olitical reforms and sociopolitical issues

Main articles: Democratic development in Hong Kong and Human rights in Hong Kong

2019–2020 Hong Kong protests

Hong Kong is governed by a hybrid regime that is not fully representative of the population. Legislative Council members
elected by functional constituencies composed of professional and special interest groups are accountable to these narrow cor-
porate electorates and not the general public. This electoral arrangement has guaranteed a pro-establishment majority in the
legislature since the handover. Similarly, the chief executive is selected by establishment politicians and corporate members of
the Election Committee rather than directly elected.[135] Although universal suffrage for the chief executive and all Legislative
Council elections are defined goals of Basic Law Articles 45 and 68,[136] the legislature is only partially directly elected, and the
executive continues to be nominated by an unrepresentative body.[135] The government has been repeatedly petitioned to intro-
duce direct elections for these positions.[137][138]
Ethnic minorities (except those of European ancestry) have marginal representation in government and often experience dis-
crimination in housing, education, and employment.[139][140] Employment vacancies and public service appointments frequently
have language requirements which minority job seekers do not meet, and language education resources remain inadequate for
Chinese learners.[141][142] Foreign domestic helpers, predominantly women from the Philippines and Indonesia, have little protec-
tion under regional law. Although they live and work in Hong Kong, these workers are not treated as ordinary residents and do
not have the right of abode in the territory.[143] Sex trafficking in Hong Kong is an issue. Local and foreign women and girls are of-
ten forced into prostitution in brothels, homes, and businesses in the city.[144][145][146][147]
The Joint Declaration guarantees the Basic Law of Hong Kong for 50 years after the handover.[68] It does not specify how Hong
Kong will be governed after 2047, and the central government's role in determining the territory's future system of government is
the subject of political debate and speculation. Hong Kong's political and judicial systems may be integrated with China's at that
time, or the territory may continue to be administered separately.[148][149] However, in response to large-scale protests in 2019 and
2020, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passed the controversial Hong Kong national security law.
[150]
The law criminalises secession, subversion, terrorism and collusion with foreign elements and establishes the Office for Safe-
guarding National Security of the CPG in the HKSAR, an investigative office under Central People's Government authority im-
mune from HKSAR jurisdiction. Some of the aforementioned acts were previously considered protected speech under Hong
Kong law.[112][151] The United Kingdom considers the law to be a serious violation of the Joint Declaration.[152] In October 2020, Hong
Kong police arrested seven pro-democracy politicians over tussles with pro-Beijing politicians in the Legislative Council in May.
They were charged with contempt and interfering with members of the council, while none of the pro-Beijing lawmakers were
detained.[153] Annual commemorations of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre were also cancelled amidst fears
of violating the national security law.[154] In March 2021, the Chinese central government unilaterally changed Hong Kong's elec-
toral system and established the Candidate Eligibility Review Committee, which would be tasked with screening and evaluating
political candidates for their "patriotism".[87]

Geography
Main articles: Geography of Hong Kong and Environment of Hong Kong

Areas of urban development and vegetation are visible in this

satellite image.
Hong Kong is on China's southern coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau, on the east side of the mouth of the Pearl River estuary.
It is surrounded by the South China Sea on all sides except the north, which neighbours the Guangdong city of Shenzhen along
the Sham Chun River. The territory's 1,110.18 km2 (428.64 sq mi)[155] area (2,754.97 km2[155] if the maritime area is included) con-
sists of Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula, the New Territories, Lantau Island, and over 200 other islands. Of the total
area, 1,073 km2 (414 sq mi) is land and 35 km2 (14 sq mi) is water.[156] The territory's highest point is Tai Mo Shan, 957 metres
(3,140 ft) above sea level.[157] Urban development is concentrated on the Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong Island, and in new
towns throughout the New Territories.[158] Much of this is built on reclaimed land; 70 km2 (27 sq mi) (6% of the total land or about
25% of developed space in the territory) is reclaimed from the sea.[159]
Undeveloped terrain is hilly to mountainous, with very little flat land, and consists mostly of grassland, woodland, shrubland, or
farmland.[160][161] About 40% of the remaining land area is country parks and nature reserves.[162] The territory has a diverse ecosys-
tem; over 3,000 species of vascular plants occur in the region (300 of which are native to Hong Kong), and thousands of insect,
avian, and marine species.[163][164]

Climate
Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa), characteristic of southern China, despite being located south of
the Tropic of Cancer, although closely bordering on a tropical climate. Summers are long, hot and humid, with occasional show-
ers and thunderstorms and warm air from the southwest. The humid nature of Hong Kong exacerbates the warmth of sum-
mer. Typhoons occur most often then, sometimes resulting in floods or landslides. Winters are short, mild and usually sunny at
the beginning, becoming cloudy towards February. Frequent cold fronts bring strong, cooling winds from the north and occasion-
ally result in chilly weather. Autumn is the sunniest season, whilst spring is generally cloudy.[165] Snowfall has been extremely
rare in Hong Kong; the last reported instance was on Tai Mo Shan in 1975.[166] Hong Kong averages 1,709 hours of sunshine per
year.[167] Historic temperature extremes at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36.6 °C (97.9 °F) on 22 August 2017 and 0.0 °C
(32.0 °F) on 18 January 1893.[168] The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in all of Hong Kong are 39.0 °C (102 °F) at Wet-
land Park on 22 August 2017,[169] and −6.0 °C (21.2 °F) at Tai Mo Shan on 24 January 2016.[170]

showClimate data for Hong Kong (Hong Kong Observatory), normals 1991–2020,[g] extremes 1884–1939 and 1947–present

Architecture