JOURNAL OF AGROBIOTECHNOLOGY 2021, VOL 12(2):68-87

e-ISSN: 2180-1983
http://dx.doi.org/10.37231/jab.2021.12.2.260
https://journal.unisza.edu.my/agrobiotechnology/index.php/agrobiotechnology/index

Eleusine Indica for Food and Medicine

Zikry Hamizan Md Zakria, Monica Suleimana, Shean Yeaw Nga, Zainab Ngainib, Salahaudin Mailic and
Fatimah Salimd,e,*

a Institutefor Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota
Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
b Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak,

Malaysia
c Department of Agriculture Sabah, Agriculture Research Centre, P.O. Box 3, 89207 Tuaran, Sabah, Malaysia
d Atta-ur-Rahman Institute for Natural Product Discovery (AuRIns), Universiti Teknologi MARA, 42300

Bandar Puncak Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

e Centre of Foundation Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor Branch, Dengkil Campus 42800

Dengkil, Selangor, Malaysia

*Corresponding authors: fatimah2940@uitm.edu.my

Received: 19/05/2021, Accepted: 09/08/2021, Available Online: 06/09/2021

ABSTRACT

Eleusine indica, a perennial herb that belongs to the Poaceae family, is locally known as “rumput sambau”. The
species can be found in the tropical regions and it is the only species of Eleusine in Malaysia. In India, some parts
of the plant such as the roots and the seeds are used as food and can be eaten raw or cooked. The young seedling
is also used as a side dish with rice, while the seeds are sometimes used as a famine food. Although this grass is
not considered as food in Malaysia, the local people utilise it to treat various ailments such as hastening the
placenta delivery after childbirth, pain relieve for vaginal bleeding, asthma, fever, urinary infection,
haemorrhoids, and tonic for flu related symptoms. Due to wide spectrum of traditional usage, a complete review
of E. indica which focusing on food and medicinal perspectives is necessary to organize and evaluate its potential
for further studies and commercial exploitation. The information on the species was collected from scientific
journals, books, and reports searched through available databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Directory
of Open Access Journals, Science Direct, Bioline International, and Reaxys. Contextually, the present review
reveals that apart from the roots, the plant is relatively safe to ingest. It represents a rich source of nutrients and
contains therapeutic phytochemicals such as flavonoids, steroids, essential oils, cardiac glycosides, coumarins,
fatty acids, anthraquinones, anthrones, triterpenes, tannins, and alkaloids. Thus, E. indica can be considered as a
natural reservoir for both food and medicine.

Keywords: Goosegrass, Nutritious food, Bioactive compounds, Ethnomedicinal uses, Pharmacological

effects

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INTRODUCTION

In traditional health systems, medicinal plants have been used since ancient times and continue to be the main
source of health care for most of the world’s population. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that
over 75% of the world’s total population depending on herbal medicines for their primary health care needs
(WHO, 2015). Edible plants with biological compounds that can exert beneficial effects on health are known
as a functional food. This group of plants not only possess nutritional value but also has a positive impact on
an individual’s health. Their biological compounds may serve to regulate a particular body process including
enhancement of biological defense mechanisms, prevention, and recovery from specific diseases, controlling of
physical and mental disorders, and slowing of the aging process (Rincón-León, 2003).

Eleusine indica, locally known as Goosegrass or “rumput sambau” is an annual weed that belongs to the Poaceae
family (formally known as Gramineae). It can be easily found as a weed along roads and pavements, and is well
known to be resistant to herbicides (Ettebong et al., 2020). A perusal of literature reveals that E. indica is widely
used by traditional practitioners in many parts of the world to treat various ailments including inflammation and
immune-associated disorders. Pharmacological investigations revealed that this plant possesses an extensive
array of biological activities including antioxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic (Al-Zubairi et al., 2011; Sukor et al.,
2021), anti-inflammatory (De Melo et al., 2005), antidiabetic, antiplasmodial, hepatoprotective (Lim, 2016),
antihypertensive (Tutor et al., 2018), anticonvulsant, antileishmanial, anthelminthic, analgesic, antipyretic (Oo
et al., 2011), and antitrypanosomal properties (Ettebong et al., 2020). The plant contains therapeutic
phytochemicals such as flavonoids, steroids, essential oils, cardiac glycosides, coumarins, fatty acids,
anthraquinones, anthrones, triterpenes, tannins, and alkaloids. Hitherto, ten phytochemicals have been isolated
from the plant, which were the sterol and its glucosides; β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-β-
sitosterol and its 6’-O-palmitoyl derivative, flavonoids glycosides; schaftoside, vitexin and isovitexin, fatty acids;
1-[[[(2-aminoethoxy) hydroxyphosphinyl] oxy]methyl]- 1,2- ethanediyl ester and hexadecanoic acid, and
benzofuran type compound known as loliolide (Phuong et al., 1994; De Melo et al., 2005; Iqbal et al. 2012;
Desai 2017; Sukor et al., 2021).

