Module 2023 Chem For Engineering v3 MIDTERMS

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BY: RUTH T. LIBAG, RMT, LPT, MAE CHEMISTRY 1

UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY: NATURE OF SCIENCE,
SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND MEASUREMENTS
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

Chemistry has been called the “central science” because it is important to so many
other fields of scientific study. This text and the course are designed to help connect
pieces of information already picked up, increase the understanding of chemical
concepts, and give a more coherent and systematic picture of chemistry. The ultimate
goal is to help the students understand the natural world. This type of perspective of the
world is what enables chemists and engineers to devise strategies for refining metals from
their ores, as well as to approach the many other applied problems that will be explored.
Chemistry is the branch of science concerned with the properties, composition,

and structure of substances and the changes they undergo when they combine or react
under specified conditions. The following are some examples of how chemistry is
important in our daily lives:
1. It provides men the basic necessities in life like shelter, food and clothing.
2. It provides men luxuries in life like convenient transportation, advance and fast means of
communication, use of computers, use of cosmetics, perfumes, etc…
3. Researchers in chemistry help improve the synthesis of chemicals needed to combat
disease such as antibiotics, anesthetics, antiseptics, hormones and others.
4. It explains the composition of major classes of foods and their nutritional values
5. It helps in the advancement of scientific and technological studies like
telecommunication systems and computer studies.
6. It enhances the awareness on how the body works and on the chemical changes that
occur within the body system.
7. It leads to the discovery of organophosphorus pesticides which along with other pesticides,
reduce crop losses.
Branches of Chemistry
1. Inorganic Chemistry- the study of all the elements and their compounds with the
exception of carbon and its compounds investigates the characteristics of
substances that are not organic, such as nonliving matter and minerals found in
the earth's crust.
2. Organic Chemistry- Branch of chemistry dealing with compounds of carbon.
3. Analytical Chemistry- This kind of chemistry deals mostly with the composition
of substances. Collection of techniques that allows exact laboratory examination
of a given sample of material. Chemists perform qualitative analysis or substances
in a sample & quantitative analysis for the amount of each substance.
Qualitative Chemistry- the atoms and molecules present are identified, with
particular attention to trace elements.
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Quantitative Chemistry- the exact weight of each constituent is obtained as well
4. Biochemistry- encompasses the study of the chemical nature of living material

and of the chemical transformations that occur within it. A science that is
concerned with the composition and changes in the formation of living species.
This type of chemistry utilizes the concepts of organic and physical chemistry to
make the world of living organisms seem much clearer.
5. Physical Chemistry- is concerned with the physical properties of materials, such
as their electrical and magnetic behavior and their interaction with electromagnetic
fields. This chemistry is defined as dealing with the relations between the physical
properties of substances and their chemical formations along with their changes.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The number of steps can vary from one description to another (which mainly happens
when data and analysis are separated into separate steps), however, this is a fairly
standard list of the six scientific method steps that you are expected to know for any
science class:
1. Purpose/Question Ask a question.

2. Research Conduct background research. Write down sources to cite references.
3. Hypothesis Propose a hypothesis. This is a sort of educated guess about what is
expected. It is a statement used to predict the outcome of an experiment. Usually,
a hypothesis is written in terms of cause and effect. Alternatively, it may describe
the relationship between two phenomena.
4. Experiment Design and perform an experiment to test the hypothesis. An
experiment has an independent and dependent variable.
5. Data/Analysis Record observations and analyze the meaning of the data.
6. Conclusion Conclude whether to accept or reject hypothesis. There is no right or
wrong outcome to an experiment, so either result is fine. Whether the hypothesis
is accepted or rejected, it may be revised to form a new one for a future experiment.
The History of Chemistry

Timeline of Development
I. Prehistoric era. The history of chemistry started when people stated to use of fire,
cook food and baked pottery, production of wine and use of cosmetics
II. Greek Civilization.
 Thales assumed that all matter was derived from water
 Democritus said the ATOM is the simplest unit of matter
 Empedocles said that all matter was composed of four elements: fire, air,
water, and earth.
 Aristotle described the four qualities were found in nature: heat, cold,
moisture, and dryness.
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III. Beginning of Christian Era - End of 17th Century (Alchemy “al chemia”)
 Alchemists attempted to transmute cheap metals to gold. This is the
precursor of Chemistry.
 Paracelsus – Auroleus Phillipus Theostratus Bombastus von Hohenheim.
Searched for medicine to cure sickness. He was credited with the
introduction of opium and mercury into the arsenal of medicine. His works
also indicate an advanced knowledge of the science and principles of
magnetism. The precursor of chemical pharmacology and therapeutics and
the most original medical thinker of the sixteenth century."
 Galileo – introduced accurate measurements
 Robert Boyle - disproved Aristotle’s four elements theory “Skeptical
Chemist” . He conceptualized the Boyle’s Law.
IV. End of 17th Century -Mid 19th Century (Traditional Chemistry)

 George Ernst Stahl – Phlogiston theory
 Joseph Priestley - Isolated oxygen by heating mercuric oxide
 Jan Baptista van Helmont - kinds of air-like materials “gas” Carbon Dioxide
 Antoine Lavoisier - He disproved the phlogiston theory. He is the Father of
modern chemistry.
 Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov - Lomonosov rejected the phlogiston
theory, and anticipated the kinetic theory of gases. Lomonosov was the first
person to record the freezing of mercury, and to hypothesize the existence
of an atmosphere on Venus. He demonstrated the organic origin of soil,
peat, coal, petroleum, and amber. In 1745 he published a catalogue of over
3,000 minerals, and in 1760 he explained the formation of icebergs.
 John Dalton - developed the Atomic Theory
 Rudjer Joseph Boscovich - developed the modern atomic theory
V. Mid 19th Century – Present (Modern or 20th Century Chemistry)

 Heinrich Geissler – developed the first vacuum tube
 William Crookes – discovered the cathode rays
 Eugene Goldstein - discovered proton
 Michael Faraday- Invented the electric motor
 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen – discovered x – rays
 Henri Becquerel – discovered spontaneous radioactivity
 Joseph John Thomson – discovered the electron and its properties
 Robert Andrews Millikan – determined the mass of an electron
 James Chadwick – discovered the neutron
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 Ernest Rutherford – determined the three types of radioactivity
 Marie and Pierre Curie – determined the radioactive properties emitted by
uranium, thorium, radium & polonium
 Niels Bohr - Proposed that electrons could only reside in certain energy
levels or quanta
 Enrico Fermi - neutron bombardment & nuclear fission
 Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev – developed the Periodic Law and the
properties of the chemical elements. The Father of the Periodic Table.
 Henry Moseley - Determined the atomic numbers of all the known elements.
Arranged the periodic table according to increasing atomic numbers.
SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENTS
I. Systems of Measurement
A. The English System
Not easy to deal with since each unit has a corresponding value that is used when
converting from one unit to another.
B. The Metric System

It is used in all scientific studies. It is in multiples of tens and is easier to use. It is
established and modified when necessary by international agreement.
C. The International System of Units (Le Système International d’Unitès, SI)

It is a more improved version of the metric system and is founded on seven base
units and two supplementary units.
Measurement Unit Symbol

Base Units Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
electric current ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Supplementary Units plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
Multiples or fractions of base units are indicated by the use of prefixes
Prefix Abbreviation Factor Scientific

Notation
tera- T- 1,000,000,000,000 1012
giga- G- 1,000,000,000 109
mega- M- 1,000,000 106
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kilo- k- 1,000 103
hecto- h- 100 102
deka- da- 10 10
deci- d- 0.1 10-1
centi- c- 0.01 10-2
milli- m- 0.001 10-3
micro- µ- 0.000 001 10-6
nano- n- 0.000 000 001 10-9
pico- p- 0.000 000 000 001 10-12
femto- f- 0.000 000 000 000 001 10-15
atto- a- 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 10-18
- other SI units, derived units, are obtained from the base units by algebraic
combination
Volume – refers to the amount of space occupied by an object

1. Regular solids
2. Cylinder
3. Irregular solids
Mass – refers to the amount of matter present in an object. Mass is used

interchangeably with weight in Chemistry. Although, the two terms differ technically
when used in Physics.
Density – it is an intrinsic property of matter that is defined as the mass of matter

present per unit volume, expressed in the following formula:
M
D=
V
Where M = mass and V = volume
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
- very large and very small numbers are frequently encountered in scientific studies 
scientific notation is used to simplify the handling of these cumbersome values
- when employed, the value is expressed in the form
a x 10n
where a = the decimal part, a number with one digit to the left of the decimal point and all
others to the right
n = the exponent of 10, positive or negative integer or zero
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 number can be converted into this form by moving the decimal point until there is only
one nonzero digit to the left of it
 for each place the decimal point is moved to the left, n is increased by one
 for each place the decimal point is moved to the right, n is decreased by one for
example,
0.082057 = 8.2057 x 10-2

29,979,000,000 = 2.9979 x 1010
96484.6 = 9.64846 x 104
1. Multiplication
- decimal parts are multiplied and the exponents of 10 are added algebraically
ex. (3.0 x 105)(2.0 x 102) = (3.0 x 2.0) x 105+2

= 6.0 x 107
2. Division
- decimal parts are divided, exponent of 10 in the denominator is algebraically
subtracted from exponent of 10 in the numerator
ex. 6.89 x 10-7 = 6.89 x 10(-7)-(+3)

3.36 x 103 3.36
= 2.05 x 10-10
3. Addition and Subtraction

- numbers must be expressed with the same power of 10
- the answer, which has the same power of 10, is found by adding or subtracting
the decimal parts
ex. (6.25 x 103) + (3.0 x 102) = (6.25 x 103) + (0.30 x 103)

= 6.55 x 103
4. Taking a Root
- write the number in such a way that the exponent of 10 is divisible by 2, then take
square root of the decimal part and divide the power of 10 by 2
- when a cube root is taken, write the number in such a way that the exponent of
10 is divisible by 3, then take cube root of the decimal part and divide the power of 10 by
3
5. Raising to a Power
- when a number is squared, decimal part is squared and the exponent of 10 is
multiplied by 2
- when a number is cubed, decimal part is cubed and the exponent of 10 is
multiplied by 3
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- in general, (a x 10n)p = ap x 10p(n)
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
- every measurement is uncertain to some extent
- exactness, or precision, of a measurement depends upon the limitations of the
measuring device and the skill with which it is used
 indicated by the number of figures used to record it
- digits in a properly recorded measurement are significant figures
 include all the figures that are known with certainty plus one more, which
is an estimate
Rules:
1. Zeros used only to locate the decimal point are not significant
ex. 0.003 = 1 significant figure
Zeros that arise as a part of a measurement are significant.
ex. 0.0005030 = 4 SFs
Sometimes, it is difficult to determine the number of significant figures in a value that

contains zeros, like 700.  problem can be avoided by using scientific notation
700 = 7.00 x 102  3 SFs

