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Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science
John Hunt
Advanced Guide
to Python 3
Programming
Second Edition
Series Editor
Ian Mackie, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
Advisory Editors
Samson Abramsky , Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford,
Oxford, UK
Chris Hankin , Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London,
UK
Mike Hinchey , Lero – The Irish Software Research Centre, University of
Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
Dexter C. Kozen, Department of Computer Science, Cornell University, Ithaca,
NY, USA
Andrew Pitts , Department of Computer Science and Technology, University of
Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
Hanne Riis Nielson , Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer
Science, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Steven S. Skiena, Department of Computer Science, Stony Brook University,
Stony Brook, NY, USA
Iain Stewart , Department of Computer Science, Durham University, Durham,
UK
Joseph Migga Kizza, College of Engineering and Computer Science, The
University of Tennessee-Chattanooga, Chattanooga, TN, USA
‘Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science’ (UTiCS) delivers high-quality instruc-
tional content for undergraduates studying in all areas of computing and information
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The UTiCS concept relies on high-quality, concise books in softback format, and
generally a maximum of 275–300 pages. For undergraduate textbooks that are likely
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in Computer Science series, to which we refer potential authors.
John Hunt
Advanced Guide to Python 3

Programming
Second Edition
John Hunt
Midmarsh Technology Ltd.
Chippenham, Wiltshire, UK
ISSN 1863-7310 ISSN 2197-1781 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-031-40335-4 ISBN 978-3-031-40336-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40336-1
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019, 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For Denise, my wife, my soulmate, my best
friend.
Preface to the Second Edition
This second edition represents a significant expansion of the material in the first
edition, as well as an update of that book from Python 3.7 to 3.12.
This book includes whole new sections on advanced language features, Reactive
Programming in Python and data analysts. New chapters on working with Tkinter,
on event handling with Tkinter and a simple drawing application using Tkinter have
been added. A new chapter on performance monitoring and profiling has also been
added. A chapter on pip and conda is included at the end of the book.
In all there are 18 completely new chapters that take you far further on your Python
journey. Enjoy the book and I hope you find it useful.
Chippenham, UK John Hunt
vii
Preface to the First Edition
Some of the key aspects of this book are

1. It assumes knowledge of Python 3 and of concepts such as functions, classes,
protocols, abstract base classes, decorators, iterables and collection types (such
as list and tuple).
2. However, the book assumes very little knowledge or experience of the topics
presented.
3. The book is divided into eleven topic areas: advanced language features,
Computer Graphics, games, testing, file input/output, database access, logging,
concurrency and parallelism, Reactive Programming, network programming and
data analytics.
4. Each topic in the book has an introductory chapter followed by chapters that
delve into that topic.
5. The book includes exercises at the end of most chapters.
6. All code examples (and exercise solutions) are provided on line in a GitHub
repository.
What You Need
You can of course just read this book; however following the examples in this book
will ensure that you get as much as possible out of the content. For this you will need
a computer.
Python is a cross-platform programming language, and as such you can use Python
on a Windows PC, a Linux box, an Apple Mac, etc. So you are not tied to a particular
type of operating system; you can use whatever you have available.
However you will need to install some software on that computer. At a minimum
you will need Python. The focus of this book is Python 3 so that is the version that
is assumed for all examples and exercises. As Python is available for a wide range
ix
x Preface to the First Edition
of platforms from Windows, to Mac OS and Linux, you will need to ensure that you
download the version for your operating system.
Python can be downloaded from the main Python website which can be found at
http://www.python.org/.
You will also need some form of editor to write your programs. There are numerous
generic programming editors available for different operating systems with VIM on
Linux, Notepad++ on Windows and Sublime Text on windows and Macs being
popular choices.
However, using an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) editor such as
PyCharm, Visual Studio Code or Spyder can make writing and running your programs
much easier.
However, this book does not assume any particular editor, IDE or environment
(other than Python 3 itself).
Conventions
Throughout this book you will find a number of conventions used for text styles.
These text styles distinguish between different kinds of information. Code words,
variable and Python values, used within the main body of the text, are shown using
a Courier font. A block of Python code is set out as shown here:
Preface to the First Edition xi
def draw_koch(size, depth):

if depth > 0:
for angle in ANGLES:
draw_koch(size / 3, depth - 1)
turtle.left(angle)
else:
turtle.forward(size)
# Draw three sides of snowflake
for_in range(3):
draw_koch(SIZE_OF_SNOWFLAKE, depth)
turtle.right(120)
Note that keywords and points of interest are shown in bold font.
Any command line or user input is shown in standard font as shown below, for
example:
Hello, world
Enter your name: John
Hello John
Example Code and Sample Solutions
The examples used in this book (along with sample solutions for the exercises at the
end of most chapters) are available in a GitHub repository. GitHub provides a web
interface to Git, as well as a server environment hosting Git.
Git is a version control system typically used to manage source code files (such
as those used to create systems in programming languages such as Python but also
Java, C#, C++ and Scala). Systems such as Git are very useful for collaborative
development as they allow multiple people to work on an implementation and to
merge their work together. They also provide a useful historical view of the code
(which also allows developers to roll back changes if modifications prove to be
unsuitable).
The GitHub repository for this book can be found at:
• https://github.com/johnehunt/advancedpython3_2nd
If you already have Git installed on your computer, then you can clone (obtain a
copy of) the repository locally using:
git clone https://github.com/johnehunt/advancedpyth
on3_2nd.git
If you do not have Git, then you can obtain a zip file of the examples using
https://github.com/johnehunt/advancedpython3_2nd/arc
hive/refs/heads/main.zip
xii Preface to the First Edition
You can of course install Git yourself if you wish. To do this, see https://git-scm.
com/downloads. Versions of the Git client for Mac OS, Windows and Linux/Unix
are available here.
However, many IDEs such as PyCharm come with Git support and so offer another
approach to obtaining a Git repository.
For more information on Git see http://git-scm.com/doc. This Git guide
provides a very good primer and is highly recommended.
Acknowledgement I would like to thank Phoebe Hunt for creating the pixel images used for the
Starship Meteors game in Chap. 22.
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Useful Python Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Part I Advanced Language Features

2 Python Type Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Pythons Type System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 The Challenge for Python Developers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Static Typing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 Python Type Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.6 Type Hint Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7 Type Hints for Multiple Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.8 The Self Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.9 The Benefits of Type Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.11 Online Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 Class Slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Slots to the Rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Performance Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 Why Not Use Slots? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.6 Online Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4 Weak References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 How Garbage Collection Works: Reference Counting . . . . . . . . 23
4.3 Weak References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.4 When to Use Weak References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
xiii
xiv Contents
4.5 The Weakref Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

4.6 Creating Weak References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.7 Retrieving Objects from Weak References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.8 The WeakValueDicitonary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.9 WeakKeyDictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.10 Proxy Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5 Data Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2 A Traditional Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3 Defining Data Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.4 Defining Additional Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.5 The Dataclass Decorator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.6 Custom Factory for Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.7 Immutable Dataclasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.8 Data Classes and Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.9 Post Initialisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.10 Initialisation Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.11 Positional Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.12 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6 Structural Pattern Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.2 The Match Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.3 Matching Classes with Positional Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.4 Matching Against Standard Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.5 Online Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7 Working with pprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2 The pprint Data Printer Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.3 Basic pprint Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.4 Changing the Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.5 Changing the Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.6 Managing the Indentation Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.7 Reducing Line Breaks Using Compact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.8 The pformat Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.9 The saferepr() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.10 Using the PrettyPrinter Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.11 Online Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8 Shallow v Deep Copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.2 Copying a List of Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
8.3 The Problem with Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Contents xv
8.4 The Copy Module to the Rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