In India, the young seedling of the plant is used as a famine food that is eaten raw or cooked as a side dish with
rice (Abdul et al., 2015). Nutrition analysis has shown that E. indica provides various key components such as
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, and fibres, which may offer an excellent opportunity to
promote public health (Regmi et al. 2004; Babu & Savithramma, 2014). Although E. indica is not consumed as
a food in Malaysia, it is nevertheless utilised as traditional medicine such as hastening the placenta delivery after
childbirth, pain relieve in vaginal bleeding, asthmatic treatment, fever, urinary infection, haemorrhoids, and tonic
for symptoms related to flu. Browsing through the internet also reveals that health products made of E. indica
is available in the form of dried powder, tea sachet, and capsules by the name of ‘Paragis’. This regards E. indica
as a promising candidate for a natural reservoir for both food and medicine. A recent review on E. indica by
Ettebong et al., (2020) was focusing on the ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacological activities of the plant.
Although the review is highly suitable, the information should be updated to cover wider perspectives on E.
indica, particularly for food and medicine. Thus, this review is necessary to incorporate the existing review to
further organize and evaluate the potential of E. indica for biotechnology studies, and commercial exploitation.

THE PLANT

Eleusine indica belongs to the Poaceae family (formally known as Gramineae), and the most widespread weed in
croplands (Yemets et al, 2003). The common name is Indian Groosegrass, Groosegrass, wiregrass, Dogon
(Mali), ‘rumput sambau’ (Malay), and ‘paragis’ (Philippine). It is considered native to Africa, temperate, and
tropical Asia. The plant is now widely spread in the tropical and subtropical of North America, Europe, and
Africa (Ettebong et al., 2020). It is the only Eleusine genus that can be abundantly found in Malaysia. Moreover,
Eleusine indica is one of the most extreme weeds in vegetable fields, orchards, oil palm, and rubber plantations,

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as well as in wasteland and along the roadsides in Peninsular Malaysia (Holm et al., 1977). It is well-known to
be resistant to herbicides (Ettebong et al., 2020).

E. indica (Figure 1) is a perennial plant that can grow up to 60 cm in slender, height, moderately robust, or
sprawling prostrate to 1.2 m length. The stem is generally either white or pale green and is flattened with a few
strands of "grainy hair" on the edges on the lateral side. The leaf sheaths are laterally flat while the leaf blades
are either flat or folded and linear-lanceolate (Al-Zubairi et al., 2011).

B C

D E

Figure 1. A: E. indica whole plant, B: E. indica in the wild, C: Stem of E. indica,

D: Flower of E. indica, E: Root of E. indica

FOOD PERSPECTIVE

In India, the roots and the young seedling of E. indica are used as food that can be eaten raw or cooked as a side
dish with rice. The seeds are sometimes used as famine food (Al-Zubairi et al., 2011; Abdul et. al., 2015).
Recently, Makinano et al. (2020) has reported on the application of the plant leaves in cookie production. The
outcome showed that the colour, taste, aroma, texture, and general acceptability of the product were significantly
influenced by the levels of the powdered leaves. The recommended amount of powdered leaves should be 1.3
– 1.8% in 8.8% combination with mashed banana in the cookie product. The authors suggested to further
exploit the potential of the leaves in the cookie manufacturing industry.