= 7.0 x 102  2 SFs
= 7 x 102  1 SF
Another convention, using the decimal point  if decimal point is indicated,

ex. 700.
all figures preceding the decimal point are significant. If decimal point is not used, then
the zeros are not significant.
 system not universally employed
2. Certain values, such as those that arise from the definition of terms, are exact.
For example, by definition, 1 L = exactly 1000 mL  may be considered to have an
infinite number of SFs (zeros) after the decimal point.
Values obtained by counting may also be exact

ex. H2 molecule contains exactly 2 atoms
population of the world is not exact, only estimated
3. At times, the answer to a calculation contains more figures than are significant.
 answer must then be rounded off to the correct number of digits
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a. If the figure following the last number to be retained is less than 5, all the
unwanted figures are discarded and the last number is left unchanged:
3.6247 is 3.62 to 3 SFs
b. If the figure following the last number to be retained is greater than 5, or is 5
with other digits following it, the last figure is increased by 1 and the unwanted figures
are discarded:
7.5647 is 7.565 to four SFs
c. If the figure following the last number to be retained is 5 and there are no
figures or only zeros following the 5, the 5 is discarded and the last figure increased by
1 if it is an odd number or left unchanged if it is an even number  last figure of the
rounded-off value is always an even number
 zero is considered to be an even number
3.250 is 3.2 to 2 SFs

7.635 is 7.64 to 3 SFs
8.105 is 8.10 to 3 SFs
4. The result of an addition or should be reported to the same number of decimal places
as that of the term with the least number of decimal places.
161.032
5.6
32.4524  199.1  4 SFs
199.0844
5. The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the same number of

significant figures as is possessed by the least precise term used in the calculation.
152.06 x 0.24 = 36.4944  36  2 SFs (least precise tern is 0.24)
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Report: Familiarization of Name:
Activity Common Laboratory
Section:
#1 Apparatus Date:
Instructor:
Draw the following apparatus in the table below and give the uses of each:
Test tube Test tube brush Stirring rod
Erlenmeyer flask Tripod Glass funnel
Beaker Iron ring Mortar and pestle
Florence flask Iron stand Iron clamp
Volumetric flask Thermometer Clamp holder
Distilling flask Test tube holder Evaporating dish
Graduated cylinder Nichrome wire Triple beam balance
Alcohol lamp Tirril burner Water trough
Pipet Aspirator bulb Dropper
Test tube rack Watch glass Stainless/porcelain spatula
Crucible with cover Crucible tong Hard glass test tube
Drawing of Apparatus Name of Apparatus Use/s
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Questions for research:
1. Which among the given apparatus are used for measuring accurate volumes of liquids?
2. Which among the given apparatus are used as reaction vessels?
3. Which of the given apparatus are used for high-temperature ignition? What material makes
them highly resistant to breakage at very high temperatures?
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Activity # 1b
Measurements
OBJECTIVES
At the end of the activity, the students shall be able to:
1. perform the proper techniques in doing measurements
2. convert units of measurements
MATERIALS/APPARATUS
ruler, calculator, graduated cylinder, triple beam balance, blocks of wood, beaker
PROCEDURE
A. Measuring the Volume of Regular Solids
1. Using a ruler, measure the length, width and height of a regular object (wooden
block, book, eraser, etc.) in millimeter.
2. Record measurements in the data sheet. Convert the measurements into
centimeters.
3. Compute for the volume of the regular using the formula V=LxWxH in both mm3
and cm3.
B. Measuring the Volume of cylinder

1. Measure the diameter of a cylinder in centimeter and compute for the radius by
taking half of the diameter.
2. Measure height of the cylinder in centimeter
3. Compute for the volume of the cylinder using the formula V=1/2πr2h
C. Measuring the Volume of Irregular solids (Water displacement method)

1. Fill up a 50 mL graduated cylinder with 25 mL of water. Record this as the initial
volume, Vi.
2. Drop the piece of irregular solid (key, stone, bracelet, etc) into the cylinder with
water.
3. Read the volume and record this as Vf.
4. Compute for the volume of the object, Vo, using the formula Vo=Vf-Vi.
D. Measuring the Volume of liquids

1. Fill up a beaker with water up to approximately the 25 mL mark.
2. Transfer the water from the beaker into the graduated cylinder and record the
actual reading from the graduated cylinder.
3. Repeat the same procedure using say sauce as sample.
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E. Measuring the Mass
1. Get a triple beam balance and examine the different parts and their uses.
2. Proper technique in using the triple beam balance will be demonstrated by your
instructor.
3. Determine the masses (in grams) of the different objects that you used in
procedures A to D. For liquids, use weighing by difference technique by
subtracting the weight of the container from the weight of the liquid and
container.
4. Convert the masses of the objects in g to kg and mg.
F. Computing the Density of an Object

1. Using your data for volumes of the different objects of wooden block, water and
irregular objects and the data for masses from procedure E, compute for the
densities of the different objects using the formula, D=M/V. Units for density
may vary between, g/cm3 or g/mL.
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Report: Names of members:
Activity MEASUREMENTS Section: Date:

# 1b Group:
Instructor:
DATA AND RESULTS:
A. Volume of Regular Solid

Regular solid Millimeter (mm) Centimeter (cm)
Length
Width
Height
Volume
B. Volume of cylinder
Cylinder Millimeter (mm) Centimeter (cm)
Diameter
Radius
Height
Volume
C. Volume of irregular solid
Initial volume of water (Vi) Final volume of water Volume of object (Vo) in
in mL (Vf)in mL mL
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D. Volume of liquids
Liquid samples Volume of liquid using Volume of liquid using

beaker (mL) graduated cylinder (mL)
Water
Soy sauce
E. Mass of objects
Samples g mg kg
Wooden block
Water
Key
F. Density
Samples Mass (g) Volume (mL or Density
cm3)
Wooden block
Water
Key
G. Questions for research

1. Which between the two unit systems used in the ruler is more convenient to use?
Why?
2. Is there any discrepancy observed in the volume of water measured using beaker
and the graduated cylinder? How does it affect the accuracy of your
measurement?
3. In what unit should the volume of an irregular solid be expressed? Why?
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4. Ice and liquid water have the same composition, However, their densities differ at
standard atmospheric pressure and at 0oC. Ice has a density of 0.9167–0.9168
g/cm3, while water has a density of 0.9998–0.999863 g/cm3. How do you account
for the icebergs on the sea or floating ice cubes on water? Explain briefly.
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Homework #1
Name: Date: Score:

Course, Yr & Sec:
Measurements in Chemistry
1. Determine the number of significant figures in each of the following measured values.
(6 pts)
a. 23,009
b. 0.00231
c. 0.3330
2. Round off each of the following numbers to the number of significant figures indicated
in parentheses. (4 pts)
a. 3883 (two)
b. 0.0003011 (two)
c. 4.4050 (three)
d. 2.1000 (three)
3. Write out the names of the metric system units that have the following abbreviations.
(4 pts)
a. mg
b. pg
c. Mm
d. dL
4. Express the following numbers in scientific notation. (6 pts)
a. 37.06
b. 0.00571
c. 437.0
d. 4370
e. 0.20340
Problem solving: Show the solution and circle your final answer.
5. A typical loss of water through sweating per day for a human is 450 mL. What is the
volume, in liters, of sweat produced per day? (2pts)
6. The smallest bone in the human body, which is in the ear, has a mass of 0.0030 g.
What is the mass of this bone in pounds? (2 pts) 1 kg=2.2 lbs., 1kg = 103g
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8. What volume of gasoline, in milliliters, would be required to fill a 17.0-gal gasoline
tank? (2 pts) 1gallon=3.785L, 1mL= 10-3L
9. Air has a density of 1.29 g/L at room temperature. State whether each of the following
will rise or sink in air: a.) Helium gas (density =0.18 g/L) b.) Argon gas (density = 1.78
g/L) (2 pts)
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UNIT 2
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Matter
Pure
Mixture
Substance
Compoun Heterogen Homogen

Elements
ds ous ous
non- inert Suspensio

metals metalloids acids bases salts oxides Colloid Solutions
metals gases n
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
Matter can exist in three physical states:

1. gas or vapor
2. liquid
3. solid
Gas
This state of matter has no fixed volume or shape. It conforms to the volume and shape
of its container. Gases can be compressed or expanded to occupy different volumes.
Liquid
A liquid has a distinct volume, independent of its container, but it has no specific shape.
It assumes the shape of the container it is in. Liquids cannot be appreciably
compressed.
Solid
A solid has a definite shape and volume; it is rigid. Solids cannot be appreciably
compressed.
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Substances
A pure substance has a fixed composition and distinct properties. Most matter we come
in contact with in our daily lives is not a pure substance, but a mixture of substances.
Physical and Chemical Properties
Every pure substance has a unique set of properties - characteristics which allow us to
distinguish it from other substances. These properties fall into two general
categories: physical and chemical.
Physical properties - properties we can measure without changing the basic identity of
the substance.
Chemical properties - describe the way a substance may change or "react" to form
other substances.
Physical and Chemical Changes
Substances can undergo various changes in properties, these changes may be

classified as either physical or chemical.
Physical changes - a substance changes its physical appearance but not its basic
identity. All changes of state (e.g. solid to liquid to gas) are physical changes.
Chemical changes - also known as chemical reactions, a substance is transformed

into a chemically different substance.
Indices of chemical change in matter:
1. Formation of a new substance.