8.5 Using the deepcopy() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.6 Online Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9 The __init__ Versus __new__ and __call . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.2 The __new__ and __init__ Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.3 The __new__ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.4 When to Use the __new__ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.5 Using __new__ to Create a Singleton Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.6 The __init__ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.7 Can __new__ and __init__ Be Used Together? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
9.8 The __call__ Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10 Python Metaclasses and Meta Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.2 Metaprogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.3 Decorators as a Form of Metaprogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
10.4 Metaclasses for Metaprogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.4.1 Singleton Metaclass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
10.5 Exec and Eval for Metaprogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10.5.1 The exec() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10.5.2 The eval() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
10.5.3 eval Versus exec() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Part II Computer Graphics and GUIs

11 Introduction to Computer Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
11.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.3 The Graphical Computer Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
11.4 Interactive and Non Interactive Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
11.5 Pixels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
11.6 Bit Map Versus Vector Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
11.7 Buffering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
11.8 Python and Computer Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
11.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
12 Python Turtle Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12.2 The Turtle Graphics Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12.2.1 The Turtle Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
12.2.2 Basic Turtle Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
12.2.3 Drawing Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
12.2.4 Filling Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
xvi Contents
12.3 Other Graphics Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

12.4 3D Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
12.4.1 PyOpenGL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
12.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
13 Computer Generated Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
13.1 Creating Computer Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
13.2 A Computer Art Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
13.3 Fractals in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
13.4 The Koch Snowflake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
13.5 Mandelbrot Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
13.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
14 Introduction to Matplotlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
14.2 Matplotlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
14.3 Plot Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
14.4 Matplotlib Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
14.4.1 Backend Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
14.4.2 The Artist Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
14.4.3 The Scripting Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
15 Graphing with Matplotlib Pyplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.2 The pyplot API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.3 Line Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
15.3.1 Coded Format Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
15.4 Scatter Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
15.4.1 When to Use Scatter Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
15.5 Pie Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
15.5.1 Expanding Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
15.5.2 When to Use Pie Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
15.6 Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
15.6.1 Horizontal Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
15.6.2 Coloured Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.6.3 Stacked Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
15.6.4 Grouped Bar Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
15.7 Figures and Subplots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
15.8 3D Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Contents xvii
16 Graphical User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
16.2 GUIs and WIMPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
16.3 Windowing Frameworks for Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
16.3.1 Platform-Independent GUI Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
16.3.2 Platform-Specific GUI Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
17 Tkinter GUI Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
17.2 Tkinter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
17.3 Windows as Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
17.4 Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
17.4.1 The Tk Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
17.4.2 TK Widgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
17.4.3 The TopLevel Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
17.4.4 The Frame Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
17.4.5 Dialogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
17.4.6 The Canvas Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
17.5 The Class Inheritance Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
17.5.1 Layout Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
17.6 A Simple Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
17.7 Tkinter Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
17.7.1 Mac Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
17.7.2 Windows Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
17.8 GUI Builders for Tkinter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
17.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
18 Events in Tkinter User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
18.2 Event Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
18.3 What is Event Handling? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
18.4 What Are Event Handlers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
18.5 Event Binders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
18.6 Virtual Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
18.7 Event Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
18.8 What Types of Event Are There? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
18.9 Binding an Event to an Event Handler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
18.10 Implementing Event Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
18.11 An Interactive GUI Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
18.13 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
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19 PyDraw Tkinter Example Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
19.2 The PyDraw Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
19.3 The Structure of the Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
19.3.1 Model, View and Controller Architecture . . . . . . . . . . 188
19.3.2 PyDraw MVC Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
19.3.3 Additional Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
19.3.4 Object Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
19.4 The Interactions Between Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
19.4.1 The PyDrawApp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
19.5 The PyDrawView Constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
19.5.1 Changing the Application Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
19.5.2 Adding a Graphic Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
19.6 The Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
19.6.1 The PyDrawConstants Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
19.6.2 The PyDrawView Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
19.6.3 The PyDrawMenuBar Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
19.6.4 The PyDrawController Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
19.6.5 The DrawingModel Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
19.6.6 The DrawingView Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
19.6.7 The DrawingController Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
19.6.8 The Figure Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
19.6.9 The Square Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
19.6.10 The Circle Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
19.6.11 The Line Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
19.6.12 The Text Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
19.7 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
19.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Part III Computer Games

20 Introduction to Games Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.2 Games Frameworks and Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
20.3 Python Games Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
20.4 Using Pygame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
21 Building Games with Pygame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
21.2 The Display Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
21.3 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
21.3.1 Event Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
21.3.2 Event Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
21.3.3 The Event Queue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Contents xix
21.4 A First pygame Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

21.5 Further Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
21.6 A More Interactive pygame Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
21.7 Alternative Approach to Processing Input Devices . . . . . . . . . . . 221
21.8 pygame Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
22 StarshipMeteors Pygame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
22.2 Creating a Spaceship Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
22.3 The Main Game Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
22.4 The GameObject Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
22.5 Displaying the Starship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
22.6 Moving the Spaceship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
22.7 Adding a Meteor Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
22.8 Moving the Meteors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
22.9 Identifying a Collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
22.10 Identifying a Win . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
22.11 Increasing the Number of Meteors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
22.12 Pausing the Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
22.13 Displaying the Game Over Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
22.14 The StarshipMeteors Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
22.16 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Part IV Testing
23 Introduction to Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
23.2 Types of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
23.3 What Should Be Tested? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
23.4 Types of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
23.4.1 Unit Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
23.4.2 Integration Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
23.4.3 System Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
23.4.4 Installation/Upgrade Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
23.4.5 Smoke Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
23.5 Automating Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
23.6 Test-Driven Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
23.6.1 The TDD Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
23.6.2 Test Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
23.6.3 Refactoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
23.7 Design for Testability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
23.7.1 Testability Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
23.9 Book Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
xx Contents
24 PyTest Testing Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
24.2 What is PyTest? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
24.3 Setting up PyTest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
24.4 A Simple PyTest Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
24.5 Working with PyTest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
24.6 Parameterised Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
24.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
25 Mocking for Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
25.2 Why Mock? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
25.3 What is Mocking? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
25.4 Common Mocking Framework Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
25.5 Mocking Frameworks for Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
25.6 The Unittest.Mock Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
25.6.1 Mock and Magic Mock Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
25.6.2 The Patchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
25.6.3 Mocking Returned Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
25.6.4 Validating Mocks Have Been Called . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
25.7 Mock and MagicMock Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
25.7.1 Naming Your Mocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
25.7.2 Mock Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
25.7.3 Attributes on Mock Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
25.7.4 Mocking Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
25.7.5 Mocking Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
25.7.6 Raising Exceptions with Mocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
25.7.7 Applying Patch to Every Test Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
25.7.8 Using Patch as a Context Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
25.8 Mock Where You Use It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
25.9 Patch Order Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
25.10 How Many Mocks? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
25.11 Mocking Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
25.13 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Part V File Input/Output

26 Introduction to Files, Paths and IO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
26.2 File Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
26.3 Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
26.4 File Input/Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Contents xxi
26.5 Sequential Access versus Random Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