Nutritional Value

A perusal of the literature indicates E. indica contain key components such as carbohydrate, protein, lipids,
vitamins, minerals, and fibres. Generally, the whole plant content is about 50-60% water, 30-40% dry matter
(Morah and Otuk, 2015; Regmi et al., 2004). It is essential to consider the moisture content before consumption
as it affects the food quality. Water provides a medium for microbial growth and is directly connected to long-
term storage, freshness, and stability of nutrients. However, lower humidity contributes to a more rigid texture,
which usually lasts longer. E. indica contains about 80.19% carbohydrate, 12.4% protein, 9.40% ash content,
27.56% fibre, and 7.14% lipid (Table 1). Based on the recommended daily allowance (RDA), an intake of 300 g
of carbohydrate, 50 g of protein, 65 g of total fat, and 25 g of dietary fibre are required to fulfill the nutritional

70
requirements of almost all healthy people. The minerals content detected in E. indica based on a dry weight basis
expressed in ppm is calcium (21240), magnesium (4049), boron (24.74), potassium (25050), copper (55.12),
phosphorus (2375), zinc (80.23), iron (455.0), molybdenum (13.49), and manganese (163.8) (Babu &
Savithramma, 2014). Thus, it has been estimated that usually, the content of carbohydrate, protein, and fibre of
E. indica range from 60.42 – 88.19%, 2.21 - 15.40%, and 21.75 – 29.17% of RDA respectively.

Table 1. Micro-constituents of Eleusine indica.

Macro-constituents Place of Collection Quantity (%) Reference

Moisture Cross River State, Nigeria 50.91 Morah and Otuk
(2015)
Ash Content Cross River State, Nigeria 9.40 Morah and Otuk
(2015)
Crude Protein Cross River State, Nigeria 2.21 Morah and Otuk
(2015)
Manila, Philippine 11.50 Garcia et al. (2003)
Chitwan, Nepal 12.4 Regmi et al. (2004)
Yogyakarta, Indonesia 15.40 Sumignyo et al. (2017)
Lipid Cross River State, Nigeria 7.14 Morah and Otuk
(2015)
Yogyakarta, Indonesia 7.43 Sumignyo et al. (2017)
Fibre Cross River State, Nigeria 27.56 Morah and Otuk
(2015)
Manila, Philippine 21.75 Garcia et al. (2003)
Yogyakarta, Indonesia 29.17 Sumignyo et al. (2017)
Total carbohydrate Cross River State, Nigeria 80.19 Morah and Otuk
(2015)
Yogyakarta, Indonesia 60.42 Sumignyo et al. (2017)
Dry matter Chitman, Nepal 35.8 Regmi et al. (2004)
Yogyakarta, Indonesia 19.53 Sumignyo et al. (2017)

Commercial Value

The information collected from the websites reveals that local people of Philippines have been producing E.
indica based product. E. indica or known as ‘paragis’ in the Philippines is been used in a variety of products such
as herbal dried powder, tea sachet, and capsule food supplements (Figure 2). About 130 items in the name of
‘paragis’ are commercially available online, where the prices are vary depending on the product formulation and
the selling brand. The products are sold under the categories of immunity, pregnancy care, herbs and traditional
medicine, multivitamins, traditional medicine, nutritional foods and drinks, herbal tea, women's health, and
detoxification. Most of the consumer’s gave positive reviews and satisfied with the product’s performance. The
commercial product sold on the plant, nevertheless needs to be scientifically evaluated to verify the product’s
claim. A standardized extract needs to be considered to ensure the product’s efficacy.

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 F G H

Figure 2. F: Paragis capsule (Paragis, 2020), G: Paragis dried herb powder (Mae Langga Ypo, 2020),
H: Paragis herb tea (Buah Merah, 2020)

MEDICINE PERSPECTIVE

Ethnomedicine

A perusal of literature reveals that E. indica is widely used by traditional practitioners in many parts of the world
to treat various ailments. In Brazil, the aerial part of this plant is used against airway inflammatory diseases,
including pneumonia (De melo et al., 2005). The Sri Lankan bandaging a paste made of the plant’s root or the
whole plant mixed with scraped coconut or turmeric paste to recover from a sprained muscle and dislocation
(Abdul et al., 2015). This plant is also used in China for trauma, rheumatism, and childish indigestion (Hong et
al. 2015).