2. Release of heat and light energy.
3. Formation of precipitate of insoluble substance.
4. Changes in color, odor and taste
5. Release of gas
Mixtures
Mixtures refer to combinations of two or more substances in which each substance

retains its own chemical identity and hence its own properties.
Heterogenous mixtures are not uniform throughout the sample, and have regions of
different appearance and properties
Homogenous mixtures are uniform throughout the sample, however, the individual
substances retain their individual chemical and physical nature. Homogenous mixtures
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are also called solutions, however, the most common type of solution is described by a
solid (the solute) dissolved in a liquid (the solvent).
An important characteristic of mixtures is that the individual components retain their

physical and chemical properties. Thus, it is possible to separate the components based
on their different properties. For example, we can separate ethanol from water by making
use of their different boiling temperatures, in a process known as distillation.
Energy is the capacity to do work or transfer heat.
Work is the energy transferred when a force exerted on an object causes a

displacement of that object.
Heat is the energy used to cause the temperature of an object to increase.
Force is any push or pull on an object.
Forms of energy
1. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
Its magnitude depends on the object’s mass and its velocity:
KE = ½mv2
2. Potential energy of an object depends on its relative position compared to

other objects.
Potential energy also refers to the composition of an object, including the energy stored
in chemical bonds.
One of the goals in chemistry is to related the energy changes in the macroscopic world
to the kinetic or potential energy of substances at the molecular level.
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Activity # 2
Matter: Elements and compounds, Physical and Chemical Changes
OBJECTIVES
1. characterize the physical changes in matter
2. differentiate physical from chemical changes in matter
3. identify the indices of chemical change
MATERIALS/APPARATUS
Test tubes, alcohol lamp, test tube rack, evaporating dish, beaker, graduated
cylinder, nichrome wire, mortar and pestle, crucible tong
PROCEDURE
A. Physical properties of matter
1. Complete the table below and take note of the color, state, classification and
solubility of each sample in water
Sample Color State Classification Solubility in

water
Salt
Sugar
Charcoal
Copper wire
Monosodium glutamate
Calcium carbonate
Soy sauce
Coconut oil
Vinegar
B. Chemical and Physical changes

1. Using a crucible tong, burn a piece of copper wire using an alcohol lamp until red
hot. Observe what happened to the copper wire.
2. Place a piece of copper wire on a watch glass. Add about 10 drops of silver nitrate.
Stand for 15 to 20 minutes. Observe changes that happened to the copper wire.
3. Burn a matchstick. Take note of the changes that happened to the matchstick.
4. Place pieces of ice cubes into a beaker with water. Stand for 5 minutes. What was
formed on the sides of the beaker.
C. Separation techniques for Mixtures

1. Grinding- Grind half teaspoon each of salt and benzoic acid using a mortar and
pestle. Observe the mixture. List down if it is a homogenous of heterogenous
mixture.
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2. Hydration- Transfer the mixture from C.1 into a beaker containing 15mL of water
and stir. Observe the type of mixture that results from the reaction.
3. Filtration- Line a glass funnel with filter paper. Pour the mixture from C.2 and filter.
Collect the filtrate and residue. Note your observations.
4. Evaporation- Transfer the filtrate that was collected from C.3 into an evaporating
dish. Evaporate the liquid to dryness. Observe what was formed in the evaporating
dish after heating.
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Report: Names of members:
Matter: Elements and
Activity compounds, Physical
#2 and Chemical Changes Section: Date:
Group:
Instructor:
DATA AND RESULTS:

A. Properties of Matter
Sample Color State Classification Solubility in

water
Salt
Sugar
Charcoal
Copper wire
Monosodium glutamate
Calcium carbonate
Cupric sulfate
Sulfur
Vinegar
B. Physical and Chemical Changes in Matter
Reaction Observations Type of Change

1. Heating of copper wire
2. Reaction of copper
wire with silver nitrate
3. Burning of matchstick
4. Melting of ice
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C. Separation techniques for Mixtures
Separation techniques and Observation Type of mixture
their definitions
1. Grinding
2. Hydration
3. Filtration
4. Evaporation
Questions for Research

1. How do physical change differ from chemical change?
2. What are the indices of chemical changes in matter?
3. In the melting of ice, what was formed on the sides of the container? Where did
it come from?
4. How do you classify rusting of iron in terms of changes in matter? Explain in

detail the processes that take place. What effect does this process impose upon
the economy as a whole. How do you prevent such process to occur in iron.
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UNIT 3
ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
1. Electron
- Sir William Crookes (1832-1919) passed an electric current through a gas-filled
tube (Crookes tube) with electrodes sealed at both ends
- as gas was passed out of a tube, a pressure was reached at which the
remaining gas glowed
 glow produced by negative particles, called cathode rays, passing from
the negative electrode (cathode) to the negative electrode (anode)
 streams of negatively charged particles are called electrons, which
travel in straight lines
- 1897, English physicist Sir J.J. Thomson determined the ratio of the charge, e,
to the mass, m, of cathode-ray particles
 e/m found to be identical in all three subatomic particles (protons,
electrons, neurons)
 e was measured by American physicist R.A. Millikan in 1909
e = 1.6022 x 10-19 Coulomb

e/m = charge to mass ratio for electron
= 1.75881962 x 1011 Coulomb/g
m = e_ = 1.6022 x 10-19 Coulomb

(e/m) 1.75881962 x 1011 Coulomb/g
 mass of electron (me-) = 9.1096 x 10-28 g
2. Proton
- 1886, German physicist Eugen Goldstein, using Crookes tube, observed that a
fluorescence (in the inner surface of a cathode) was emitted from the anode and passed
through the holes in the cathode
 indicates movement of positive rays, called protons
 caused by the loss of electrons from the gas molecules in the tube
when they are struck by high-speed cathode rays
e/m = 9.5791 x 104 C/g

e = 1.6022 x 10-19 C
mp+ = 1.6726 x 10-24 g
3. Neutron
- 1932, English physicist James Chadwick
- neutrally (zero) charged particle whose mass is close to that of a proton
..........................................................
Particle Mass (g) Mass (amu) Relative Charge
electron (e-) 9.1096 x 10-28 0.00055 -1
proton (p+) 1.6726 x 10-24 1.00728 +1
neutron (n) 1.6749 x 10-24 1.00867 0
1 amu (atomic mass unit) = 1.6606 x 10-24 g
Facts:
1. Protons and neutrons are found at the center of the atom called the nucleus.
Electrons are found outside the nucleus in shells or energy levels.
2. Number of protons in the nucleus is defined as the atomic number
3. Atomic weight is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
4. Number of electrons in the electron cloud of an atom = Number of protons in the
nucleus  atom is neutral
A A = atomic weight/mass number (in amu)

E E = symbol of the element
Z Z = atomic number
Isotopes
- atoms of a given element which have the same number of protons and
electrons (i.e. same atomic number, Z) but different atomic masses (A  diff.
no. of neutrons)
- e.g. seven isotopes of C, but only 12C and 13C are stable
ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

- current chemical theory indicates that as electrons move about an atom’s
nucleus, they are restricted to specific regions around the nucleus of the atom
- such restrictions are determined by the amount of energy the electrons
possess
- electron energies are limited to certain values and that a specific “behavior” is
associated with each allowed energy value
- electrons are arranged in shells or orbits according to theories of quantum
mechanics
..........................................................
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
- based on the mathematical expression called the wave function
1. location of an electron cannot be determined exactly; all that can be identified is

the region of space where there is a relatively high probability of finding the
electron  the orbital occupied by the electron
2. orbitals are characterized by the principal quantum number, n, an integer (n =

1, 2, 3…) (shells)
 as n increases, the orbitals extend farther from the nucleus, energy of the
orbitals also increases
n: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
shell: K L M N O P Q
3. orbitals with the same value of n may have different shapes

 different shapes of orbitals are distinguished by the second quantum number,
l, the azimuthal or subsidiary quantum number (subshells)
l = 0 to n-1
ex:
n=1 n=3
l=n–1=0 n – 1 = 2  l = 0, 1, 2
for l = 0  s-orbital (draw!)

l = 1  p-orbital
l = 2  d-orbital
l = 3  f-orbital
Shell Principal Quantum Azimuthal Quantum Orbitals

No. (n) No. (l)
K 1 0 1s
L 2 0 2s
1 2p
M 3 0 3s
1 3p
2 3d
N 4 0 4s
1 4p
2 4d
3 4f
..........................................................
4. third quantum number, m, magnetic quantum number (orbitals)
 may have integral value from –l to + l
Principal Quantum Azimuthal Quantum Magnetic Quantum No.
No. (n) No. (l) (m)
1 0 0
2 0 0
1 -1, 0, +1
3 0 0
1 -1, 0, +1
2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
4 0 0
1 -1, 0, +1
2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
3 -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
5. fourth quantum number, s, spin quantum number

 specifies the direction of spin of an electron  either clockwise (s = + ½) or
counterclockwise (S = - ½)
6. maximum number of electrons that may be found in a shell = 2n2; number of

atomic orbitals (s, p, d, f) in a shell = n2 ; each atomic orbital can hold up to 2
electrons
Summary of Allowed Values for Each Quantum Number
Shell n l orbital m s
K 1 0 1s 0 ±½
L 2 0 2s 0 ±½
1 2p -1 ±½
1 2p 0 ±½
1 2p +1 ±½
M 3 0 3s 0 ±½
1 3p -1 ±½
1 3p 0 ±½
1 3p +1 ±½
2 3d -2 ±½
2 3d -1 ±½
2 3d 0 ±½
2 3d +1 ±½
2 3d +2 ±½
..........................................................
The Electronic Structure of Atoms
The arrangement of electrons of an atom that are arranged outside the nucleus of an atom determines
the chemical properties of an atom.
The General notation below shows the mass number (A) a.k.a. atomic weight or atomic mass,
represents the number of protons and neutrons.
The atomic number (Z) represents the number of protons. Since the atoms is electrical neutral in the
free state, this number also represents the number of electrons.
The number of neutrons is taken by subtracting the atomic umber from the mass number.
For oxygen, the general notation is represented as
16
O8
the number of protons = 8
the number of electrons = 8
the number of neutrons =8
The number of electrons is equal to 8 and is arranged and distributed using the Aufbau diagram.
The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table

Periodic Law – When elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, elements with similar
chemical properties occur at periodic (regularly recurring) intervals.
Periodic Table – Tabular arrangement of the elements in order of increasing atomic number such that
elements having similar chemical properties are positioned in vertical columns.
..........................................................
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev: The Father of the Periodic Table. He arranged the elements according to
increasing atomic numbers.
The Periodic Table
Periods – horizontal rows of elements