26.6 Files and I/O in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
27 Reading and Writing Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
27.2 Obtaining References to Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
27.3 Reading Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
27.4 File Contents Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
27.5 Writing Data to Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
27.6 Using Files and with Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
27.7 The Fileinput Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
27.8 Renaming Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
27.9 Deleting Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
27.10 Random Access Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
27.11 Directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
27.12 Temporary Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
27.13 Working with Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
27.15 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
28 Stream IO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
28.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
28.2 What is a Stream? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
28.3 Python Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
28.4 IOBase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
28.5 Raw IO/UnBuffered IO Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
28.6 Binary IO/Buffered IO Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
28.7 Text Stream Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
28.8 Stream Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
28.9 Closing Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
28.10 Returning to the Open() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
28.11 Online Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
28.12 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
29 Working with CSV Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
29.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
29.2 CSV Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
29.2.1 The CSV Writer Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
29.2.2 The CSV Reader Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
29.2.3 The CSV DictWriter Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
29.2.4 The CSV DictReader Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
29.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
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30 Working with Excel Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
30.2 Excel Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
30.3 The Openpyxl. Workbook Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
30.4 The Openpyxl. WorkSheet Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
30.5 Working with Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
30.6 Sample Excel File Creation Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
30.7 Loading a Workbook from an Excel File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
30.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
31 Regular Expressions in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
31.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
31.2 What Are Regular Expressions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
31.3 Regular Expression Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
31.3.1 Pattern Metacharacters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
31.3.2 Special Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
31.3.3 Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
31.4 The Python re Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
31.5 Working with Python Regular Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
31.5.1 Using Raw Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
31.5.2 Simple Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
31.5.3 The Match Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
31.5.4 The search() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
31.5.5 The match() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
31.5.6 The Difference Between Matching
and Searching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
31.5.7 The finadall() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
31.5.8 The finditer() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
31.5.9 The split() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
31.5.10 The sub() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
31.5.11 The compile() Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
31.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Part VI Database Access

32 Introduction to Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
32.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
32.2 What Is a Database? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
32.2.1 Data Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
32.2.2 The Database Schema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
32.3 SQL and Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
32.4 Data Manipulation Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
32.5 Transactions in Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
32.6 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
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33 Python DB-API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

33.1 Accessing a Database from Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
33.2 The DB-API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
33.2.1 The Connect Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
33.2.2 The Connection Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
33.2.3 The Cursor Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
33.2.4 Mappings from Database Types to Python Types . . . . 372
33.2.5 Generating Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
33.2.6 Row Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
33.3 Transactions in PyMySQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
34 PyMySQL Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
34.1 The PyMySQL Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
34.2 Working with the PyMySQL Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
34.2.1 Importing the Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
34.2.2 Connect to the Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
34.2.3 Obtaining the Cursor Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
34.2.4 Using the Cursor Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
34.2.5 Obtaining Information About the Results . . . . . . . . . . . 380
34.2.6 Fetching Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
34.2.7 Close the Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
34.3 Complete PyMySQL Query Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
34.4 Inserting Data to the Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
34.5 Updating Data in the Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
34.6 Deleting Data in the Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
34.7 Creating Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
34.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Part VII Logging

35 Introduction to Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
35.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
35.2 Why Log? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
35.3 What is the Purpose of Logging? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
35.4 What Should You Log? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
35.5 What not to Log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
35.6 Why not Just Use Print? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
36 Logging in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
36.1 The Logging Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
36.2 The Logger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
36.3 Controlling the Amount of Information Logged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
36.4 Logger Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
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36.5 Default Logger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

36.6 Module Level Loggers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
36.7 Logger Hierarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
36.8 Formatters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
36.8.1 Formatting Log Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
36.8.2 Formatting Log Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
36.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
37 Advanced Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
37.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
37.2 Handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
37.2.1 Setting the Root Output Handler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
37.2.2 Programmatically Setting the Handler . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
37.2.3 Multiple Handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
37.3 Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
37.4 Logger Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
37.5 Performance Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
37.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Part VIII Concurrency and Parallelism

38 Introduction to Concurrency and Parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
38.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
38.2 Concurrency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
38.3 Parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
38.4 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
38.5 Grid Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
38.6 Concurrency and Synchronisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
38.7 Object Orientation and Concurrency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
38.8 Threads V Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
38.9 Some Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
39 Threading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
39.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
39.2 Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
39.2.1 Thread States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
39.2.2 Creating a Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
39.2.3 Instantiating the Thread Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
39.3 The Thread Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
39.4 The Threading Module Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
39.5 Passing Arguments to a Thread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
39.6 Extending the Thread Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
39.7 Daemon Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Contents xxv
39.8 Naming Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

39.9 Thread Local Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
39.10 Timers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
39.11 The Global Interpreter Lock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
39.13 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
40 MultiProcessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
40.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
40.2 The Process Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
40.3 Working with the Process Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
40.4 Alternative Ways to Start a Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
40.5 Using a Pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
40.6 Exchanging Data Between Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
40.7 Sharing State Between Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
40.7.1 Process Shared Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
40.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
41 Inter Thread/Process Synchronisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
41.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
41.2 Using a Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
41.3 Event Signalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
41.4 Synchronising Concurrent Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
41.5 Python Locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
41.6 Python Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
41.7 Python Semaphores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
41.8 The Concurrent Queue Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
41.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
42 Futures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
42.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
42.2 The Need for a Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
42.3 Futures in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
42.3.1 Future Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
42.3.2 Simple Example Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
42.4 Running Multiple Futures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
42.4.1 Waiting for All Futures to Complete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
42.4.2 Processing Results as Completed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
42.5 Processing Future Results Using a Callback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
42.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
xxvi Contents
43 Concurrency with AsyncIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

43.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
43.2 Asynchronous IO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
43.3 Async IO Event Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
43.4 The Async and Await Keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
43.4.1 Using Async and Await . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
43.5 Async IO Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
43.6 Running Multiple Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
43.6.1 Collating Results from Multiple Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
43.6.2 Handling Task Results as They Are Made
Available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
43.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
44 Performance Monitoring and Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
44.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
44.2 Why Monitor Performance and Memory? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
44.3 Performance Monitoring and Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
44.4 Performance Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
44.4.1 The Time Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
44.4.2 The Timeit Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
44.4.3 The Psutil Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
44.5 Python Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
44.5.1 The cProfile Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
44.5.2 The Line_Profiler Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
44.5.3 The Memory_Profiler Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
44.5.4 Additional Third-Party Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
44.6 Profiling with cProfile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
44.7 Memory Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
Part IX Reactive Programming

45 Reactive Programming Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
45.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
45.2 What Is a Reactive Application? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
45.3 The ReactiveX Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
45.4 The Observer Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
45.5 Hot and Cold Observables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
45.6 Differences Between Event Driven Programming
and Reactive Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
45.7 Advantages of Reactive Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
45.8 Disadvantages of Reactive Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
45.9 The RxPy Reactive Programming Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Contents xxvii
46 RxPy Observables, Observers and Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

46.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
46.2 RxPy Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
46.3 Observables in RxPy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
46.4 Observers in RxPy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
46.5 Multiple Subscribers/Observers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
46.6 Subjects in RxPy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
46.7 Observer Concurrency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
46.7.1 Available Schedulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
46.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
47 RxPy Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
47.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
47.2 Reactive Programming Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
47.3 Piping Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
47.4 Creational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
47.5 Transformational Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
47.6 Combinatorial Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
47.7 Filtering Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
47.8 Mathematical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
47.9 Chaining Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
47.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Part X Network Programming

48 Introduction to Sockets and Web Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
48.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
48.2 Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
48.3 Web Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
48.4 Addressing Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
48.5 Localhost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
48.6 Port Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
48.7 IPv4 Versus IPv6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
48.8 Sockets and Web Services in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
49 Sockets in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
49.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
49.2 Socket to Socket Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
49.3 Setting up a Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
49.4 An Example Client Server Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
49.4.1 The System Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
49.4.2 Implementing the Server Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
xxviii Contents
49.4.3 Socket Types and Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

49.4.4 Implementing the Client Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
49.5 The Socketserver Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
49.6 Http Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
49.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
50 Web Services in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
50.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
50.2 RESTful Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
50.3 A RESTful API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
50.4 Python Web Frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
51 Flask Web Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
51.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
51.2 Flask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
51.3 Hello World in Flask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
51.3.1 Using JSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
51.4 Implementing a Flask Web Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
51.4.1 A Simple Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
51.4.2 Providing Routing Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
51.5 Running the Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
51.6 Invoking the RESTFul Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
51.6.1 The Final Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
52 Flask Bookshop Web Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
52.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
52.2 Building a Flask Bookshop Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
52.3 The Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
52.4 The Domain Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
52.5 Encoding Books into JSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
52.6 Setting Up the GET Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
52.7 Deleting a Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
52.8 Adding a New Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
52.9 Updating a Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
52.10 What Happens if We Get It Wrong? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
52.11 Bookshop Services Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
52.12 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
Part XI Data Science: Data Analytics and Machine Learning

