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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Cement is one of the most used building materials for concrete which plays a

significant role in the modernization that the world is experiencing these days

(Muralidharan et al., 2021). However, one of the most significant issue in the

construction industry is the reduction of environmental impacts, produced mainly

by widespread ordinary Portland cement (PC) use, given its associated large carbon

footprint (Hidalgo et al., 2021). The cement industry tries to use various industrial

and agricultural waste materials as raw materials to partially reduce consumption

of natural limestone as it is part of the content in cement which is used in

construction as prevention of the diminishment of natural resources and preserve

ecological balance (Schmidt et al., 2021). Agricultural wastes are often composed of

straws, fruit-shells, snail shells, maize cob etc. These wastes are readily available in

large quantities, and with the right selection and processing, they may be converted

into infrastructure and construction materials (Roselló et al., 2017).

According to Statista (2021), the Philippines is one of the largest rice

producers in the world, especially in Luzon. Millions of Filipinos depend on rice as a

food source and consider it to be a national food staple, hence, about one-third of

the country’s lands cultivates rice (Mamiit et al., 2021). Aside from destructive

natural phenomenon like typhoons, farmers face problems on pests in crops which

cause troubles that lead them to the usage of chemicals to drive the invasive species

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away. The common pests encountered is the golden apple snail (Pomacea

canaliculata) which is considered as one of the world’s worst invasive alien species

(Seuffert & Martin, 2017).

Golden Kuhol (P. canaliculata)

The golden kuhol (Pomacea canaliculata) is a freshwater snail that is

considered one of the top 100 worst invasive species in the world. It is a well-known

agricultural and quarantine pest that causes significant economic losses. It is

distinguished by rapid growth, high stress tolerance, a high reproduction rate, and

adaptability to a wide range of environments (Zhang et al., 2018).

Pomacea (family: Ampullariidae) is a freshwater snail genus native to South

and Central America, parts of the Caribbean, and the southeastern United States. At

least two species, Pomacea canaliculata (Lamarck) and Pomacea maculata Perry,

have spread intra- and intercontinentally and are now widely established in many

parts of the world. Pomacea canaliculata is native to Argentina and Uruguay,

whereas Pomacea maculata is more widely distributed from Argentina’s La Plata

region to Brazil’s Amazon basin, including Uruguay and Paraguay, as well as

possibly Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru. These two species are commonly referred to as

‘golden apple snails’ (GAS), often without specifying which species, if any, was

involved, or simply assuming it was Pomacea canaliculata (Sebastian et al., 2017).

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Temperature is a primary factor in determining environmental suitability for

Pomacea canaliculata (and related snail species), with temperature influencing all

aspects of Pomacea canaliculata biology, including feeding, growth, sexual activity,

and egg laying. Pomacea canaliculata, on the other hand, appears to be more

resistant to both higher and lower temperatures than congeneric species (Gilioli et

al., 2017). Also, with higher temperature resistance being stronger than lower

temperature resistance (Wang et al., 2017).

According to Gilioli et al. (2017) model, Pomacea canaliculata population

density may vary significantly within potential areas of establishment, and

determining potential snail ‘hot spots’ would be useful to guide management. A

mechanistic, physiologically based model to determine Pomacea canaliculata

population dynamics for ‘at-risk’ regions in eastern Africa (and SSA more broadly)

could be extremely useful in identifying areas at significant risk of crop losses,

guiding management approaches and timings, and identifying potential corridors 25

of spread. Higher resolution modeling would also allow for more accurate crop loss

estimates, with the greatest losses expected in Pomacea canaliculata hotspots that

coincide with important crop growing habitats.

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Rice Straw Ash

According to Article 3 of Republic Act 9003, also known as the Ecological

Solid Waste Management, agricultural waste is defined as waste produced during

the planting, harvesting, trimming, or pruning of plants, as well as wastes or run-off

materials from farms or fields (Palaez, 2019). During rice production, rice straw

(RS) and rice husk (RH) are the most common agricultural wastes (or biomasses)

produced. It is a crucial food crop that generates massive biomass residues

worldwide, as well as a silica-rich C3 crop growing in wetlands. Some studies

evaluate the utilisation of RSA as a supplemental component in cement (Yaro et al.,

2022).