Groups – elements in the same vertical columns; have similar chemical properties
The Periodic Table of Elements

Electron Configurations
• A statement of how many electrons an atom has in each of its electron subshells.
• An oxygen atom as an electron arrangement of two electrons in the 1s subshell, two electrons in the 2s
subshell, and four electrons in the 2p subshell.
Oxygen: 1s22s22p4
..........................................................
The Aufbau Diagram a.k.a. the Building Up Principle
Shell diagram
This shows the arrangement of electrons that are distributed to each of the shells found outside the nucleus of
the atom. For oxygen with electronic configuration of 1s22s22p4, the shell diagram is represented as;
O 2) 6)
Orbital Diagrams
• A notation that shows how many electrons an atom has in each of its occupied electron orbitals.
Oxygen: 1s22s22p4
Oxygen: 1s 2s 2p
Distinguishing Electron
• Last electron added to the electron configuration for an element when electron subshells are filled in
order of increasing energy.
• This last electron is the one that causes an element’s electron configuration to differ from that of an
element immediately preceding it in the periodic table.
The Electronic Basis for the Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
• The electron arrangement in the outermost shell is the same for elements in the same group.
• This is why elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
 Group 1A – very reactive
..........................................................
Li: 1s22s1
Na: 1s22s22p63s1
K: 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
Classification of Elements
1. A system based on selected physical properties of the elements, in which they are described as metals
or nonmetals.
2. A system based on the electron configurations of the elements, in which elements are described as
noble-gas, representative, transition, or inner transition elements.
..........................................................
The properties of metals and non-metals
Identifying the properties and classification of elements using their

electronic configuration
1. Distribute the electrons of an element using the Aufbau diagram.
16
O8
the number of protons = 8
the number of electrons = 8
the number of neutrons =8
..........................................................
2. The distinguishing electron a.k.a. differentiating electron is the last electronic configuration that
enters an orbital. If the distinguishing electron fills up the s or p blocks, then it belong to Group
A (Representative elements), while if it fills the d or f blocks, then it belongs to Group B.
Oxygen: 1s22s22p4
Oxygen fills the p block, so it belongs to Group A.
3. To identify the Family of the element, distribute the electrons using a shell diagram. If the second to
the last shell shows stable configuration (2, 8 or 18) , then the number of electrons in the valence shell
represents the number of the family.
For oxygen with electronic configuration of 1s22s22p4, the shell diagram is represented as;
O 2) 6)
Family VIA
4. To identify the period/series where the element belongs, count the number of shells which
corresponds to the period/series of the element.
O 2) 6)
Period/Series: 2nd period
5. To classify the elements, the valence electrons (the number of electrons in the outermost shell)
represents the classification of the element.
If the valence electron = 1,2 or 3, the element is a metal

If the valence electron = 5,6 or 7, the element is a non metal
If the valence electron = 4, the element is a metalloid
If the valence electron = 8, the element is an inert gas/noble gas
O 2) 6)
With valence electron of 6, oxygen is classified as a non-metal
..........................................................
Activity # 3
Atomic Structure: Flame Test
OBJECTIVES
1. identify metals by observing their visible spectrum
2. explain the color of flame emitted by metal in terms of electronic transition of atoms.
MATERIALS/APPARATUS
test tubes, test tube rack, alcohol lamp, nichrome wire
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
A. Flame Test
1. Place about 1 mL of the different metal chlorides in different test tubes.

Label properly.
2. Get a nichrome wire and sterilize by dipping it with hydrochloric acid and
heating it with the alcohol lamp until it is red hot.
3. Take a sample of the sample metal chlorides by dipping the tip of the
nichrome wire to a test tube and subject to the flame. Take note of the color
of the flame
4. Sterilize the nichrome wire by dipping it in the HCl and flaming until red hot.
5. Let the nichrome wire cool down and dip the nichrome wire in another test
tube and take note of the color of the flame.
6. Repeat steps 4-5 for the rest of the samples.
Reagents
Potassium chloride
Barium chloride
Copper II chloride
Sodium chloride
Strontium chloride
Lithium chloride
Calcium chloride
Refer to the following youtube link for the experiment:
MegaLab Flame Test: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NEUbBAGw14k
..........................................................
Report: Names:
Activity Atomic Structure: Section: Date:

#3 Flame Test Group:
Instructor:
DATA AND RESULTS:

A. Flame test
Reagents Metal tested Color of Flame
Potassium chloride
Barium chloride
Copper II chloride
Sodium chloride
Strontium chloride
Lithium chloride
Calcium chloride
B. Questions for research

1. Explain the principle behind the ability of metals to emit different colors of flame.
2. Give examples of the practical applications of Flame test.
3. What is Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)? How is the principle of AAS related to
flame test?
4. Give examples of the practical uses of AAS.
..........................................................
UNIT 4
MOLECULES, CHEMICAL BONDS AND CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Why do atoms combine?
Atoms combine to become stable and follow the inert gas configuration.
Some substances are chemically bonded molecules and others are an association of
ions. This depends upon the electronic structures of the atoms and the nature of the
chemical forces within the compounds.
Classification of chemical forces/bonds

1. Ionic bonds
2. Covalent bonds
3. Metallic bonds
Ionic bonds - electrostatic forces that exist between ions of opposite charge. This type
of bond typically involves a reaction between metal with a nonmeat. l
Covalent bonds - results from the sharing of electrons between two atoms. This, on
the other hand typically involves one non-metallic element with another.
Examples: Hydrogen with another hydrogen

Hydrogen with another non-metal
Non-metal with another non-metal
C/Si with another non-metal
Metallic bonds are found in solid metals (copper, iron, aluminum) and each metal
bonded to several neighboring groups of metals. The bonding electrons free to move
throughout the 3-dimensional structure.
Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule
Valence electrons reside in the outer shell and are the electrons which are involved in
chemical interactions and bonding (valence comes from the Latin valere, "to be strong").
Electron-dot notation (Lewis symbols)
 consists of the chemical symbol for the element plus a dot for each valence
electron
..........................................................
Note in writing Lewis dot symbol:
 The dot (representing electrons) are placed on the four sides of the atomic
symbol (top, bottom, left, right)
 Each side can accommodate up to 2 electrons (Pauli exclusion principle)
 The number of valence electrons in the table below is the same as the column
number of the element in the periodic table (for representative elements only)
IONIC BONDING
Sodium with atomic number of 11
Electron configuration is 1s22s22p63s1, thus there is 1 valence electron. Its shell

diagram is represented by:
Na 2) 8) 1)
With 1 valence electron, its Lewis symbol would therefore be:
• Na
Chlorine with atomic number of 17
Electron configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p5 thus there are 7 valence electrons. Its shell
diagram is represented by:
Cl 2) 8) 7)
With 7 valence electrons, its Lewis symbol would therefore be:
Atoms often gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve the same number of
electrons as the inert gas closest to them in the periodic table
Because all noble gasses (except He) have filled s and p valence orbitals (8 electrons),
many atoms undergoing reactions also end up with 8 valence electrons. This
observation has led to the Octet Rule:
Atoms tend to lose, gain, or share electrons until they are surrounded by 8
valence electrons
Sodium tends to lose its lone valence electron, while chlorine tends to gain 1 more
electron to follow the octet rule.
..........................................................
The compound NaCl contains an ionic bond between Na and Cl. Na gets a +1 charge
while Cl gets a -1 charge due to the complete transfer of electrons from sodium to
chlorine forming NaCl which is electrically neutral when in compound crystal form.
Note: the first four elements in the Periotic Table follows the Duet rule (Rule of 2) that
made them exceptions to the octet rule (H, Li, He and Be).
COVALENT BONDING
Hydrogen with atomic number of 1
Electron configuration is 1s1 thus there is 1 valence electron. Its shell diagram is
represented by:
H 1)
One H atom reacting with another H atom is represented by:
H. .
H  H-H or H2
The bond that exists between the diatomic hydrogen is a covalent bond which is mutually
shared between the two hydrogen atoms.
One hydrogen atom reacting with another non-metal like Cl, is represented by:
H.  H-Cl
The bond that exists between the hydrogen and chlorine is a covalent bond which is
mutually shared between chlorine and hydrogen atom.
Bond Polarity and Electronegativity
The electron pairs shared between two atoms are not necessarily shared equally
Extreme examples:
1. In Cl2 the shared electron pairs is shared equally
..........................................................
2. In NaCl the 3s electron is stripped from the Na atom and is incorporated into the
electronic structure of the Cl atom - and the compound is most accurately described as
consisting of individual Na+ and Cl- ions
For most covalent substances, their bond character falls between these two
extremes
Bond polarity is a useful concept for describing the sharing of electrons between
atoms
 A nonpolar covalent bond is one in which the electrons are shared equally
between two atoms
 A polar covalent bond is one in which one atom has a greater attraction for
the electrons than the other atom. If this relative attraction is great enough,
then the bond is an ionic bond
Electronegativity
A quantity termed 'electronegativity' is used to determine whether a given bond will

be nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, or ionic.
Electronegativity is defined as the ability of an atom in a particular molecule to

attract electrons to itself
(the greater the value, the greater the attractiveness for electrons)
Electronegativity is a function of:
 the atom's ionization energy (how strongly the atom holds on to its own
electrons)
 the atom's electron affinity (how strongly the atom attracts other electrons)
Fluorine is the most electronegative element (electronegativity = 4.0),

the least electronegative is Cesium (notice that are at diagonal corners of the periodic
chart)
..........................................................
General trends:
 Electronegativity increases from left to right along a period