In Nigeria, the decoction of the leaves is used to treat malaria-related fever, infections, stomach disorders, and
diabetes, while the decoction from the seeds is used to treat infants suffering from black jaundice (Mabeku et
al., 2011). Also the whole plant decoction is used as an anti-inflammatory agent (Obute, 2007). The Ibibios
people of South Nigeria used a decoction of leave juice to treat malaria-related fever, stomach disorders,
diabetes, and any infections (Okokon et al., 2014). The local people of southeastern Nigeria are using the root
part of this plant to treat skin infection of ringworm by applying scrub on the affected area (Oyedemi et al.,
2018). In Cameroon, the decoction of leave juice is used after childbirth to treat the placenta, treat epilepsy,
dysentery, diarrhoea, and intestinal occlusion (Mabeku et al., 2011).

The Vietnamese applied the whole parts of this plant to treat influenza, hypertension, urine retention, and
oliguria (Abdul et al., 2015). The decoction of the whole plant is used to treat blood coughing and the leaves
decoction is used for the treatment of arthritis and kidney problems in the Philippines (Balangcod & Balangcod,
2015; Abdul et al., 2015). In addition, the juice of the entire plant including the flowers is used in the Philippines
to treat blood coughing (Abdul et al., 2015) and leaves are used as diuretic after boiling for leaves juice (Gruyal
et al. 2014). The whole plant mixed with gogo was used for dandruff and hair loss prevention (Stuart, 2014).
Moreover, the fresh root is fed by tribal people to treat Gonorrhea (Chowdhury et al. 2014). The plant has long
been used for alcohol drinking in Thailand to treat fever, dysure, jaundice, inflammatory, centipede, or scorpion
poisoning (Boonyaprapashara and Chokchaichareonporn, 2000).

In Indonesia, the plant is used as a stomachic to treat worms and liver complaints (Marita et al., 1999). It is
also used for malaria treatment in Africa and Asia, among other medicinal applications (Ettebong et al., 2012).
This plant has been used in Trinidad and Tobago for kidney problems (Lans, 2006). In Peninsular Malaysia,
traditionally the leaves of the plant are pounded to extract juices and used to hasten placenta delivery for women
after childbirth. The infusion of the leaves has also been used to relieve pain during vaginal bleeding. The plant
is also considered sudorific and used to treat fever. The decoction of the roots is useful in treating asthma, while
the decoction of the whole plant is used to treat urinary infection due to its diuretic property (Burkill 1966;
Abdul et al., 2015). In Sabah, people of Kadazandusun boiled roots mixture of E.indica and Capsicum sp.
(Solanacae) to treat piles (Kulip et al., 2000). They also used the aerial part of E. indica by infusing with rice to

72
treat symptoms related to flu viral infection (Piah, 2020). The young and tender leaves of E. indica are eaten by
cattle, goat, dogs, cats, rats, and chicken for abdominal disorder and also used as antipyretic for herbivores
(Morah & Otuk, 2015; Pattanayak & Mailty, 2017).

Biological Activities

Biological investigations revealed that this plant possesses an extensive array of activities including antibacterial,
antifungal, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anthelminthic, antiviral, antiplasmodial, antidiabetic, antiobesity,
cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, antihypertensive, anticonvulsant, antileishmanial, analgesic, antipyretic, and
antitrypanosomal properties. All of these activities are summarized accordingly in Table 2, Table 3, and Table 4
below.

Table 2. Antibacterial activities of E. indica.