The rice plant is a good supplier of silica when properly burned since it takes

silica from the soil and incorporates it into its structure. With rice irrigation

schemes, rice straw is inexpensively available in large quantities (Oliko et al., 2020).

Rice straw ash is a well-known pozzolanic material used by many researchers and

industries, which contains about 80–90% silica in it, obtained by burning at

controlled temperature or by any thermochemical pretreatment measures such as,

production of active silica from rice husk ash after heat-treating at 700 C in air for 6

hours, resulting with a high specific area; use of NaOH to produce pure silica with

lower sodium content from rice husk ash at different concentrations followed by

HCl acid precipitation (Munshi & Sharma, 2018). Thus, the study of Hidalgo et al.,

(2021), suggested that with proper selection and treatment, this waste can be used

as a PC substitute in the manufacture of suitable building materials.

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Cement

Ultrahigh-performance concrete (UHPC) has been manufactured in large

quantities for numerous civil engineering applications over the past decade. Several

studies have lately been carried out to assess and improve the effectiveness of UHPC

under various circumstances and with varied parameters (Du et al., 2021).

Concrete is the most commonly utilized of all the building materials in the

world due to its unique benefits compared to other materials. Its outstanding

mechanical properties and low cost are the key factors in its popularity. It also has a

potential to be created in a variety of sizes and shapes. Furthermore, it is projected

that 6 billion tonnes of ordinary concrete are produced annually around the world

(Mohamad et al., 2021).

Cement is produced by utilizing an extensive amount of raw materials

treated and reacted at extreme conditions such as high temperatures (Dunuweera &

Rajapakse, 2018). This results to complex chemical and physical reactions which

occur during the conversion of raw materials into the final product (John, 2020).

Human civilizations have long been supported by cement-based materials. With the

increasing advancement of human activities, these materials were modified to

maintain their roles in our lives. Thus, cement’s main role is to serve as a hydraulic

binder, strengthening the bond between damaged particles so that they can be used

in a wide range of applications (Saleh & Rahman, 2018).

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Rheological Properties of Cement

The rheology provides the capacity to estimate and regulate by the

characteristics of new concrete and mortar, effect on hydration kinetics,

performance, and durability of cementitious composites. Consequently, as interest

in self-consolidating concrete (SCC), high-performance concrete (HPC), and

ultrahigh-performance concrete (UHPC) increases, the analysis of rheological

properties of cement systems becomes increasingly pertinent. And since concrete is

a multifactorial substance, determining its rheological characteristics necessitates a

correlation with cement pastes (Skripkiū nas et al., 2018). The rheological evaluation

of cement pastes, mortars, and concretes involves considering the rheological

properties of complex concentrations made up of several components that interact

both chemically as well as physically. Moreover, different test setups and mixture

compositions can affect how the rheological properties of the composites are

determined (Campos & Maciel, 2021). Obtaining proper rheological properties can

affect fiber dispersion and alignment with a visible effect on UHPC performance,

which is essential to take into consideration since ultra-high-performance concrete

(UHPC) is attracting increased interest worldwide due to its superior mechanical

properties and durability (Khayat et al., 2021).

The purpose of this study is to lessen the increasing rate of invasive

species as well as agricultural wastes. It also aims to lessen the environmental

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impact of the production of concrete and improve certain properties of the finished

concrete (Oliko et al., 2020).

Conceptual framework

In the study of Oliko et al. (2020), entitled "Rice Straw and Eggshell Ash as

Partial Replacements of Cement in Concrete," rice straw and eggshell ash generate

concrete with properties identical to those of standard cement. It was discovered

that rice straw ash has a feature that improves the concrete's resistance to acid

solutions, resulting in a concrete that can be utilized in acid-exposed environments.

Furthermore, it was discovered that the rice straw ash had low capillary absorption

of water, which significantly improved the concrete's durability. The findings of this

research can serve as the groundwork for proving the efficacy of combining rice

straw ash with pulverized golden apple snail shells to create a product that may be

used as an alternative to cement.