 For the representative elements (s and p block) the
electronegativity decreases as you go down a group
 The transition metal group is not as predictable as far as electronegativity
Electronegativity and bond polarity
The difference in electronegativity between two atoms can used to gauge the polarity of
the bonding between them
Compound F2 HF LiF
Electronegativity
4.0 - 4.0 = 0 4.0 - 2.1 = 1.9 4.0 - 1.0 = 3.0
Difference
Type of Bond Nonpolar covalent Polar covalent Ionic (non-covalent)
 In F2 the electrons are shared equally between the atoms, the bond is nonpolar
covalent
 In HF the fluorine atom has greater electronegativity than the hydrogen atom.
The H-F bond can thus be represented as:
..........................................................
 The 'd+' and 'd-' symbols indicate partial positive and negative charges.
 The arrow indicates the "pull" of electrons off the hydrogen and towards the
more electronegative atom
 In lithium fluoride the much greater relative electronegativity of the fluorine atom
completely strips the electron from the lithium and the result is an ionic bond (no
sharing of the electron)
A general rule of thumb for predicting the type of bond based upon
electronegativity differences:
 If the electronegativities are equal (i.e. if the electronegativity difference is 0), the
bond is non-polar covalent
 If the difference in electronegativities between the two atoms is greater than 0,
but less than 2.0, the bond is polar covalent
 If the difference in electronegativities between the two atoms is 2.0, or greater,
the bond is ionic
CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE
- system of names used to distinguish compounds from each other and the rules
needed to devise these names
- old system, rule was “anything goes”
o ex. quicksilver (mercury), gypsum (calcium sulfate), laughing gas (nitrous
oxide)
- International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) Rules
o set of compound-naming rules produced by committees of the IUPAC
Types of Compounds based on the number of elements present:

1. binary compound
o contains just two different elements
ex. NH3, H2O, CO2
o any number of atoms of the two elements may be present in a molecule or
formula unit, but only two elements may be present
2. ternary compound
o contains three different elements
ex. HNO3, H2SO4, NaOH
Ionic and Molecular Compounds (for nomenclature purposes):

1. metal + nonmetal  ionic
2. combination of nonmetals  covalent  molecular
3. polyatomic ions  ionic  whole polyatomic ion reacts like a monoatomic ion
4. metalloids are considered to be nonmetals  metalloid + nonmetal is molecular
..........................................................
BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS
- simplest type of ionic compound
 only monoatomic ions are present
- monoatomic positively-charged metallic ions + monoatomic negatively-charged
nonmetallic ions
a. binary ionic compounds containing a fixed-charge metal
b. binary ionic compounds containing a variable-charge metal
Fixed-Charge Metal:
- always exhibit the same behavior in ion formation
 they always lose the same number of e-s
- forms only one type of ion, which always has the same magnitude
- group IA metals  +1 ions
- group IIA metals  +2 ions
- Al, Ga from group IIIA  +3 ions
- Zn (group IIB, +2), Cd (group IIB, +2) and Ag (group IB, +1)
 reason for the charges is periodic-table correlation  the octet rule
Variable-Charge Metal:
- forms more than one type of ion, with different charges
- all metals, except for the 15 fixed-charged metals, are variable-charge
 cannot be easily related to periodic-table position
 presence of d or f electrons complicates octet rule
- see Table 1
Nomenclature for Binary Ionic Compounds:

1. compounds containing a fixed-charge metal
 full name of the metallic element is given first, followed by a separate word
consisting of the root of the nonmetallic element name and the suffix –ide
(see Table 2)
ex. NaF  sodium fluoride
2. compounds containing a variable-charge metal

 charge of the metal must be incorporated into the name of the compound
 magnitude of the charge is indicated by using a Roman numeral, inside
parentheses, placed immediately after the name of the metal
ex. Fe+2: iron (II) ion
Fe+3: iron (III) ion
Au +: gold (I) ion
 Roman numeral is considered to be part of the metal’s name, but not of the
formula
ex: Name the following binary ionic compounds:
..........................................................
FeO  get charge of the Fe first by calculating from the
oxidation number of O  net charge must be equal to 0.
- other method for indicating the charge on metal ions uses suffixes rather than
Roman numerals
 more complicated and less precise, currently being abandoned
 when a metal has two common ionic charges:
o suffix –ous  used for the ion of lower charge
o suffix –ic  used for the ion of higher charge
(see Table 3)
IONIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING POLYATOMIC IONS

(see Table 4)
- names are derived in the same way as those of binary ionic compounds
 metallic ion first, then nonmetallic ion ending in -ide
 if polyatomic ion is positive, its name is substituted for that of the metal
 if polyatomic ion is negative, its name is substituted for the nonmetal stem
plus –ide
 if both positive and negative ions are polyatomic, name includes just the
names of the polyatomic ions
ex. K2CO3  potassium carbonate

(H3O)2S  hydronium sulfide
Co(NO3)3  cobalt (III) nitrate
BINARY MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

- covalently bonded compound in which just two nonmetallic elements are present
1. named in the order in which they appear in the formula  least electronegative
nonmetal is usually written first in the formula
 name of the first nonmetal is used in full, name of second nonmetal treated
like in binary ionic compounds  stem plus –ide
2. number of atoms of each element present in a molecule is explicitly incorporated
into the name of the compound by using Greek numerical prefixes (see Table 5)
 prefix precedes name of each nonmetal
note: in ionic compounds, formula subscripts are not mentioned in the name
 prefixes are needed in naming binary molecular compounds because

numerous different compounds exist for many pairs of nonmetallic elements
ex. NO, NO2, N2O, N2O3, N2O4, N2O5
nitrogen monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, dinitrogen oxide, dinitrogen trioxide,
dinitrogen tetraoxide, dinitrogen pentaoxide
..........................................................
NOMENCLATURE FOR ACIDS
Acids
- substances that produce H+ in aqueous solutions
1. non-oxyacids
 acids composed of hydrogen and one or more nonmetals other than oxygen
 all common non-oxyacids, except HCN, are binary compounds
a. the word hydrogen is replaced by the prefix hydro-
b. suffix –ide on the stem of the name of the nonmetal is replaced with the
suffix –ic
c. the word acid is added to the end of the name (as a separate word)
ex. HCl(sol’n)  hydrochloric acid

H2Se(sol’n)  hydroselenic acid
HCN(sol’n)  hydrocyanic acid
2. oxyacids
 acids composed of hydrogen , oxygen, and another nonmetal
 names are derived from the names of the polyatomic ions produced when the
acid molecules break into ions in solution
ex. H2SO4(sol’n)  H+ + SO4-2
a. when polyatomic ion produced ends in –ate, –ate is replaced with –ic, then
acid
b. when polyatomic ion produced ends in –ite, –ite is replaced with –ous, plus
acid
ex. H2SO4(sol’n)  sulfuric acid
HNO3(sol’n)  nitric acid
HNO2(sol’n)  nitrous acid
TABLE 1. Common Variable-Charge Metallic Element Ions and Their Charges
Element Symbol Ions Formed

chromium Cr Cr+2, Cr+3
cobalt Co Co+2, Co+3
copper Cu Cu+, Cu+2
gold Au Au+, Au+3
iron Fe Fe+2, Fe+3
lead Pb Pb+2, Pb+4
manganese Mn Mn+2, Mn+3
tin Sn Sn+2, Sn+4
..........................................................
TABLE 2. Names of Some Common Nonmetal Ions
Element Stem/Root Name of Ion Formula

bromine brom- bromide ion Br-
carbon carb- carbide ion C-4
chlorine chlor- chloride ion Cl-
fluorine fluor- fluoride ion F-
hydrogen hydr- hydride ion H-
iodine iod- iodide ion I-
nitrogen nitr- nitride ion N-3
oxygen ox- oxide ion O-2
phosphorus phosph- phosphide ion P-3
sulfur sulf- sulfide ion S-2
TABLE 3. Comparison of IUPAC and Old System Names for Selected Metal Ions
Element Ions Preferred Name Old System

copper Cu+ copper (I) ion cuprous ion
Cu+2 copper (II) ion cupric ion
iron Fe+2 iron (II) ion ferrous ion
Fe+3 iron (III) ion ferric ion
tin Sn+2 tin (II) ion stannous ion
Sn+4 tin (IV) ion stannic ion
lead Pb+2 lead (II) ion plumbous ion
Pb+4 lead (IV) ion plumbic ion
gold Au+ gold (I) ion aurous ion
Au+3 gold (III) ion auric ion
TABLE 4. Formulas and Names of Some Common Polyatomic Ions
Key Element Present Formula Name of Ion

nitrogen NO3- nitrate ion
NO2- nitrite ion
NH4+ ammonium ion
N-3 azide ion
sulfur SO4-2 sulfate ion
HSO4- hydrogen sulfate/bisulfate ion
SO3-2 sulfite ion
HSO3- hydrogen sulfite/bisulfite ion
S2O3-2 thiosulfate ion
phosphorus PO4-3 phosphate ion
HPO4-2 hydrogen phosphate/biphosphate ion
H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate ion
..........................................................
PO3-3 phosphate ion
carbon CO3-2 carbonate ion
HCO3- hydrogen carbonate/bicarbonate ion
C2O4-2 oxalate ion
CH3COO- acetate ion
/C2H3O2-
CN- cyanide ion
OCN- cyanate ion
SCN- thiocyanate ion
chlorine ClO4- perchlorate ion
ClO3- chlorate ion
ClO2- chlorite ion
ClO- hypochlorite ion
oxygen O2-2 peroxide ion
boron BO3-3 borate ion
hydrogen H 3O +
hydronium ion
OH- hydroxide ion
metals MnO4 -
permanganate ion
CrO4-2 chromate ion
Cr2O7 -2
dichromate ion
* most frequently encountered polyatomic ions are in italics
Facts Concerning the Polyatomic Ions in Table 4:

1. most of the ions are negatively-charged (only H3O+ and NH4+ are positive)
2. four of the polyatomic ions have names ending in –ide: hydroxide, cyanide,
azide, peroxide
3. –ate and –ite pairs of ions
 ion in the pair w/ the higher number of oxygen is always the –ate ion
 -ite ion always contains one less oxygen than the –ate ion
4. pairs of ions where one member of the pair differs from the other by having a
hydrogen atom present
ex. CO3-2 (carbonate) and HCO3- (hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate)
 charge on the hydrogen-containing ion is always one less than the charge on
the other ion
4. SO4-2 and S2O3-2, OCN- and SCN-
 a sulfur atom has replaced an oxygen atom in one member of the pair
 prefix –thio is used to denote this replacement
 sulfate-thiosulfate, cyanate-thiocyanate
..........................................................
TABLE 5. Greek Numerical Prefixes (from 1 to 10)
Greek Prefix Number

mono- 1
di- 2
tri- 3
tetra- 4
penta- 5
hexa- 6
hepta- 7
octa- 8
nona- 9
deca- 10
..........................................................
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Chemical Reaction
- process in which at least one new substance is produced as a result of a
chemical change
 color change, emission of heat and/or light, evolution of gas, precipitation,
etc.
*reactants
- starting materials for a chemical reaction
- consumed/used up as chemical reaction proceeds
*products
- substances produced as a result of a chemical reaction
Law of Conservation of Mass