Type of Name of Extract Zone MIC MBC Reference

bacteria bacteria size (mg/mL) (mg/mL)
(mm)
Gram Escherichia coli Chloroform 30 0.0155 0.0313 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Negative
Methanol 26 0.0313 0.0625 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Methanol 25 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Methanol 17 0.512 - Oyedemi et al. (2018)
Aqueous 24 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Ethanol 10 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Ethanol 7 - - Fatima et al. (2018)
Proteus vulgaris Chloroform 26 0.0313 0.125 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Methanol 16 0.1250 0.25 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Pseudomonas Chloroform 22 0.125 0.125 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
aerogenes
Methanol 19 0.125 0.25 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Klebsiella aerogenes Chloroform 20 0.125 0.125 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Methanol 18 0.125 0.25 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Klebsiella Methanol 8 0.512 - Oyedemi et al. (2018)
pneumoniae
Pseudomonas Hexane 11 - - Al-Zuhairi et al. (2011)
aeruginosa
Dichloromethane 7 - - Al-Zuhairi et al. (2011)
Ethyl acetate 12 - - Al-Zuhairi et al. (2011)
Salmonella Ethyl acetate 11 - - Al-Zuhairi et al. (2011)
choleraesuis
Salmonella typhi Ethanol 7 - - Fatima et al. (2018)
Acetone 4 - - Fatima et al. (2018)
Shigella dysenteriae Methanol 8 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Aqueous 6 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Ethanol 7 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Proteus mirabilis Methanol 8 0.256 - Oyedemi et al. (2018)

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Type of Name of Extract Zone MIC MBC Reference
bacteria bacteria size (mg/mL) (mg/mL)
(mm)
Gram Staphylococcus Chloroform 36 0.0155 0.0313 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Positive aureus
Methanol 30 0.0156 0.0313 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Methanol - 0.256 - Oyedemi et al. (2018)
Hexane 13 - - Al-Zuhairi et al. (2011)
Ethyl acetate 10 - - Al-Zuhairi et al. (2011)
Ethanol 12 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Ethanol 8 0.075 - Fatima et al. (2018)
Aqueous 22 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Streptococcus spp. Chloroform 24 0.0313 0.0125 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Methanol 18 0.0125 0.025 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Bacillus spp. Chloroform 16 0.125 0.25 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Methanol 14 0.25 0.50 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Ethanol 9 0.050 - Fatima et al. (2018)
Acetone 4 - - Fatima et al. (2018)
Streptococcus Methanol 10 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
faecalis
Aqueous 28 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Ethanol 13 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Lactobacillus lactis Methanol 18 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Aqueous 6 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Ethanol 6 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Salmonella aureus Methanol 10 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Aqueous 21 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Ethanol 22 - - Morah and Otuk (2015)
Listeria Ethanol 8 0.075 - Fatima et al. (2018)
monocytogenes
Acetone 8 0.075 - Fatima et al. (2018)

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 Table 3. Antifungal activities of E. indica

Name of fungal Extract Zone size MIC MFC Reference

(mm) (mg/mL) (mg/mL)
Aspergillus flavus Chloroform 10 0.25 0.50 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Methanol 14 0.125 0.25 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Ethanol 7 - - Fatima et al. (2018)
Acetone 4 - - Fatima et al. (2018)
Aspergillus niger Chloroform 14 0.125 0.25 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Methanol 16 0.0625 0.125 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Candida albican Chloroform 20 0.0313 0.0625 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Methanol 18 0.0625 0.125 Aleakwe et al. (2015)
Wickerhamomyces Ethanol 7 - - Fatima et al. (2018)
anomalus
Acetone 8 0.075 - Fatima et al. (2018)
Mucor species Ethanol 8 - - Fatima et al. (2018)
Acetone 7 - - Fatima et al. (2018)

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 Table 4. Other biological activities of E. indica

Biological Part Extract Activity Tested Dosage/ Results Notes Reference

Activities Type IC50/EC50/
Percentage
Antioxidant Aerial Ethanol, DPPH, ABTS AND DPPH The extracts have Ethanol extract exhibits Fatima et al. (2018)
part Acetone SOR Ethanol: significant antioxidant maximum antioxidant activity
activity. as compared to the acetone
0.093 mg/mL
extract.
Acetone:
0.295 mg/mL
ABTS
Ethanol:
0.011 mg/mL
Acetone:
0.027 mg/mL
SOR
Ethanol:
0.07 mg/mL
Acetone:
0.044 mg/mL