53 Introduction to Data Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
53.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
53.2 Data Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
53.3 Data Science Tools and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
Contents xxix
53.4 Data Analytics Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604

53.5 Python and Data Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
53.6 Machine Learning for Data Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
54 Pandas and Data Analytics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
54.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
54.2 The Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
54.2.1 The UK Government COVID Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
54.2.2 The Google Mobility Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
54.3 Python Pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
54.3.1 Pandas Series and DataFrames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
54.4 Loading and Analysing UK COVID Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
54.5 Loading the Google Mobility Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
54.6 Merging Two DataFrames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
54.7 Analysing the Combined Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
54.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
55 Alternatives to Pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
55.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
55.2 Comparing Pandas 2.0.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
55.3 Pandas 1.x v 2.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
55.4 Pandas Versus Other Libraries and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
56 Machine Learning in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
56.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
56.2 The Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
56.3 SciKitLearn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
56.4 The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
56.5 Using Regression Supervised Learning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
56.6 K-Nearest Neighbour Regressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
56.7 Decision Tree Regressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
56.8 Random Forest Regressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
56.9 Summary of Metrics Obtained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
56.10 Creating the Regressor Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
57 Pip and Conda Virtual Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
57.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
57.2 Virtual Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
57.3 Working with Pip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
57.3.1 Activating a Pip Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
57.3.2 Installing Modules Using Pip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
57.3.3 Deactivating a Pip Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
57.3.4 Check Version of Pip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
57.3.5 Installing Modules into a Pip Environment . . . . . . . . . 646
xxx Contents
57.3.6 Freezing Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647