- The law states that “Mass is neither created nor destroyed in any
transformation of matter”
- sum of the masses of the products is always the same as the sum of the
masses of the reactants
- Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794)
- in a chemical reaction, total mass of reactants = total mass of products
Writing Chemical Equations

Chemical Equation
- written statement that uses symbols and formulas instead of words to
describe the changes that occur in a chemical reaction
ex. magnesium oxide reacts with carbon to produce carbon monoxide and
magnesium
chemical equation: MgO + C  CO + Mg
Conventions:
1. the correct formulas of the reactants are always written on the left side
of the equation
2. the correct formulas of the products are always written on the right side
of the equation
3. the reactants and products are separated by an arrow pointing toward
the products
4. plus signs are used to separate different reactants or products from
each other
5. if the physical states of the substances involved are of interest, they
..........................................................
may be indicated in parentheses after each formula
 the common states encountered are
i. (g) for gas
ii. (l) for liquid
iii. (s) for solid
iv. (aq) for aqueous solution
Note: “+” signs on the reactant side of the equation means “reacts with”
“” means “to produce”
“+” signs on the product side means “and”
- in writing chemical equations, two conditions must be followed:

o it must be consistent with experimental facts
 only reactants and products that are actually involved in the
reaction are included
 correct formulas for the reactants and products are used
o it must be consistent with the law of conservation of mass
 chemical equation must be balanced
Balancing Chemical Equations

- there must be the same number of atoms of each element involved in the
reaction on each side of the equation
- use of coefficients
o number placed before the formula of a substance to denote the
amount of that substance
ex. 3Cu(s) + 8HNO3(aq)  3Cu(NO3)2(l) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
PCl3 + 3H2O  H3PO3 + 3HCl
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq)  AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Synthesis reaction/Direct union
- single product is produced from two (or more) reactants
X + Y  XY
- XY is always a compound
ex. H2 + Cl2  2HCl

S + O2  SO2
SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
2NO + O2  2NO2
..........................................................
2. Decomposition reaction/Analysis
- single reactant is converted (broken down or decomposed) into two or more
simpler substances
- opposite of the synthesis reaction
XY  X + Y
ex. 2CuO  2Cu + O2

2H2O 2H2 + O2
CaCO3  CaO + CO2
3. Single-replacement reaction
- one element within a compound is replaced by another element
- there are always two reactants (one element, one compound), and two
products (also an element and a compound)
X + YZ  Y + XZ
ex. Zn + H2SO4  H2 + ZnSO4

Ni + 2HCl  H2 + NiCl2
Mg + Ni(NO3)2  Ni + Mg(NO3)2
4. Double-replacement reaction
- two compounds exchange parts with each other and form two different
compounds
AX + BY  AY + BX
- generally involve ionic compounds in aqueous solution
- “partner swapping”
ex: AgNO3 + NaCl  NaNO3 + AgCl
NaF + HCl  NaCl + HF
AgNO3 + HCl  AgCl + HNO3
1. double displacement reactions are also called “metathesis” reactions

2. occur when a precipitate (insoluble solid), an insoluble gas, or a weak electrolyte
is formed
ex: AgNO3 + HCl  AgCl + HNO3  AgCl is an insoluble salt

2HCl + Na2S  H2S(g) + 2NaCl  H2S(g) is an insoluble gas
HCl + NaOH  H2O + NaCl  H2O is a weak electrolyte
Solubility Rules (see Table 6)
3. rules in table 6 apply to compounds of the following cations:

a. +1 cations: Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+, NH4+, Ag+
..........................................................
b. +2 cations: Mg+2, Ca+2, Sr+2, Ba+2, Mn+2, Fe+2, Co+2, Ni+2, Cu+2, Zn+2, Cd+2,
Hg+2, Hg2+2, Sn+2, Pb+2
c. +3 cations: Fe+3, Al+3, Cr+3
4. common inorganic solids (HCl, HBr, etc.) are soluble in water
Table 6. Mainly Water-Soluble Ionic Compounds

NO3- all nitrates are soluble
CH3COO- all acetates are soluble
ClO3- all chlorates are soluble
Cl- all chlorides are soluble except AgCl, Hg2Cl2, and PbCl2*
Br- all bromides are soluble except AgBr, Hg2Br2, PbBr2* and HgBr2*
I- all iodides are soluble except AgI, Hg2I2, PbI2, and HgI2
SO4-2 all sulfates are soluble except CaSO4*, SrSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4,
Hg2SO4 and Ag2SO4*
Mainly Water-Insoluble Ionic Compounds
S-2 all sulfides are insoluble except those of the IA and IIA elements
and (NH4)2S
CO3-2 all carbonates are insoluble except those of the IA elements and
(NH4)2CO3
SO3 -2
all sulfites are insoluble except those of the IA elements and
(NH4)2SO3
PO4 -3
all phosphates are insoluble except of the IA elements and
(NH4)3PO3
OH - all hydroxides are insoluble except those of the IA elements,
Ba(OH)2, Sr(OH)2* and Ca(OH)2*
* only slightly soluble compounds
2. Gases
Table 7. Rules for the formation of some common gases by metathesis

reactions
H2S any sulfide (salt of S ) + any acid form H2S(g) and a salt
-2
CO2 any carbonate + any acid form CO2(g), H2O and a salt
SO2 any sulfite + any acid form SO2(g), H2O and a salt
NH3 any ammonium salt + any soluble strong hydroxide react upon
heating to form NH3(g), H2O and a salt
..........................................................
Activity Series (for single-replacement reactions):
Li F2
K Cl2
Ba Br2
Sr I2
Ca
Na
Mg
Al
Mn
Zn
Cr
Fe
Cd
Co
Ni
Sn
Pb
H2
Cu
Bi
Sb
Hg
Ag
Pt
Au
..........................................................
CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS AND THE MOLE CONCEPT
New materials, new products, new consumer goods of all kinds come on the market regularly.
But before manufacturing begins on most new products, calculations involving the mole must be done.
A dozen of flower means 12 pieces
A pair of gloves means 2 pieces
A ream of bond paper means 500 pieces
A dozen of eggs means 12 pieces
How much is a mole?
The mole is an amount unit similar to familiar units like pair, dozen, gross, etc. Because of the small
size of atoms, Chemists use MOLES to count particles. The mole, commonly abbreviated mol, is the SI based
unit used to measure the amount of a substance. One mole of carbon-12 atoms contains 12 grams of the
isotope carbon-12.
The number of entities composing a mole has been experimentally determined to

be 6.022×1023, a fundamental constant named Avogadro’s number (NA) or the Avogadro constant in
honor of Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro. This constant is properly reported with an explicit unit of
“per mole,” a conveniently rounded version being 6.022×1023/mol.
1 mole = 6.022×1023 particles (atoms, molecules, ions)

..........................................................
Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro
Converting Moles to Particles
Determine how many particles of a substance are in a specific number of moles
One mole contains 6.022 x 1023 representative particles
Conversion factor:
23
6.022 x 10 representative particles
1 mole
Review:
How many eggs are there in 3.5 dozens?
Conversion factor: 1 dozen = 12 eggs
Unknown: # of eggs?
Solution:
# of dozens(given) x # of eggs
1 dozen
3.5 dozens X 12 eggs
1 dozen
= 3.5 x 12
=42 eggs
23
# of moles x 6.022 x 10 representative particles
1 mole
= number of representative particles
..........................................................
Problem: How many molecules of sugar are there in 3.50 moles of sucrose (table sugar)
23
3.50 mol sucrose x 6.02 x 10 molecules sucrose
1 mol sucrose
= 2.11 x 1024 molecules of sucrose

24
*There are 2.11 x 10 molecules sucrose in 3.5 mol
Converting Particles to Moles
Use the inverse of Avogadro’s number as a conversion factor
# of rep. particles x 1mole______

6.022 x 1023 rep. particles
Problem: Zinc is used as a corrosion-resistant coating on iron and steel. It is also an essential trace
element in your diet. Calculate the number of moles that contain 4.50 x 1024 atoms of Zinc.
Known:
# of atoms=4.50 x 1024 atoms of Zinc
1 mol Zn = 6.022 x 1023
Solve for the unknown:
Number of atoms x 1 mole_ = # of moles

6.022 x 10 atoms
23
4.5 x 1024 atoms Zn x 1 mol Zn

6.022 x 1023 atoms
= 7.47 mol of Zn
Mass and the Mole
Which is heavier, a dozen of egg or a dozen of apples?
..........................................................
This is like asking, which is heavier, a mole of water (H2O) or a mole of salt (NaCl)?
The mass in grams of one mole of any pure substance is called its MOLAR MASS (also known
as molar weight). The molar mass of any element is numerically equal to its atomic mass and has the
units g/mol. The molar mass of any substance is the mass in grams of Avogadro’s number of
representative particles of the substance.
Using Molar Mass
To calculate mass from the number of moles, you need to multiply the number of moles by a
conversion factor that relates mass and moles.
Number of moles = mass of the substance

molar mass of the substance
Problem:
1. Calculate the mass of 3.0 moles of Manganese (Mn with atomic mass of 54.9g). To compute
the mass of the substance, the formula this could also be expressed as;
Mass of the substance= Number of moles x molar mass of the substance

= 3.0 mol of Mn x 54.9g Mn
= 165g Mn
2. Chromium (Cr) is a transition element used as a coating on metals and in steel alloys to
control erosion. Calculate the mass in grams of 0.0450 moles of Cr. (Atomic mass of Cr =
52.0g).
Mass of the substance= Number of moles x molar mass of the substance

= 0.0450 mol of Cr x 52.0g Cr
= 2.34g Cr
3. Calcium, the fifth most abundant element on earth is always found combined with other
elements because of its high reactivity. How many moles of of Ca are in 525 g Ca? (At. Mass
of Ca = 40.08)
Number of moles = mass of the substance

molar mass of the substance
=525g of Ca
40.08g Ca
=13.1 mol Ca
..........................................................
Moles of Compounds
Subscripts in a chemical formula indicate how many moles of each element are in one mole of
the compound. For example, freon has the formula CCl2F2. The subscripts tell you that one molecule
of freon consists of one atom of carbon, two atoms of chlorine, and two atoms of fluorine.
The chemical formula CCl2F2 not only represents an individual molecule of freon, it also
represents a mole of the compound.
Problem: Suppose you want to determine the molar mass of potassium chromate (K2CrO4). (Atomic
masses: K=39, Cr=52, O=16)
For potassium chromate (K2CrO4):