Leaves Methanol, DPPH Methanol: TPC and DPPH free Eleusine indica extract at Al-Zuhairi et al. (2011)
Ethyl 77.7% radical scavenging 100mg/mL
acetate activity are strong and
EA: 64.5 %
(EA), significantly
DCM: 40.83% correlated.
Dichlorom
Hexane:
ethane
(DCM), 47.19%
Hexane
Leaves Aqueous DPPH, nitro oxide 0.0078 mg/mL Has significant Indicate plant extracts are a Silva et al. (2017)
(NO) and ferric antioxidant activity rich source of phenolic
reducing antioxidant compounds.
power (FRAC)

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 Biological Part Extract Activity Tested Dosage/ Results Notes Reference
Activities Type IC50/EC50/
Percentage
Whole Aqueous TPC and DPPH 2.350 mg/mL TPC and DPPH free Dose-dependent manner Iqbal and Gnanaraj
plant radical scavenging (2012)
activity (RSA) are
strong and
significantly
correlated.
Roots Methanol FRAC IC50 > Active in a Indicating that continuous Oyedemi et al.
0.030 mg/mL concentration- exposure to this herbal (2008)
dependent manner remedy can alter human
organs
Antiinflammatory Aerial Aqueous Effect toward γδ T 0.1 µg/kg Extract has dose- The extract inhibits IPP- Sagnia et al. (2014)
cells and imDC dependently inhibited induced TNF-α
(immature dendritic imDC
cells)
Aerial Not stated Effect of schaftoside 400 µg Has strong anti- Schaftoside inhibit 62% De Melo et al. (2005)
and vitexin against inflammatory effect.
lung inflammatory on
Vitexin inhibit 80%
mice
Anthelmintic Aerial Methanol, Effect in children’s 2.4 mg/cm3 Strongyloids stercoralis The higher the extract’s Morah and Otuk
Ethanol, stool were fully dead in all concentration, the lower the (2015)
extracts. quantity of worm lived.
Aqueous
Antiviral Whole Methanol Against herpes simplex EC50: The activity of the The virus propagated in Iberahim et al. (2016)
plant virus type 1 (HSV-1) 0.17 mg/mL extract against HSV-1 African green kidney cells
infection was (Vero)
CC50:
concentration-
2.07 mg/mL dependent.

Antiplasmodial Leaves Ethanol Against Plasmodium IC50: Demonstrated The extract is a potentiate Okokon et al. (2010)
berghei infected mice 960 mg/kg significant (P<0.05) malaria resistance and
antiplasmodial activity antiplasmodial activity in
in both early and endemic areas of immune
establish infection. individuals.

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 Biological Part Extract Activity Tested Dosage/ Results Notes Reference
Activities Type IC50/EC50/
Percentage
Antidiabetic Leaves Ethanol Effect towards 320, 640, 960 Has a significant The condition of the diabetic Okokon et al. (2010)
diabetic rats with mg/kg decrease in blood rats that were treated with the
alloxan induction glucose level (BGL) in extract was healthy and
treated rats energetic at the end of the
research.
Antiobesity Whole Hexane Effect against Hexane: 27.05% Butanol has a strong Lutein isolated from hexane Ong et al. (2016)
plant Dichlorom inhibition of porcine DCM: 25.57% significant anti-obesity extract inhibit PPL 55.98%
ethane pancreatic lipase (PPL) activity higher than drug Orlistat
EA: 10.38%
(DCM) followed by β-sitosterol
Aqueous: 4.18% (2.99%) and stigmasterol
Ethyl
Butanol: 5.23% (2.68%).
acetate
(EA)
Aqueous
Butanol
Cytotoxic Whole Hydroetha Effect against brine LC50: Has strong significant Extract found to be toxic to Silva et al. (2017)
plant nolic shrimp lethality assay 0.076 mg/mL cytotoxic activity BSLA was likely to be a good
(BSLA) candidate for anti-cancer
CC50:
research.
0.011 mg/mL
Aerial Ethanol Effect against BSLA LC50: Have demonstrated LC50 value of extracts to brine Fatima et al. (2018)
Ethanol: strong to moderate shrimps indicates the presence
cytotoxic potential of cytotoxic compounds in the
Acetone 16.857 ppm
plant.
Acetone:
9.828 ppm

