San Pedro Ashley Jean C.

MTJ1-A3

Ethics summary report

Unit 1

Lesson 1: BROTHERHOOD OF VIOLENCE

Cris Anthony Mendez, a student, passed away in 2007 following an emergency room
visit. stunned and covered in bruises. According to the autopsy report, his wounds
were probably caused by Physical assault during initiation rituals is known as
"hazing." The reason is yet unclear, and Nobody has admitted guilt thus far. Although
leaders of the fraternity Sigma Rho publicly Members of their fraternity disapproved
of the occurrence and disappeared, declining to assist authority in law. The matter is
still pending, and the question of life's worth, the brothers in a fraternity have done
wrongs, yet the benefits to fraternities are still unaddressed.

LESSON 2: EVALUATION

The study of ethics focuses on identifying the foundations or justifications for

important ideals, like right and wrong, good and horrible. It has nothing to do with
money; instead, it's about classifying anything as good or terrible. In the area, value
judgments are frequently made aesthetics, which is the term used to express one's
personal opinion about what one sees, hears, either flavor or scent. Ethics also
includes judgments about areas of human behavior that concern life itself or the
well-being of humans. For instance, issues pertaining to life and death, topics
pertaining to human welfare, such abortion, the death penalty, and war, topics like
sexual identity, poverty, and injustice are frequently covered in ethics talks. But the
line that separates what is ethical and what is not

LESSON 3: THINKING OF ETHICS

Thus, taking an ethics course is less about learning something entirely new and more
about understanding it only takes time and effort to properly consider the options
available. that we are regularly asked to make, along with other individuals.
Explanations Our initial set of explanations regarding the usage of the terms "ethics"
and "morals." This ethics discussion hence the terms ethical, unethical, immoral,
amoral, and morality would be cognates of morals. and so forth. Those
circumstances or settings are occasionally referred to as "amoral." that, while not
falling under the purview of ethics, are morally neutral, that is that is, unrelated
tasks like doing your laundry, cooking, or reading a book

LESSON 4: SOURCES OF AUTHORITY

Numerous institutions have such a profound impact on our thoughts and behaviors,
encompassing our moral judgments. The legislation prohibits us from acting in
certain methods; for example, I'm not allowed to drive a car faster than a specific
speed restriction on certain highways. Thus, we can appreciate how it could be
alluring to assume that when we observe are already being directed by these
establishments, maybe they are the actual authorities to whom we ought to look for
guidance on morality. In order to be even more specific, Within a specific province or
city, such as Rizal province or more City, the people that live there are obliged to
abide by any applicable municipal or provincial legislation. Additionally, the law
is put into action

LESSON 5: SENSE OF THE SELF

All of these ideas center on the self, but they provide drastically diverse approaches
to of considering that self and how it relates to ethics. We'll talk about each of these.
three in turn Subjectivism: Subjectivism's foundation is the understanding that the
The subject, or independent thinker, is the central figure in all moral judgments.
From this subjectivism quickly advances to the more extreme assertion that the
individual is the only a judge of what is ethically right or wrong, excellent or terrible.
If I say it's excellent, then it is good. These statements appear to represent a certain
something that appeals to me. sense of individual freedom that a lot of us would
value.

UNIT 2

LESSON 1: THE COMMAND GOOD

Dillon clarified, quoting Section 4 of the Anti-Wiretapping Act (RA 4200), that "any
spoken word or communication, or the existence, content, purpose, orinterpretation
of the same, any portion of it, or any information found or obtained by anyone in
contravention of this Act's earlier clauses shall not be acceptable as proof in any
legislative, quasi-judicial, court, or administrative hearing or research. RA 4200, also
known as the Anti-Wire Tapping Law, and RA 9372, also known as the Human
The Security Act of 2007 and others) both offered exceptions to the unalienable right
to privacy in incidents of sedition, insurrection, espionage, and treason. If we figure
out the expenses and advantages of our deeds, then we're thinking about an ethical
theory that

LESSON 2: PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY

In 1789, Jeremy wrote an Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation.