57.4 Conda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
57.5 Anaconda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
57.5.1 Installing Anaconda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
57.6 Working with Anaconda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
57.6.1 Checking the Conda Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
57.6.2 Updating Conda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
57.6.3 Creating a Conda Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
57.6.4 Listing Available Conda Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
57.6.5 Activating a Conda Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
57.6.6 Deactivating a Conda Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
57.6.7 Listing the Modules Loaded into a Conda
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
57.6.8 Removing an Anaconda Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
57.6.9 Installing a Module into a Conda Environment . . . . . . 656
57.7 Anaconda in PyCharm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
“‘How stupid!’ said the Gräfinn. ‘At present she is a Madame de St.
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remain so long.’ And with a mischievous laugh she gave me her
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towards him, as those do who are willing to hear more. Château qui
parle furls its banner, femme qui écoute droops her head. Directly
opposite, looking very tall and fierce as he reared himself against the
doorway, stood Count V——. The Hungarian was pale as death. On
his face, so worn and haggard, so cruelly altered since I saw it last,
was set the stamp of physical pain, and he gnawed the corner of his
brown moustache with that tension of the muscles about the mouth
which denotes a paroxysm bravely kept down. As friends accosted
him in passing, he bowed his head kindly and courteously while his
whole face softened, but it was sad to see how soon the gleam
passed away and the cloud came back, darker and heavier than
before. The man’s heart, you see, was generous, kindly, and full of
trust—such a heart as women like Madame de St. Croix find it an
interesting amusement to break.
“I think he must have made her some kind of appeal; for later in
the evening I observed them together, and he was talking earnestly
in German, with a low pleading murmur, to which I thought few
women could have listened unmoved. She answered in French; and
I was sorry for him when she broke up the colloquy with a little
scornful shrug of her shoulders, observing in a hard, unfeeling tone
not like her usual voice, ‘Que voulez-vous? Enfin, c’est plus fort que
moi!’
“The Russian put her into her sledge, for there was a foot of snow
in the streets, and Count V—— walked home through it, with a smile
on his face and his head up, looking strangely elated, I thought, for a
man, the last strand of whose moorings had lately parted and left
him adrift.
“I had not then learned there is no temporary stimulant so powerful
as despair, no tonic so reviving as a parti pris.
“Next day, lounging into the Chancellerie of the Embassy for my
usual gossip, I found little Hughes, an unpaid attaché (who earned,
indeed, just as much as he received), holding forth with considerable
spirit and energy.
“‘Curse him!’ said this indomitable young Briton. ‘If it had been
swords, I should like to have fought him myself. I hate him! I tell you.
Everybody hates him. And V—— was the best chap between here
and Orsova. He was almost like an Englishman. Wouldn’t he just
have polished him off if they’d had swords. That old muff,
Bergheimer of the Cuirassiers, ought to be hanged. Do you think, if
I’d been his second, I’d have put him up with pistols against the best
shot in Europe?—and at the barrier too! It’s not like at home, you
know. I never knew such a mull as they made of it amongst them.
This cursed Calmuck gets the pull all through, and poor V——, who
had lost his fortune already, loses his lady-love and his life. What a
rum world it is!’
“Here the orator rolled and lit a cigarette, thus affording me a
moment to inquire into the cause of his indignation. I then learned
that, in consequence of a trifling dispute after last night’s ball, a duel
had been fought at daybreak, in the snow, between Count V—— and
a Russian nobleman, in which the former was shot through the heart.
“‘Never got one in at all!’ said Hughes, again waxing eloquent on
his friend’s wrongs. ‘I’ve seen both the seconds since. They were to
walk up to a handkerchief, and the Russian potted him at forty yards
the first step he made. They may say what they like about the row
originating in politics—I know better. They quarrelled because
Madame de St. Croix had left V—— and taken up with this snub-
nosed Tartar. First, she ruined my poor friend. I know all about it. He
hadn’t a rap left; for if she’d asked him for the shirt off his back, he’d
have stripped like beans! Then she broke his heart—the cheeriest,
jolliest, kindest fellow in Europe—to finish up by leaving him for
another man, who kills him before breakfast without a scruple; and if
the devil don’t get hold of her some fine day, why he’s a disgrace to
his appointment, that’s all! and they ought to make him Secretary of
Legation here, or pension him off somewhere and put him out of the
way! Have another cigarette!’
“Ten years afterwards I was sitting in the gardens of the Tuileries,
one fine morning towards the middle of May, wondering, as English
people always do wonder, on a variety of subjects—why the cigars
were so bad in Paris, and the air so exhilarating—why the tender
green leaves quivering over those deep alleys should have a
sunshine of their own besides that which they reflected from above—
why the bonnes and nursery-maids wore clean caps every day—why
the railings always looked as if they had been re-gilt the same
morning, and why the sentry at the gate should think it part of his
duty to leer at every woman who passed, like a satyr?
“Indeed I believe I was almost asleep, when I started in my chair,
and rubbed my eyes to make sure it was not a dream. There, within
ten paces of me, sat Madame de St. Croix, if I was still to call her so,
apparently not an hour older than the first time we met. The face was
even paler, the lips redder, the cruel eyes deeper and darker, but in
that flickering light the woman looked more beautiful than ever. She
was listening quietly and indolently, as of old, to a gentleman who sat
with his back to me, telling his own story, whatever it might be, in a
low, earnest, impressive voice. I raised my hat when I caught her
eye, and she bowed in return politely enough, but obviously without
recognition. The movement caused her companion to turn round,
and in two strides he was by my chair, grasping me cordially by the
hand. He was an old and intimate friend, a colonel in the French
army, by whose side I had experienced more than one strange
adventure, both in Eastern Europe and Asia-Minor—a man who had
served with distinction, of middle age, a widower, fond of society,
field-sports, speculation, and travelling; essentially bon camarade,
but thoroughly French in his reflections and opinions. The last man in
the world, I should have thought, to be made a fool of by a woman.
Well, there he was, her bounden slave! Absurdly happy if she
smiled, miserable when she frowned, ready to fetch and carry like a
poodle, perfectly childish about her, and utterly contemptible. If she
had really cared for him, the temptation must have been irresistible,
and she would have bullied him frightfully. But no, there was always
the same repose of manner, the same careless kindness, the same
melancholy, the same consciousness of an unquestionable
superiority. One of his reasons, he soon confided to me, for being so
fond of her was, that they never had an angry word! For a week or
two I saw a good deal of them. Paris was already empty, and we did
our plays, our Opéra Comique, and our little dinners pleasantly
enough. She was always the same, and I found myself, day by day,
becoming more conscious of that nameless charm about her, which I
should despair of being able to describe. Yet as often as I met the
glance of those deep, dark, unearthly eyes, a shudder crept over me,
such as chills you when you come face to face with a ghost in your
dreams. The colonel, I have said, was devoted to her. He was rarely
absent from her side, but if by chance alone with me, would talk of
her by the hour.
“He had found, he declared, fortunately before he was too old to
appreciate it, the one inestimable treasure the earth contained. He
had cherished his fancies, committed his follies, of course, tout
comme un autre, but he had never experienced anything like this. It
was his haven, his anchorage, his resting-place, and he might glide
down into old age, and on to death, perfectly happy, because
confident, that with her heart and her force of character, she would
never change. He could not be jealous of her. Oh no! She was so
frank, so confiding, so sincere. She, too, passé par là, had told him
so; unlike other women, had confessed to him not only her last, but
her many former attachments. He knew all about poor V——, who
was shot in a duel, and the Russian general, banished to Siberia.
How fortunate she had broken with him before his disgrace,
because, in the loyalty of her nature, she would surely have followed
him into exile, although she never cared for him in her heart, never!
No, nor for any of the others; never had been fairly touched till now.
Him, the colonel, she really did love. He had proved his devotion so
thoroughly (I found out afterwards, though not from him, that my
friend had been fool enough to sacrifice both fortune and profession
for her sake), he was so reliable, she said, so kind, and so good. In
short, he was perfectly happy, and could see no cloud in his horizon,
look which way he would.
“When I left Paris they accompanied me to the railway station; and
the last I saw of them was their two heads very close over a railway
guide, projecting a trip into a lonely part of Switzerland, where they
would have no society but their own.
“Six months afterwards ‘Galignani’ informed me that my friend the
colonel had been reinstated in the French army and appointed to a
regiment of Chasseurs d’Afrique then serving in Algeria, where,
before the Tuileries Gardens were again green, I learned from the
same source he had already solved the great problem in an affair of
outposts with the Khabyles. Long years elapsed, and there were
streaks of grey in my hair and whiskers ere I saw Madame de St.
Croix again. I had heard of her, indeed, at intervals both in London
and Paris. I am bound to say her name was always coupled with
those who were distinguished by birth, talent, or success. She was
very choice, I believe, in the selection of her victims, despising
equally an easy conquest and one of which the ravages could be
readily repaired. The women hated her, the men said she was
charming. For my part I kept out of her way: we were destined to
meet, nevertheless. I had embarked in a Peninsular and Oriental
steamer at Marseilles very much indisposed, and retiring at once to
my berth never quitted it till we were entering the Straits of Buoni-
faccio. Here I came on deck, weak, exhausted, but convalescent,
drinking in the sunshine and the scenery with that thirst for the
beautiful which becomes so fierce after the confinement of recent
illness. I literally revelled in the Mediterranean air, and basked in the
warmth of those bright colours so peculiar to the shores of that
summer sea. I was approaching middle age; I had ventured body
and mind freely enough in the great conflict; and yet, I thank heaven,
had hitherto been spared the crushing sorrow that makes a mockery
of the noblest and purest enjoyments of earth, causing a man to turn
from all that is fairest in sight and sense and sound with the sickness
of a dead hope curdling at his heart. But then I had kept clear of
Madame de St. Croix.
“When my eyes were at last sated with the gaudy hues of the
coast and the golden glitter of the water, I was a little surprised to
see that lady sitting within three paces of me reading a yellow-bound
French novel. Great heaven! what was the woman’s secret? She
looked younger than ever! Even in the searching glare of a southern
noon not a line could be detected on the pure, pale forehead, not a
crease about the large, wistful, glittering eyes. That she was gifted
with perennial youth I could see for myself; that she was dangerous
even to the peace of a grey-haired man, I might have found out to
my cost had our voyage been retarded by contrary winds or any
such unavoidable delay, for she was good enough to recognise me
on this occasion, and to give me a large share of her conversation
and companionship. Thus it was I learned to own the spell under
which so many had succumbed, to appreciate its power, not to
understand, far less describe, its nature. Fortunately for me, ere its
work could be completed, we arrived at Athens, and at Athens lay a
trim, rakish-looking English yacht, with her ensign flying and her
foretopsail loosed, waiting only the steamer’s arrival to spread her
wings and bear off this seductive sorceress to some garden of
paradise in the Egean Sea.
“The owner of the yacht I had often heard of. He was a man
remarkable for his enterprise and unfailing success in commerce as
for his liberality, and indeed extravagance, in expenditure. He chose
to have houses, pictures, horses, plate, everything of the best, was
justly popular in society, and enormously rich.
“I never asked and never knew the port to which that yacht was
bound. When we steamed out of the harbour she was already hull-
down in the wake of a crimson sunset that seemed to stain the
waters with a broad track of blood; but I saw her sold within eighteen
months at Southampton, for her late owner’s name had appeared in
the ‘Gazette,’ and the man himself, I was told, might be found,
looking very old and careworn, setting cabbages at Hanwell,
watching eagerly for the arrival of a lady who never came.
“You may believe I thought more than once of the woman whose
strange destiny it had been thus to enslave generation after
generation of fools, and to love whom seemed as fatal as to be a
priest of Aricia or a favourite of Catharine II. Nevertheless, while time
wore on, I gradually ceased to think of her beauty, her heartlessness,
her mysterious youth, or her magic influence over mankind.
Presently, amongst a thousand engrossing occupations and
interests, I forgot her as if she had never been.
“I have driven a good many vehicles in my time, drags, phaetons,
dogcarts, down to a basket-carriage drawn by a piebald pony with a
hog-mane. Nay, I once steered a hansom cab up Bond Street in the
early morning, freighted with more subalterns than I should like to
specify of her Majesty’s Household Troops, but I never thought I
should come to a bath chair!
“Nevertheless I found myself at last an inside passenger of one of
these locomotive couches, enjoying the quiet and the air of the
gardens at Hampton Court in complete and uninterrupted solitude.
The man who dragged me to this pleasant spot having gone to ‘get
his dinner,’ as he called it, and the nursery-maids, with their
interesting charges, having retired from their morning, and not yet
emerged for their afternoon stroll, I lay back, and thought of so many
things—of the strength and manhood that had departed from me for
ever; of the strange, dull calm that comes on with the evening of life,
and contents us so well we would not have its morning back if we
could; of the gradual clairvoyance that shows us everything in its true
colours and at its real value; of the days, and months, and years so
cruelly wasted, but that their pleasures, their excitements, their sins,
their sorrows, and their sufferings, were indispensable for the great
lesson which teaches us to see. Of these things I thought, and
through them still, as at all times, moved the pale presence of an
unforgotten face, passing like a spirit, dim and distant, yet dear as
ever, across the gulf of years—a presence that, for good or evil, was
to haunt me to the end.
“Something in the association of ideas reminded me of Madame
de St. Croix, and I said to myself, ‘At last age must have overtaken
that marvellous beauty, and time brought the indomitable spirit to
remorse, repentance, perhaps even amendment. What can have
made me think of her in a quiet, peaceful scene like this?’
“Just then a lady and gentleman crossed the gravel walk in front of
me, and took their places on a seat under an old tree not a dozen
yards off. It was a lovely day in early autumn; the flowers were still
ablaze with the gaudiest of their summer beauty, the sky was all
dappled grey and gold, earth had put on the richest dress she wears
throughout the year; but here and there a leaf fell noiseless on the
sward, as if to testify that she too must shed all her glories in due
season, and yield, like other beauties, her unwilling tribute to decay.
“But there was nothing of autumn in the pair who now sat opposite
my couch, chatting, laughing, flirting, apparently either ignoring or
disregarding my proximity. The man was in all the bloom and beauty
of youth; the woman, though looking a few years older, did not yet
seem to have attained her prime. I could scarcely believe my eyes!
Yes, if ever I beheld Madame de St. Croix, there she sat with her
fatal gaze turned on this infatuated boy, leading him gradually,
steadily, surely, to the edge of that chasm into which those who
plunged came to the surface nevermore. It was the old story over
again. How well I remembered, even after such an interval, the
tender droop of the head, the veiling eyelashes, the glance so
quickly averted, yet, like a snapshot, telling with such deadly effect;
the mournful smile, the gentle whisper, the quiet confiding gesture of
the slender hand, all the by-play of the most accomplished and most
unscrupulous of actresses. There was no more chance of escape for
her companion than for a fisherman of the North Sea, whose skiff
has been sucked into the Maëlstrohm, with mast unshipped and oars
adrift half a mile astern. By sight, if not personally, I then knew most
of the notabilities of the day. The boy, for such I might well call him in
comparison with myself, seemed too good for his fate, and yet I saw
well enough it was inevitable. He had already made himself a name
as a poet of no mean pretensions, and held besides the character of
a high-spirited, agreeable, and unaffected member of society. Add to
this, that he was manly, good-looking, and well-born; nothing more
seemed wanting to render him a fit victim for the altar at which he
was to be offered up. Like his predecessors, he was fascinated. The
snake held him in her eye. The poor bird’s wings were fluttering, its
volition was gone, its doom sealed. Could nothing save it from the
destroyer? I longed to have back, if only for a day, the powers which
I had regretted so little half-an-hour ago. Weak, helpless, weary, and
worn-out, I yet determined to make an effort, and save him if I could.
“They rose to go, but found the gate locked through which they
had intended to pass. She had a way of affecting a pretty wilfulness
in trifles, and sent him to fetch the key. Prompt to obey her lightest
wish, he bounded off in search of it, and following slowly, she passed
within two paces of my chair, bending on its helpless invalid a look
that seemed to express far less pity for his condition than a grudging
envy of his lot. I stopped her with a gesture that in one more able-
bodied would have been a bow, and, strange to say, she recognised
me at once. There was not a moment to lose. I took courage from a
certain wistful look that gave softness to her eyes, and I spoke out.
“‘We shall never meet again,’ I said; ‘we have crossed each
other’s paths at such long intervals, and on such strange occasions,
but I know this is the last of them! Why time stands still for you is a
secret I cannot fathom, but the end must come some day, put it off
however long you will. Do you not think that when you become as I
am, a weary mortal, stumbling with half-shut eyes on the edge of an
open grave, it would be well to have one good deed on which you
could look back, to have reprieved one out of the many victims on
whom you have inflicted mortal punishment for the offence of loving
you so much better than you deserve? Far as it stretches behind
you, every footstep in your track is marked with sorrow—more than
one with blood. Show mercy now, as you may have to ask it
hereafter. Life is all before this one, and it seems cruel thus to blast
the sapling from its very roots. He is hopeful, trustful, and fresh-
hearted—spare him and let him go.’
“She was fitting the glove on her faultless little hand. Her brow
seemed so calm, so soft and pure, that for a moment I thought I had
conquered, but looking up from her feminine employment, I
recognised the hungry glitter in those dark, merciless eyes, and I
knew there was no hope.
“‘It is too late,’ she answered, ‘too late to persuade either him or
me. It is no fault of mine. It is fate. For him—for the others—for all of
us. Sometimes I wish it had not been so. Mine has been an unhappy
life, and there seems to be no end, no resting-place. I can no more
help myself than a drowning wretch, swept down by a torrent; but I
am too proud to catch at the twigs and straws that would break off in
my hand. I would change places with you willingly. Yes—you in that
bath chair. I am so tired sometimes, and yet I dare not wish it was all
over. Think of me as forbearingly as you can, for we shall not cross
each other’s path again.’
“‘And this boy?’ I asked, striving to detect something of
compunction in the pitiless face that was yet so beautiful.
“‘He must take his chance with the rest,’ she said. ‘Here he comes
—good-bye.’
“They walked away arm-in-arm through the golden autumn
weather, and a chill came into my very heart, for I knew what that
chance was worth.
“A few months, and the snow lay six inches deep over the grave of
him whose opening manhood had been so full of promise, so rich in
all that makes youth brightest, life most worth having; while a woman
in deep mourning was praying there, under the wintry sky; but this
woman was his mother, and her heart was broken for the love she
bore her boy.
“His death had been very shocking, very sudden. People talked of
a ruptured blood-vessel, a fall on his bedroom floor, a doctor not to
be found when sent for; a series of fatalities that precluded the
possibility of saving him; but those who pretended to know best
affirmed that not all the doctors in Europe could have done any
good, for when his servant went to call him in the morning he found
his master lying stark and stiff, having been dead some hours. There
was a pool of blood on his carpet; there were ashes of burnt letters
in his fireplace; more, they whispered with meaning shrugs and
solemn, awe-struck faces—
‘There was that across his throat