Whole Aqueous Crude and hexane CC50: - Hexane inhibited the The CC50 value more than Iberahim et al. (2016)
plant extract tested on Vero Crude: cell greater than the 0.02 mg/mL is considered as
cells aqueous extract not cytotoxic to the normal
Hexane 2.07 mg/mL
cell
Hexane:
5.62 mg/mL

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Phytochemistry

Despite all the reported medicinal uses and biological activities, thus far only ten phytochemicals have been
isolated from the plant. The pharmacological activities of the plant were nevertheless have been related to its
polyphenol content particularly the flavonoids. Early in 1978, the flavonoid pattern of the genus Eleusine has
been reported which include orientin, vitexin, isovitexin, saponarin, tricin, isoorientin, violanthin, and lucenin –
1 (Hilu et al. 1978). However, only the former five flavonoids were constituted in E. Indica. The phytochemicals
isolated from the plant thus far include the sterols β-sitosterol (1), and stigmasterol (2); the sterol glucosides 3-
O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-β-sitosterol (3) and its 6’-O-palmitoyl derivative (4); the flavonoids glycosides
schaftoside (5), vitexin (6), and isovitexin (7); the fatty acids 1-[[[(2-aminoethoxy) hydroxyphosphinyl]
oxy]methyl]- 1,2- ethanediyl ester (8), and hexadecanoic acid (9), and the benzofuran type compound known as
loliolide (10) (Phuong et al., 1994; De Melo et al., 2005; Iqbal et al. 2012; Desai 2017; Sukor et al., 2021). Their
chemical structures are shown below (Figure 3).

1
2

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 5 6

10
7

Figure 3. Structure of phytochemicals isolated from E. indica

Phytochemical screening on the plant from hot water extract detected the presence of phenols, anthrones and
coumarins. While essential oils, triterpenes, steroids, cardiac glycosides, anthraquinones, tannins, flavonoids,

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 saponin, alkaloids, and coumarins were found in ethanol, methanol, acetone, aqueous, n-hexane and ethyl
acetate extracts (Mabeku et al., 2011; Morah & Otuk, 2015; Iberahim et al., 2015; Valentino et al., 2018). A
recent metabolite fingerprinting and profiling on the plant extract has characterized two more phytochemicals
known as p-coumaric acid and isoschaftoside along with a series of primary metabolites and amino acids
(Peñaloza et al. 2018). All of these reports are summarized in Table 5 and Table 6 below.

Table 5. Phytochemical screening on different types of E. indica extracts

Phytochemicals Hot Methanol Ethanol Chloroform Acetone n- Ethyl Aqueous

water Hexane acetate
Phenols + + + x x x + x
Anthrones + x + x x x - x
Coumarins + x + x x x x x
Flavonoids - + + + + - + +
Tannins - + + - + + - -
Saponins x - - - - - + -
Alkaloids - + + + + + - +
Cardiac glycosides x + + - - + - +
Anthracene x + + x - - - -
glycoside
Anthraquinones - + + x - + - +
Triterpenoids - + + x x - + x
Steroids - + + x x + + x
Essential oils - x + x x x x x
(+) indicate the presence, (-) indicate the absence, (x) indicate not stated

Table 6. Phytochemicals detected in E. indica

Compound Compound Name Extract Part Reference

Type
Lipid Fatty acid derivatives Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Amino acid Alanine Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Arginine Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Aspartate /aspartic acid Aqueous Aerial Penaloza et al. (2018)
γ-Aminobutyrate (GABA) Aqueous Aerial Penaloza et al. (2018)
Isoleucine Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Leucine Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Glutamine Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Glutamic acid Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Glycine Aqueous Aerial Penaloza et al. (2018)
Threonine Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)

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Compound Compound Name Extract Part Reference
Type
L-serine Aqueous Aerial Penaloza et al. (2018)
Valine Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Tyrosine Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Tryptophan Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Phenylalanine Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Sugar β-Glucose Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
α-Glucose Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Sucrose Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Fructose Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Organic acid Lactic acid Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Formic acid Aqueous Aerial Penaloza et al. (2018)
Fumaric acid Aqueous Aerial Penaloza et al. (2018)
Phenolic p-Coumeric acid Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
compound

