments.
• Given a nominal voltage rating, a steady state overvoltage
of about 10% is often permissible. Shunt reactors
(inductors) are often connected in shunt on transmission
lines to prevent overvoltages under low loading. If
permanently connected to a line, however, they may
excessively reduce the voltages during heavy load
conditions.
• . Voltages and reactive power demand of transmission
lines are affected by: line parameters, length of line
and power transfer
• Line Parameters: Line parameters are dependent on the
conductor dimensions and relative placement. The
surge impedance of most overhead lines is around 250-
350 ohms whereas it is 30-50 ohms for cables.
• Typical positive sequence inductance and capacitance
parameters for a 400 kV overhead line: L =
1.044mH/km, C = 12 nF/km. For EHV lines , X/R ratio is
large. The resistance per unit length of this line =
0.0296 ohm / km.
• For a 400 kV paper-insulated lead-covered(PILC)
cable, typical positive sequence parameters are: L =
0.78 mH/km, C = 0.95 uF/km.
 Voltage variation in
AC transmission line
Important results for lossless lines such as EHV lines:
• Voltage profile along the line is flat only if R= Zc is connected at
receiving end (SIL). Under this situation, there is no demand of
reactive power from either sending or receiving ends. Loads are
decided by consumers and not by a system operator. As such, this
exact condition is practically never met although it is ideal.
• If voltage at both ends is maintained at 1.0 pu, the voltage tends to
sag as we move towards the midpoint if Ps > SIL. The line absorbs
reactive power. If Ps < SIL, voltage swells and the line generates
reactive power.
• For a line which has one end maintained at 1.0 pu but kept open-
circuited at the other end, overvoltage will be evident at the open
end. All these effects are very prominent for long lines.
• Cables have very high SIL. The current at SIL
usually exceeds the thermal rating of a cable.
Therefore a cable is invariably loaded below its SIL.
Cables, therefore, generate reactive power and
usually voltages can be very high at low loading
levels, especially for long lengths. Besides this,
cables are much costlier than overhead lines and
are more "unforgiving" towards overloads.
Therefore, cables of lengths exceeding 30-40km
are rarely used for ac transmission.
• Due to voltage problems, underwater cable
transmission and bulk transfer over very long
distances is carried out using DC transmission
technology.
 Line Loadability in AC lines
• For preventing over voltages at light loads, it is necessary to have
devices for absorbing reactive power (e.g. shunt reactors) not only at
either end of a long line but even at intermediate points.
• Generators connected at the ends of the line have limited reactive
power absorption capability as defined by their capability curves. If
transmission redundancy exists (i.e., parallel transmission paths
exist), then a very lightly loaded long line may be tripped to avoid
overvoltage. However, this may be detrimental to system security if
some additional line trippings take place due to faults.
• If shunt reactors are permanently connected, they result in large sags
in the voltage under heavy loading conditions. Moreover, reactive
power demanded by long transmission lines under these situations
may be excessive and may lead to system-wide low voltage
conditions.
• Compensation by connecting (lumped) capacitors in series
and shunt effectively reduce the line reactance and
increase the shunt susceptance, thereby decreasing the
surge impedance. Thus the effective SIL of a capacitor
compensated line is higher than an uncompensated line.
This increases the loadability of a long line.
• Since total conductor cross-sectional area for EHV lines is
mainly decided by electric field considerations (corona),
these lines have large thermal capabilities, much in excess
of the SIL. For long EHV lines, one cannot deviate much
from SIL due to voltage constraints. Therefore, the thermal
limit of a long EHV line is not the key limiting factor.
However, thermal limit is the main limiting factor for short
lines (< 100 km) where voltage constraints are not violated
even for large deviations from SIL.
 Summary
• Power transfer capability of a ac line is
restricted by thermal and voltage constraints.
• Short lines are limited by thermal constraints.
• Long lines are limited by voltage constraints.
Stability constraints are also important for
long ac lines.