Which you had hardly cared to see.’
“You can understand now that I believe in Vampires.”

“What became of her?” I asked, rather eagerly, for I was interested
in this Madame de St. Croix. I like a woman who goes into extremes,
either for good or evil. Great recklessness, equally with great
sensibility, has its charm for such a temperament as mine. I can
understand, though I cannot explain, the influence possessed by
very wicked women who never scruple to risk their own happiness
as readily as their neighbours’. I wanted to know something more
about Madame de St. Croix, but he was not listening; he paid no
attention to my question. In a tone of abstraction that denoted his
thoughts were many miles away, he only murmured,
“Insatiate—impenetrable—pitiless. The others were bad enough in
all conscience, but I think she might have spared the boy!”
CHAPTER V
GOLD FOR SILVER
“The African Magician never minded all their scoffs and holloaings,
or all they could say to him, but still cry’d Who’ll change old Lamps for
new ones? which he repeated so often about the Princess
Badroulbondour’s Palace, that that Princess, who was then in the Hall
with the four-and-twenty Windows, hearing a Man cry something, and
not being able to distinguish his Words, by reason of the holloaing of
the Mob about him, sent one of her Women Slaves down to know
what he cry’d.
“The Slave was not long before she return’d, and ran into the Hall,
laughing so heartily, that the Princess could not forbear herself. ‘Well,
Gigler,’ said the Princess, ‘will you tell me what you laugh at?’ ‘Alas!
Madam,’ answered the Slave, laughing still, ‘who can forbear laughing
to see a Fool with a Basket on his Arm, full of fine new Lamps, ask to
change them for old ones, which makes the Children and Mob make
such a Noise about him?’”
What a fool they thought him, and no wonder. Yet surely a magician
need not come all the way from Africa to teach the public this
strange rate of exchange. In Europe, Asia, and America too, as far
as it has yet been colonised, such one-sided bargains are made
every day.
Old lamps for new, kicks for halfpence—“Heads I win, Tails you
lose”—such are the laws of equity by which man deals with his
neighbour; and so the contest goes on, if, indeed, as Juvenal says,
that can be called a contest—
“Ubi tu pulsas, ego vapulo tantum.”[1]
The slave of the princess with the long name had passed more of
her life in the palace than the streets, or she would not have found
the magician’s cry so strange: would have felt uncomfortably
conscious that the day might come when she, too, would barter new
lamps for old, perhaps humbly on her knees, entreating permission
to make the unequal exchange. In all the relations of life, but chiefly
in those with which the affections are concerned, we constantly see
gold for silver offered with both hands.
That “it is better to give than to receive” we have Scriptural warrant
for asserting. That—
“Sure the pleasure is as great