Flavanoids Orientin Aqueous Leaves Hilu et al. (1978)

Saponarin Aqueous Leaves Hilu et al. (1978)
Vitexin Aqueous Leaves, aerial Penaloza et al. (2018),
De Melo et al. (2005),
Hilu et al. (1978)
Isovitexin Aqueous Leaves Hilu et al. (1978)
Schaftoside Aqueous Aerial Penaloza et al. (2018),
De Melo et al. (2005)
Isoschaftoside Aqueous Aerial Penaloza et al. (2018)
Sterols Lutine Hexane Whole plant Ong et al. (2016)
β-Sitosterol Hexane Whole plant Ong et al. (2016)
Stigmasterol Hexane Whole plant Ong et al. (2016)
Miscellaneous Choline Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Betaine Aqueous Aerial, roots Penaloza et al. (2018)
Pyruvic acid Aqueous Aerial Penaloza et al. (2018)
Tyrosol Aqueous Aerial Penaloza et al. (2018)
1-[[[(2-aminoethoxy) Chloroform, Aerial Alaekwe et al. (2015)
hydroxyphosphinyl] oxy]methyl]- methanol
1,2- ethanediyl ester
Hexadecanoic acid Chloroform, Aerial Alaekwe et al. (2015)
methanol

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SAFETY ISSUES

Besides food and medicine, E. indica has also been reported for other purposes. Dry leaves and stems are burned
and used as a repellent against hematophagous insects (Obico & Ragragio, 2014). E. indica shown promising
prospects for heavy metal emission soil phytoremediation (Anh et al., 2011). The plant contains high
concentrations of lead (0.15-0.65%) and zinc (0.22-1.56%) in their roots indicating the root function as a heavy
metal accumulator. However, a total hazard quotient (THQ) analysis of heavy metals content in the leaves and
aerial part indicates no potential health risks on consuming the plant (Gawat & Martinez, 2019) which is
supported by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 2011). Moreover, investigation on
tea and infusions extract of the leaves for health risk studies provided further support on the safe consumption
of the plant (Zhang et al, 2018; Patrick-Iwuanyanwu & Udowelle, 2017).

Screening on the hexane and methanol extracts of E. indica on the African green monkey kidney epithelial (Vero)
cell line through 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay showed that the
extracts are not toxic to the normal cells at the highest tested concentration of 1000 µg/ml (Sukor et al., 2021).
Acute oral toxicity test of E. indica on female Sprague–Dawley rats showed that the extract is non-toxic where
falls into Globally Harmonized System Category 5 (low hazard), since mortality, clinical toxicity symptoms,
gross pathologic, or histopathologic damage was not observed (Ong et al., 2017).

Although E. indica is safe to be ingested, the commercialised product produced from plant is deemed necessary
to be scientifically evaluated to ensure the product’s quality, safety and efficacy. In addition, the source of the
plant part collection needs to be chosen critically to avoid herbicides contamination as E. indica is a well-known
herbicides resistant. Consuming the roots of E. indica should also be avoided as they have been reported to
accumulate heavy metals such as lead that could cause long-term harm to the body.

CONCLUSION

The present review reveals the potential application of E. indica as one of the food resources with medicinal
properties. The plant represents a rich source of nutrients, which contains therapeutic phytochemicals, and safe
for oral consumption in permissible limits. The evidence provided here is a warrant for the plant to be further
studied and exploited particularly in establishing a standardised extract to ensure the plant’s safety and efficacy
prior to commercialisation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge SDG Research Grant @ Borneo 2020 (grant no. SDG07-2020),
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, for funding the study, and Atta-ur-Rahman Institute for Natural Product Discovery
(AuRIns), Universiti Teknologi MARA Selangor Branch, Puncak Alam Campus, for providing accessible
facilities.

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How to cite this paper:

Zakri, Z. H. M., Suleiman, M., Ng, S. Y., Ngaini, Z., Maili, S. & Salim, F. (2021). Eleusine indica for food
and medicine. Journal of Agrobiotechnology, 12(2), 68-87.

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