The study of Nkrumah et al. (2016), entitled "Recycling Blends of Rice Husk

Ash and Snail Shells as Partial Replacement for Portland Cement in Building Block

Production," concluded that building blocks produced using rice husk ash and

calcined snail shells can be used as a partial replacement for cement, as evident in

the compressive strength of the block, which exceeded the minimum required

strength for a standard block, specifically 3.5 N/mm^2. Meanwhile, the optimum

addition of rice husk ash and calcined snail shell as replacements for cement peaks

at 25%. However, it was found out that the compressive strength of the block

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decreases when more proportions of rice husk ash and calcined snail shells are

added to the mixture. Meanwhile, Amin et al. (2022) revealed that, when compared

to palm leaf ash, rice straw ash had a higher percentage of efficiency for

compressive strength in both its early and late stages. The concrete tested in the

study had a maximum compressive strength of 20%, which was considered the

optimum replacement level for both rice straw ash and palm leaf ash. These studies

have proved that snail shells and rice straw ash exhibit the compressive strength

required for producing well-built concrete. Hence, both studies can serve as a

foundation of knowledge in proving that snail shells and rice straw ash are effective

components that can be used as a replacement for cement.

On the other hand, the water absorption values of the samples used in the

study of Alla et al. (2021), entitled "Experimental Investigation of Snail Shell-Based

Cement Mortar: Mechanical Strength, Durability, and Microstructure," decreased to

3.9% with the addition of snail shell powder to the cement mixture. Furthermore, in

the research "Utilization of Rice Straw Ash as Fine Aggregate in Mortar Mixes,"

Sehgal et al. (2021) discovered that the substitution of rice straw ash in mortar

mixes reduced water absorption. However, the continuous increase in the

proportion of rice straw ash increases the water absorption of the mortar. The

results of both researches can help fund the current study with concepts and

highlight the potential of snail shells and rice straw ash as viable alternatives to

cement due to their water absorption capabilities.

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Figure 1
Research Paradigm

The independent variables of the study include the golden kuhol (Pomacea

canaliculata) shell and rice straw ash. While the dependent variables consist of the

properties of a cement specifically the water absorption, compressive strength,

tensile strength, and durability. The cement that will be made using the shell of

golden kuhol (Pomacea caniculata) and ash of rice straws will be tested to prove the

effectiveness of the independent variables in producing a functional, low-cost, and

organic product that could serve as an alternative to cement. The paradigm of the

study is shown in figure 1.

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Statement of the Objectives

Main Objectives:

To produce a replacement of low-cost cement from pulverized golden kuhol

shell and rice straw ash that could help in addressing the problem on the increasing

rate of invasive species and agricultural wastes.

Specific Objectives:

1. To formulate a replacement cement from pulverized golden kuhol and rice straw

ash with different quantities of mixtures and a constant measurement of sand with

each proportion:

a. 2000g sand, 1000g cement, 0% rice straw ash, and 0% snail shell

b. 2000g sand, 900g cement, 20g rice straw ash, and 80g snail shell

c. 2000g sand, 800g cement, 40g rice straw ash, and 160g snail shell

d. 2000g sand, 700g cement, 60g rice straw ash, and 240g snail shell

e. 2000g sand, 500g cement, 100g rice straw ash, and 400g snail shell

2. To evaluate the rheological properties of the replacement cement from pulverized

golden kuhol and rice straw ash in terms of:

a. water absorptions

b. compressive strength

c. tensile strength

d. durability

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Statement of Hypothesis

Pulverized golden kuhol shell and rice straw ash can be an effective

replacement to cement in terms of its rheological properties specifically shear

strength, compressive strength, tensile strength, and durability.

References:

Alla, S. & Asadi, S. (2021). Experimental Investigation of Snail Shell-based Cement

Mortar: Mechanical Strength, Durability and Microstructure. Retrieved from
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Amin, M., Tayeh, B. A., Kandil, M. A., Agwa, I. S., & Abdelmagied, M. F. (2022). Effect of
Rice Straw Ash and Palm Leaf Ash on the Properties of Ultrahighperformance
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308786575_Recycling_Blends_of_Rice_
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Seuffert, M. E., & Martín, P. R. (2017). Thermal limits for the establishment and
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