In being cheated as to cheat,”
we learn from Butler’s quaint and philosophical couplets. I am not

going to assert that the man who puts down sovereigns and takes up
shillings has really the worst of it; I only maintain that the more freely
he “parts” with the former, the more sparing will he find the latter
doled out to him in return.
Perhaps the strongest case in point is that of parent and child.
In the animal world I know few arrangements of Nature more
beautiful than the absolute devotion of maternity to its offspring, so
long, though only so long, as its assistance is required. A bird
feeding her young, a tigress licking her cubs, a mare wheeling round
her foal—each of these affords an example of loving care and
tenderness, essentially feminine in its utter forgetfulness of self.
Each of these squanders such gold as it possesses, the treasure of
its deep instinctive affection, on ingratitude and neglect. The
nestlings gape with hungry little beaks, when they hear the flap of
wings, not to greet the coming provider, but that they may eat and be
filled. The cubs huddle themselves up to their mother’s side for
warmth and comfort, not for her cruel beauty nor her fierce protecting
love. The foal, when it gets on its long legs, will follow your horse or
mine as readily as its dam. They take all, to give back nothing in
exchange. And no sooner can the bird use its wings, the beast its
limbs, than it abandons at once and for ever the parent whose
sustaining care is no longer necessary to its existence.
With the human race, although I am far from affirming that, even in
this age of bronze, filial piety has fled with other virtues from the
earth, something of the same unequal barter holds good in the
relationship of parent and child. The former gives gold, the latter
does not always return silver. Do not deceive yourself. You love your
children more than your children love you. I can prove it in three
words. They are dearer to you than your own parents. And this
inequality of affection is but one more of the beautiful arrangements
made by that Providence which bestows good so liberally in
proportion to evil. Under the common law of Nature, you are likely to
die first, and the aggregate amount of suffering is, therefore, much
less than it would be did the course of domestic affection flow the
other way. So you toil, and slave, and scheme for the child’s benefit,
forgiving its errors, repairing its follies, re-establishing its fortunes,
just as, long ago, you used to rebuild with loving patience those
houses of cards the urchin blew down with such delight. But, as of all
human affections, this, if not the strongest, is certainly the deepest
and most abiding, so when wounded does it inflict on our moral
being the sharpest and most enduring pain. “Is there any cause in
Nature that makes these hard hearts?” says poor King Lear, forced,
against his own instincts, to acknowledge the venomed bite of that
“serpent’s tooth” with which elsewhere he compares a “thankless
child.” I have known men, and women too, accept with courage
every sample of misfortune and disgrace—in the language of the
prize-ring, “come up smiling” after every kind of knock-down blow—
but I cannot remember an instance in which the ingratitude of
children has not produced wrinkles and grey hairs, in the proportion
of ten to one, for every other sorrow of any description whatever.
There is no prospect of alleviation to amuse his fancy—no
leavening of pique to arouse his pride. Hurt to the death, the sufferer
has scarce manhood enough left to conceal his wounds.
In that conflict between man and woman which is perpetually
going on, and without which the world, if more comfortable, would
undoubtedly be less populous, gold is invariably given for silver with
a lavish extravagance, akin to the absurdity of the whole thing.
Why is love like the handle of a teapot?—Because it is all on one
side. The game has yet to be invented in which both players can win;
and perhaps were it not for the discomfort, anxiety, worry, sorrow,
and suffering entailed by the unequal pastime, it would cease to be
so popular. As it exists at present, there is nothing to complain of on
the score of flagging interest. At first, indeed, before the cards are
cut, the adversaries sit down calmly and pleasantly enough. An hour
hangs heavy on their hands, and they think thus to drive it agreeably
away—beginning simply for “distraction,” as the French call it,
though ending in the English acceptation of that uncomfortable word.
Ere the first tricks are turned, however, the game grows exciting. “I
propose.” “How many?” “Hearts are trumps.” “I mark the king.” The
stakes increase rapidly in value, and presently gold comes pouring
lavishly out of one player’s pocket, against silver dribbling unwillingly
from the other’s. The winner, too, like all gamblers, seldom cares to
keep the fruit of his good fortune, but loses it again at another table
to some stronger adversary, who is beggared in turn elsewhere.
Yet still in all places, and under all circumstances, wherever this
game is played there is the same inequality in the stakes. “Gold for
silver.” Such are the terms; and the old players, to do them justice,
those who have lost and won many a heavy wager, are generally
careful to begin at least by venturing the commoner metal. But even
of these the discretion is not to be trusted as the game goes on.
Touched by the magic rod, maddened by the spell against which
Wisdom is often less proof than Folly, the sternest and the sagest
will throw their gold about as recklessly as if every piece were not
stamped with the impress of their honour and their happiness,
precious as the very drops of life-blood at their heart.
Perhaps it is wiser to stick to any other pursuit in the world than
the one in question; but if you must needs sit down to this “beggar-
my-neighbour” kind of amusement, is it better to lose or to win? to
give or accept the gold for silver passing so freely from hand to
hand? Will you have the satisfaction hereafter of standing on the
higher ground? of feeling you have nothing to reproach yourself with,
nothing to be ashamed of? or will you take comfort in reflecting that
while the storm raged above your head you had been careful to
shelter cunningly from the blast? Will you exult in your forethought,
your philosophy, the accurate knowledge of human nature, that has
preserved you scatheless through the combat? or will you take pride
in your generosity, your magnanimity, and the self-devoted courage
that bids you accept the stab of ingratitude in addition to the pain of
neglect? It depends entirely on character and temperament.
Men and women vary so much in this, as in every other phase of
feeling. The latter, when they do take the more generous view of
their position—when they can bring themselves to choose “the better
part,” accept it, I think, with a more complete abandonment of pique
than the former. Perhaps their pride is of a nobler order: no doubt
their vanity is less egotistical than our own. With us, except in the
highest natures—and these, as has been well remarked, have ever a
leavening of the feminine element in their organisation—there is
always something of irritation left after a wound of the affections has
healed up—something that stints and rankles, and looks to reprisals
of one kind or another for relief. I have read an old tale of chivalry so
thoroughly exemplifying this state of feeling, and affording so natural
an example of the changes and counterchanges with which gold and
silver are staked against each other in the dangerous game, that I
cannot forbear quoting it here.
“A certain knight had long loved a damsel at the court of the King
of France; but she, albeit accepting the service of none other, treated
him with such coldness and duresse, that he at length obtained the
title of the ‘Patient Knight,’ and she of the ‘Scornful Ladye.’ In vain he
sat at her feet in hall; in vain wore her colours in the lists; in vain
added to his cognisance the motto ‘Sans espérance,’ above the
representation of a dungeon-grate, to signify the hopelessness of his
captivity. She looked upon him coldly as the winter moon looks on a
frozen lake; she turned from him pitilessly as the bending poplar
turns from the south wind, whispering its longing and its sorrows,
wooing her even with its tears.
“So minstrels sang in their lays of his constancy, and knights
marvelled at his subjection, and ladies pitied—it may be despised
him also a little for his long-suffering: but still the ‘Patient Knight’
struck hard and shouted high for the renown of her he loved; and still
the ‘Scornful Ladye’ accepted his homage, and took credit for his
deeds-of-arms with scant courtesy, and cruel neglect, and high
imperious disdain.
“So the King bade his knights and nobles to a feast; and because
there was to be a solemn passage-of-arms held on the morrow, he
entertained them with a fight of wild beasts in the Carrousel,
whereon lords and ladies looked down in safety from the galleries
above. But many a soft cheek grew pale none the less, when a lion
and a tiger were let loose to battle for their lives.
“Now even while they glared on each other ere they closed, the
‘Scornful Ladye’ dropped her glove between the beasts of prey.
Quoth she, with a mocking smile, ‘An I had a bachelor here who
loved me well, he would fetch me back this glove that the wind hath
blown from my hand.’
“Then the ‘Patient Knight’ made no more ado, but drew his good
sword and leapt lightly down into the Carrousel, where he picked the
glove from the earth, and returning scatheless to his place, laid it in
silence at her feet.
“Then the ‘Scornful Ladye’ wept sweet and happy tears; for his
great love had conquered at last, and she would follow him meekly
now to the end of the world.
“But she shed bitter tears on the morrow, when he rode into the
lists with another’s sleeve in his helmet, another’s colours on his
housings, and his shield blazoned with the fresh device of a broken
fetter and the motto, ‘Tout lasse—tout casse—tout passe!’”
So, you see, these adversaries changed places at last; and you
will probably be of opinion that the Knight had the best of it in the
end.
Perhaps it “served her right.” And yet to me it seems that there
may come a time when to have given gold for silver in every relation
of life shall be the one consoling reflection that enables us to quit it
without misgivings for the future, without regret for the past,—a time
perhaps of hushed voices, stealthy footsteps, and a darkened room,
growing yet strangely darker with every breath we draw. Or a time of
eager comrades, trampling squadrons, short sharp words of
command, a bugle sounding the Advance, a cocked-hat glancing
through the smoke; a numb sick helplessness that glues the cheek
into the dust where it has fallen, and a roll of musketry, feebler,
farther, fainter, and more confused, till its warlike echoes die out in
the hush of another world. Or a time of earth-stained garments, and
bespattered friends proffering silver hunting-flasks in sheer dismay,
and a favourite horse brought back with flying stirrups, dangling rein,
and its mane full of mud, while the dull grey sky wheels above, and
the dank, tufted grass heaves below, nor in the intervals of a pain,
becoming every moment less keen, can we stifle the helpless
consciousness that before our crushed frame shall be lifted from its
wet, slippery resting-place, it will be time to die.
At such moments as these, I say, to have given gold for silver
while we could, can surely be no matter of regret.
I recollect a quaint old tombstone—I beg your pardon for the
allusion—on which I once read the following inscription:—
“What I spent I had—what I saved I lost—what I gave I have.”
Surely this sentiment will bear analysing. “What I spent I had.” I
enjoyed it, wasted it, got rid of it: derive from it now as much
enjoyment as can ever be extracted from past pleasures of which
self-indulgence was the motive—that is to say, none at all! “What I
saved I lost.” Undoubtedly. Mortgages, Consols, building-leases,
railway scrip—it was locked up in securities that I could by no means
bring with me here. It has been an error of judgment, a bad
speculation, a foolish venture, a dead loss. “But what I gave I have.”
Ah! There I did good business: took the turn of the market; invested
my capital in a bank that pays me cent. per cent. even now; and this,
not only for the dross we call money, but for the real treasures of the
heart—affection, kindliness, charity, help to the needy, sympathy with
the sorrowful, protection to the weak, and encouragement to the
forlorn. The silver I had in return has been left long ago on earth:
perhaps there was barely enough to make a plate for my coffin; but
the gold I gave is in my own possession still, and has been beaten
into a crown for me in heaven.
Yes. “It is better to give than to receive.” With few exceptions the
great benefactors of mankind have been in this world defrauded of
their wages. Columbus died perhaps the poorest man in the whole
kingdom he had spent his lifetime to enrich. Socrates sold the
treasures of his intellect—the deductions of the greatest mind in
antiquity—for a draught of hemlock on a prison floor. The fable of
Prometheus has been enacted over and over again. Those who
scale the heavens that they may bring down fire to enlighten and
comfort their fellow-men, must not hope to escape the vulture and
the rock. I have always thought that wondrous story the deepest and
the most suggestive in the whole heathen mythology. Its hero was
the first discoverer, the first free-thinker, the first reformer. He was
even proof against the seductions of woman, and detected in
Pandora’s box the multiplicity of evils that secured the presence of
Hope within its compass, and prevented her flying back to the
heaven whence she came. The only Olympian deity he would
condescend to worship was the Goddess of Wisdom; and she it was
who taught her votary to outwit Jupiter, the great principle of what
may be termed physical nature. By science man baffles the
elements, or renders them subservient to his purpose. He was a
herbalist, a doctor, a meteorologist, and universal referee for gods
and men. He taught the latter all the arts necessary to extort a
livelihood from the earth; showed them how to yoke their oxen and
bridle their steeds. He was wise, laborious, provident, and paternal—
the first philosopher, the great benefactor of his time, and—his
reward was to lie in chains on Mount Ætna with a vulture sheathing
her beak in his heart.
Can we not see in this heathen parable some glimmering of the
Great Hope which was never entirely obscured to the ancient world?
—some faint foresight of, some vague longing after, the great
Example which has since taught its holy lesson of self-abnegation
and self-sacrifice? It is not for me to enlarge on a topic so sacred
and so sublime. Enough for us and such as we are, if by lavishing
gold for silver freely on our brother, we can cast but one humble mite
into the treasury of our God.
There is much talk in the world about ingratitude. People who do
good to others at cost or inconvenience to themselves are apt to
expect a great flow of thanks, a great gush of sentiment in return.
They are generally disappointed. Those natures which feel benefits