K= 2 x 39 = 78
Cr= 1x 52 = 52
O= 4 x 16 = 64
194g of K2CrO4 per mol of the substance
Did you know that…?
Celebrated annually on October 23 from

6:02 a.m. to 6:02 p.m., Mole Day
commemorates Avogadro's Number
23
(6.02 x 10 ), which is a basic measuring
unit in Chemistry.
Percent Composition, Empirical and Molecular Formulas
The percent by mass of any element in a compound can be computed by dividing the mass of the
element by the mass of the compound and multiplying by 100. The percent by mass of each element
in a compound is called the % COMPOSITION of a compound.
Mass of element x100 = percent by mass

Mass of compound
For example, potassium chromate (K2CrO4):

K= 2 x 39 = 78
Cr= 1x 52 = 52
O= 4 x 16 = 64
..........................................................
194g K2CrO4/mol
The percentage composition of each element in K2CrO4 is:

K = 78/194 x 100 = 40.2%
Cr= 52/194 x 100 = 26.8%
O= 64/194 x 100 = 33.0%
100%
* K2CrO4 is composed of 40.2% K, 26.8% Cr and 33.0% O.
SOLUTIONS
SOLUTIONS are homogenous (uniform) mixture of two or more substances that are
physically combined and thus, components are separated by physical processes. The
particles present must be of atomic and molecular size.
Components of Solutions
1. Solvent
This is the component of the solution present in the greatest amount. It is the medium in which
the other substances present are dissolved.
2. Solute
This is the component present in a small amount relative to that of the solvent. This is the “active
ingredient” in the solution. This is the substance that undergoes reaction when solutions are
mixed.
More than one solute may be present in the same solution

ex: both sugar and salt dissolved in a container of water
Terminologies
1. Solubility
 maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent
 affected by temperature, pressure and presence of other solutes
 unit: grams of solute/100 g of solvent
 may also be described qualitatively
 very soluble, soluble, slightly soluble, insoluble
 increase temperature, increase solubility
2. Saturated solution- contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved under the
condition at which the solution exists. The rate of dissolution of undissolved solute is equal to
the rate of crystallization of dissolved solute
3. Unsaturated solution- less solute than the maximum amount possible is dissolved in the
..........................................................
solution
4. Supersaturated solution- contains more solute than the normal solubility limit
5. Dilute solution- contains a small amount of solute in solution relative to the amount that
could dissolve
6. Concentrated solution- contains a large amount of solute relative to the amount that could
dissolve. This need not be a saturated solution
7. Miscible liquids- dissolve in any amount in each other

ex: methyl alcohol (CH3OH) and water
completely mix with each other in any and all proportions. After mixing, only one phase is
present.
8. Partially miscible liquids- have limited solubility in each other

ex: benzene (C6H6) and water
9. immiscible liquids - do not dissolve in each other

ex: toluene (C7H8) and water
10. aqueous solution- a solution in which water is the solvent
Solution Concentrations
1. specifies the amount of solute present in an unsaturated solution
 most solutions chemists deal with are unsaturated rather than saturated
2. amount of solute present in a specified amount of solvent or a specified amount of
solution
3. ratio of two quantities
 amount of solute or amount of solute
amount of solvent amount of solution
A. Percentage of Solute
concentration of a solution is often specified in terms of the percentage of solute in the total
amount of solution
•percent by mass (or mass-mass percent)
•percent by volume (or volume-volume percent)
•mass-volume percent
..........................................................
1. Percent by Mass
a. most frequently used
percent by mass = mass solute x 100

mass solution
where:
mass solution = mass solute + mass solvent
percent by = mass solute x 100

mass mass solute + mass solvent
b. solute and solution must be in the same units
Example:
1. What is the percent by mass, % (m/m), concentration of sucrose (table sugar) in a solution
made by dissolving 5.4 g of sucrose in enough water to give 87.3 g of solution?
Solution:
percent by mass = masssolute x 100
masssolution
= 5.4 g x 100
87.3 g
= 6.185567 %
% (m/m) = 6.2 %
2. How many grams of sucrose must be added to 375 g of water to prepare a 2.65 % (m/m)
solution of sucrose?
Solution:
% (m/m) = masssolute x 100
masssolute + masssolvent
msolute = msolvent x % (m/m) (derive equation!)
100 - % (m/m)
= (375 g)(2.65)
100 – 2.65
msolute = 10.20801233 g
msolute = 10.2 g
2. Percent by Volume
a. used when both the solute and solvent are liquids or gases
 more convenient to use volumes than masses
percent by volume = volume solute x 100

volume solution
b. solute and solution volume units must be the same

..........................................................
Example:
80.0 mL of methyl alcohol and 80.0 mL of water are mixed to give a solution that has a final
volume of 154 mL. What is the concentration of the solution expressed as percent by volume
methyl alcohol?
Solution:
given: volumesolute = 80.0 mL
volumesolution = 154 mL
percent by volume = volumesolute x 100

volumesolution
= 80.0 mL x 100
154 mL
= 51.948052 %
% (v/v) = 51.9 %
3. Mass-Volume Percent
a. often encountered in hospital and industrial settings
b. used when working with a solid solute and a liquid solvent
ex: blood and urine samples
mass-volume = mass solute (g) x 100

percent volume of solution (mL)
Example:
In the treatment of certain illnesses of the human body, a 0.92% (m/v) sodium chloride
(NaCl) solution is administered intravenously. How many grams of sodium chloride are required
to prepare 345 mL of this solution?
Solution:
mass-volume = masssolute (g) x 100
volumesolution (mL)
 mass solute = % (m/v) x volumesolution (derive equation!)
100
= (0.92 g/mL)(345 mL)
100
= 3.174 g NaCl
% (m/v) = 3.2 g NaCl
B. ppm and ppb

a. used when dealing with extremely dilute solutions
 e.g. frequently used by environmental chemists in specifying
concentrations of minute amounts of trace pollutants or toxic
chemicals in air and water samples
b. closely related to percentage concentration units
..........................................................
1. Parts per Million (ppm)
-one part of solute per million parts of solution
ppm (m/m) = mass solute x 106
mass solution
ppm (v/v) = volume solute x 106
volume solution
ppm (m/v) = mass solute (g) x 106

volume solution (mL)
2. Parts per Billion (ppb)
-one part of solute per billion parts of solution
ppb (m/m) = mass solute x 109
mass solution
ppb (v/v) = volume solute x 109
volume solution
ppb (m/v) = mass solute (g) x 109
volume solution (mL)
Example:
1. A sample of water, upon analysis, is found to contain 6.3 x 10-3 g of lead per 375 mL of
solution. What is the lead concentration in (a) ppm (m/v) and (b) ppb (m/v)?
Solution:
(a) ppm (m/v) = masssolute (g) x 106
volumesolution (mL)
= 6.3 x 10-3 g x 106
375 mL
= 16.8
= 17
(b) ppb (m/v) = masssolute (g) x 109

volumesolution (mL)
= 6.3 x 10-3 g x 109
375 mL
= 16,800
= 17,000
..........................................................
2. The carbon monoxide, CO, content of the tobacco smoke that reaches a smoker’s lungs is
estimated to be 200. ppm (v/v). At this concentration, how much CO, in milliliters, would be
present in a sample of air the size of standard-sized basketball (7.5 L)?
Solution:
ppm (v/v) = volume of solute x 106
volume of solution
 Vsolute = ppm (v/v) x Vsolution
106
= (200.)(7.5 L)(1000 mL)
(1L)(106)
= 1.5 mL
C. Molarity
1. ratio giving the number of moles per liter of solution
Molarity (M) = moles of solute

liter of solution
2. commonly used for solutions
3. units are specific (moles/liter)
Example:
1. Determine the molarities of the following solutions:
a. 2.37 moles of KNO3 dissolved in enough water to give 650. mL of solution.
Solution:
given: moles of solute = 2.37 moles KNO3
Vsolution = 650 mL x 1 L = 0.650 L
1000 mL
 molarity = mol solute = 2.37 mol KNO3

L solution 0.650 L solution
= 3.6461538 mol/L
= 3.65 mol/L
b. 25.0 g of NaOH dissolved in enough water to give 2.50 L of solution

ans: 0.250 mol/L
..........................................................
Activity #4
Chemical bonds: Ionic and Covalent Bonds
OBJECTIVES
1. classify compounds whether they are electrolytes or non-electrolytes using a
direct current battery indicated by LED conductivity apparatus
2. classify compounds whether ionic or covalent according to conductance
of electricity exhibited by substances
MATERIALS/APPARATUS
Beaker, test tube, graduated cylinder, mortar and pestle, triple beam balance,
conductivity apparatus, thermometer
WASTE DISPOSAL
 Flush acid solutions with plenty of water.
 All solid materials are to be thrown in the trash can.
1. Conductivity
a. Construct the conductivity apparatus using a 9v battery. Attach a

150 ohms resistor (code: red-green-red-gold) to the LED light of the
red jumper wire. This should be connected to the positive end of the
battery.
b. Attach the black jumper wire to the negative end of the battery.
Clean the jumper wires with distilled water and dry with tissue paper before testing another
sample.
..........................................................
c. Test the following sample reagents using the conductivity apparatus.
Reagents
Distilled water
Tap water
Sodium chloride crystals
Sodium chloride solution
Sugar solution
MSG crystals
MSG solution
Gatorade
Ethyl alcohol
Cooking oil
Vinegar
Calamansi solution
Liquid detergent solution
d. Take note of the conductance of electricity of each sample and

classify.
..........................................................
Report: Name:
Chemical Bonds: Ionic
Activity# 4 and Covalent Bonds Section: Date:
Group:
Instructor:
DATA AND RESULTS:

A. Conductivity
Reagents Conductance of Classification

electricity according to
conductance
Distilled water
Tap water
Sodium chloride crystals
Sodium chloride solution
Sugar solution
MSG crystals
MSG solution
Gatorade
Ethyl alcohol
Cooking oil
Vinegar
Calamansi solution
Liquid detergent solution
B. Questions for research

1. Given the substances tested in the experiment, classify them whether they are ionic or
covalent compounds. Explain your answer.
2. Why do ionic compounds form ions in aqueous solution while covalent compounds do
not?
3. Explain why dry solid ionic substances are non-conductors of electricity.

..........................................................
Homework # 4a
Name: Date: Score:
Course, Yr & Sec:
A. Represent the compounds formed from the following using Lewis dot notation
1. Mg + O
2. Al + P
3. K + S
4. Ba + I
B. Name the following compounds using the rules

1. BeO:
2. AlF3 :
3. K3N:
4. Na2S:
5. Fe2O3:
6. PbO2:
7. AuCl:
8. Fe2(SO3)3 :
9. HClO3(sol’n) :
10. HClO(sol’n) :
11. HBr :
12. KClO3:
13. NaNO2:
14. KMnO4 :
15. MnO2 :
..........................................................
C. Give the name of each substance, the type of chemical reaction and balance the
equation:
1. Fe2O3(s) + C(s)  Fe(s) + CO2(g)
2. KClO3  KCl + O2
3. C2H6 + O2  CO2 + H2O
4. Zn + AgNO3  Zn(NO3)2 + Ag
D. Compute for the unknown. Show your solution. Handwritten reports are better. Circle your final
answer.
Problems:
1. Determine the number of atoms in 2.5 mol Zn
2. Given 3.25 mol AgNO3, determine the number of formula units
3. Calculate the number of molecules in 11.5 mol water
4. How many moles contain each of the following?
a. 5.75 x 1024 atoms Al

b. 3.75 x 1024 molecules CO2
c. 3.58 x 1023 formula units ZnCl2
5. Determine the molar mass of each of the following ionic compounds:
b. NaOH
c. Sr(NO3)2
d. CaCl2
e. (NH4)3PO4
6. Sodium bicarbonate, also called baking soda, is an active ingredient in some antacids used for the
relief of indigestion. Determine the % composition of NaHCO3.(Atomic masses: Na=23, H=1, C=12,
O=16).
..........................................................
7. Chlorophyll is a dark-green plant pigment. Calculate the molar weight and percent composition of
chlorophyll, C55H70MgN4O6. (Atomic masses: C=12, H=1, Mg=24, N=14, C=12, O=16).
E. Compute for the unknown. Show your solution. Handwritten reports are better. Circle your final
answer.
1. Problems:
2. What is the percent by mass concentration of K3PO4 in a solution made by dissolving 13.4 g
of K3PO4 in enough water to give 55.4 g of solution?
3. How many grams of LiNO3 must be added to 25.0 g of water to prepare a 5.00 % solution of
LiNO3?
4. An antifreeze solution was prepared by dissolving 250 mL of methyl alcohol in sufficient

water to produce 700. mL of solution. What is the concentration of this solution expressed
as percent by volume methyl alcohol?
5. How many grams of glucose (C6H12O6) are needed to prepare 500. mL of a 4.50% (m/v)
glucose-water solution?
6. A sample of air, upon analysis, is found to contain 0.032 g of CO per 875 mL of air. What is
the concentration in (a) ppm (m/v) and (b) ppb (m/v)?
7. The ozone, O3, content of smog is approximately 0.5 ppm (v/v). At this concentration, how
much O3, in milliliters, would be present in a sample of smog the size of a 2-L container?
8. How many grams of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), C6H8O6, are present in 125 mL of 0.400 M
vitamin C solution?
..........................................................
UNIT 5
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
Molecular shapes, or geometries, are critical to molecular recognition and function.
The Lewis structure of carbon tetrachloride:
 Provides information about connectivities

 Provides information about valence orbitals
 Provides information about bond character
However, the Lewis structure provides no information about the shape of the
molecule
The structure of a molecule is defined by:
 The bond angles

 The bond lengths
In carbon tetrachloride:
 Each C-Cl bond length is 1.78Å

 Each Cl-C-Cl bond angle is 109.5°
Carbon tetrachloride is tetrahedral in structure:
..........................................................
Molecular Geometries of ABn molecules
A central atom A is bonded to two or more B atoms
These structures can generally be predicted, when A is a nonmetal, using the

"valence-shell electron-pair repulsion model (VSEPR)
The molecular structure of solids may be categorized into crystalline solids and
amorphous solids. The first one has a well-defined shape because the particles
composing such solid are arranged in an orderly manner. The smallest portion of the
crystal is known as the unit cell, which is further classified into fourteen types. In this
experiment, however, it will focus on the cubic system that consists of simple, body-
centered and face-centered cubic cells. The edge length, a, of each unit cell may be
expressed in terms of the radius, r, which is half the diameter of the particle or atom.
As to the structure of the each cubic cell, simple cubic unit cell is composed of
eight identical particles placed at the corners; body-centered cubic unit cell consists of a
particle being enclosed by four other ones, which then forms a cube; and face-centered
cubic unit cell is one in which each face of a cube has a particle surrounded by four others.
..........................................................
Activity # 5
Bonding in Solids
OBJECTIVES
1. construct different unit cells
2. calculate for the volume and density of unit cell
3. determine the packing efficiency of each unit cell
MATERIALS/APPARATUS
Ruler, Styrofoam balls, sticks or connectors
A. Simple cubic unit cell
1. Construct this kind of unit cell using eight Styrofoam balls.

2. Connect each ball with a stick to form a cube.
3. Determine the edge length and face diagonal length of the cube.
4. Calculate its volume in terms of r.
5. Determine the number of equivalent atoms in the cube.
B. Body centered cubic unit cell
1. Make a body centered unit cell using nine Styrofoam balls.
2. Connect all eight balls to the center sphere.
4. Solve for its volume in terms of r.
5. Identify the number of equivalent atoms in the cube.
C. Face centered cubic unit cell
1. Construct a face centered unit cell using twelve Styrofoam balls.
2. Create one face of the cube by connecting four balls at the center
sphere. Do this twice.
3. Connect two faces of the cube by inserting one ball in each of the
remaining four faces.
5. Solve for its volume in terms of r.
6. Identify the number of equivalent atoms in the cube.
..........................................................
Name:
Report:
Bonding in Solids Section:
Activity Group: Date:
#5
Instructor/s:
DATA AND RESULTS
A. Simple Cubic Unit Cell
Edge length of cube (in terms of r), a

Face diagonal length of cube (in terms
of r)
Volume of cube (in terms of r), v
Number of equivalent atoms in a cube
Calculations:
B. Body-centered Cubic Unit Cell

of r)
Calculations:
C. Face-centered Cubic Unit Cell

of r)
Calculations:
..........................................................
Research Questions:
1. Gold (197.0 g/mol) crystallizes as a face-centered cubic unit cell. If the density of
gold is 19.3 g/cm3, what is the atomic radius, r, of gold in nanometers?
2. Among the given cubic cells, which has the best packing efficiency? Why?
3. Do amorphous solids form unit cells? Why or why not
..........................................................
Homework #4b
Name: ___________________________________C/Y/S: __________________ Date: ________________ Score: _____________
Test I. Complete the table below. 24 points
Element A & Z #p # e Orbital diagram Complete Electronic configuration Shell diagram Famil Period Classificati Valen
#n of last EC y/Gro on ce
up
1.Jj A=23 Z=11
2. Rr p= 16
e= 16
n= 16
3. Jr A= 39 Z=19
Test II. Plot the given elements using the Periodic table below.
1A 2A 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 8B 8B IB IIB 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
..........................................................

Module 2023 Chem For Engineering v3 MIDTERMS

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Module 2023 Chem For Engineering v3 MIDTERMS

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BY: RUTH T. LIBAG, RMT, LPT, MAE CHEMISTRY 1

THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

Chemistry is the branch of science concerned with the properties, composition,

4. Biochemistry- encompasses the study of the chemical nature of living material

1. Purpose/Question Ask a question.

The History of Chemistry

IV. End of 17th Century -Mid 19th Century (Traditional Chemistry)

V. Mid 19th Century – Present (Modern or 20th Century Chemistry)

B. The Metric System

C. The International System of Units (Le Système International d’Unitès, SI)

Measurement Unit Symbol

Prefix Abbreviation Factor Scientific

Volume – refers to the amount of space occupied by an object

Mass – refers to the amount of matter present in an object. Mass is used

Density – it is an intrinsic property of matter that is defined as the mass of matter

Where M = mass and V = volume

0.082057 = 8.2057 x 10-2

ex. (3.0 x 105)(2.0 x 102) = (3.0 x 2.0) x 105+2

ex. 6.89 x 10-7 = 6.89 x 10(-7)-(+3)

3. Addition and Subtraction

ex. (6.25 x 103) + (3.0 x 102) = (6.25 x 103) + (0.30 x 103)

ex. 0.003 = 1 significant figure

Zeros that arise as a part of a measurement are significant.

ex. 0.0005030 = 4 SFs

Sometimes, it is difficult to determine the number of significant figures in a value that

700 = 7.00 x 102  3 SFs

Another convention, using the decimal point  if decimal point is indicated,

Values obtained by counting may also be exact

3.250 is 3.2 to 2 SFs

5. The answer to a multiplication or division is rounded off to the same number of

152.06 x 0.24 = 36.4944  36  2 SFs (least precise tern is 0.24)

Questions for research:

2. Which among the given apparatus are used as reaction vessels?

them highly resistant to breakage at very high temperatures?

B. Measuring the Volume of cylinder

C. Measuring the Volume of Irregular solids (Water displacement method)

D. Measuring the Volume of liquids

F. Computing the Density of an Object

Activity MEASUREMENTS Section: Date:

DATA AND RESULTS:

A. Volume of Regular Solid

C. Volume of irregular solid

Liquid samples Volume of liquid using Volume of liquid using

G. Questions for research

3. In what unit should the volume of an irregular solid be expressed? Why?

Name: Date: Score:

Compoun Heterogen Homogen

non- inert Suspensio

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

Matter can exist in three physical states:

Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical and Chemical Changes

Substances can undergo various changes in properties, these changes may be

Chemical changes - also known as chemical reactions, a substance is transformed

Indices of chemical change in matter:

1. Formation of a new substance.

Mixtures refer to combinations of two or more substances in which each substance

An important characteristic of mixtures is that the individual components retain their

Energy is the capacity to do work or transfer heat.

Work is the energy transferred when a force exerted on an object causes a

Heat is the energy used to cause the temperature of an object to increase.

Force is any push or pull on an object.