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Advanced Guide to Python 3

Programming, 2nd 2nd Edition John

Advanced Guide to Python 3

ISSN 1863-7310 ISSN 2197-1781 (electronic)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019, 2023

Chippenham, UK John Hunt

Some of the key aspects of this book are

What You Need

def draw_koch(size, depth):

Example Code and Sample Solutions

Part I Advanced Language Features

4.5 The Weakref Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

8.4 The Copy Module to the Rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Part II Computer Graphics and GUIs

12.3 Other Graphics Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

16 Graphical User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

19 PyDraw Tkinter Example Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Part III Computer Games

21.4 A First pygame Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

24 PyTest Testing Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Part V File Input/Output

26.5 Sequential Access versus Random Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

30 Working with Excel Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

Part VI Database Access

33 Python DB-API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

Part VII Logging

36.5 Default Logger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

Part VIII Concurrency and Parallelism

39.8 Naming Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442

43 Concurrency with AsyncIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493

Part IX Reactive Programming

46 RxPy Observables, Observers and Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

Part X Network Programming

49.4.3 Socket Types and Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

Part XI Data Science: Data Analytics and Machine Learning

53.4 Data Analytics Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604

57.3.6 Freezing Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647

‘There was that across his throat

“You can understand now that I believe in Vampires.”

“Ubi tu pulsas, ego vapulo tantum.”[1]

“Sure the pleasure is as great

we learn from Butler’s quaint and philosophical couplets. I am not

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