Bentham first makes the case that there are two sovereign rulers who control
human behavior, namely
He refers to joy and suffering. The utility concept deals with our submission to these
sovereign
master's suffering and delight. The idea, on the one hand, speaks to the driving force
behind our behaviors that are motivated by our desire for pleasure and our need to
avoid pain. Conversely, however, Additionally, the concept states that anything is
beneficial if and only if it results in greater happiness. than discontent. Having
recognized the propensity for pleasure and the desire to avoid suffering Bentham's
theory of utility links pleasure with happiness. The items that generate joy and
happiness are beneficial; yet,

LESSON 3: PRINCIPLE OF THE GREATEST NUMBER

Happiness and pleasure are not synonymous in their attempt to characterize the
utilitarian moral agent. separate and self-sufficient from others. This goes beyond
just our personal interests. Regardless matter how lofty, sophisticated, or otherwise
honorable it may be, but it's also about the Name of the largest group impacted by
our actions' effects: Mill explains: I have focused on this issue since it fits into a
completely reasonable understanding of utility or happiness, regarded as the golden
standard for behavior in humans. However, it's not at all an essential prerequisite for
adopting the utilitarian standard, since that standard is not the agent's maximum
level of happiness, but the maximum level of happiness overall; and whether it may
be questioned whether

LESSON 4: JUSTICE AND RIGHTS

According to Mill, justice is the respect for rights aimed at society's quest for the
maximum contentment for the most quantity. He views rights as a legitimate
demand against society and are supported by their utility. Anything that we refer to
as a person's right indicates that he has a legitimate claim on society to defend him
while he possesses it, either by the application of the law or by that of knowledge
and viewpoint. Applying this idea to animals, we might say that they have rights
because the impact of these ideas on the overall happiness that results from them
of establishing and defending their rights. According to utilitarians, matters of justice
have a tremendous emotional significance because the rights category is closely
related to

UNIT II

LESSON 1: THE COMMON GOD

The 84th Special Action Force (SAF) carried out a police operation in Maguindanao
on January 25, 2015. Philippines, to apprehend Zulkifli bin Hir, a terrorist from
Malaysia. The mission resulted in a fight between the The Moro, the Bangsamoro
Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF), and the SAF of the Philippine National Police Front
for Islamic Liberation (MILF). Although the operation was successful, 67 people died
in the shootout, including Five civilians, five MILF fighters, and SAF troopers. The
large number of SAF personnel lost in the mission caught the interest of the
Philippine legislature and media. During an inquiry by Congress, Senate President
Senator Francis Escudero and Franklin Drilon discussed whether audio recordings of
a purported discussion to hide the massacre. Senator Poe's remark prompted
concerns on the moral acceptance of wiretapping

LESSON 2: PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY

Jeremy Bentham asserts in An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and
Legislation (1789) that our Pleasure and pain are the two independent masters that
control activities. These experts decide what is good or evil and direct our decisions.
The utility principle acknowledges this subordination and takes it for granted that
the cornerstone of the state, seeking to uphold the fabric of happiness by reason and
the rule of law. The idea utility describes how our desire for pleasure and our desire
to avoid pain drive our behavior. Since Bentham acknowledges that pleasure and
suffering are the two sovereign masters who control our behavior. Mil concurs with
the Baha'i concept of utility, which sees contentment as joy, and the other way
around. He makes the case that deeds are right.

LESSON 3: PRINCIPLE OF GREATEST NUMBER

A moral philosophy known as utilitarianism places emphasis on the greatest

happiness of the largest number of people impacted. through our deeds. It is not just
about personal enjoyment, but also about maximizing happiness for the
highest number impacted. In the same way that utilitarianism is not about our
personal satisfaction or the joy of other people. It does not discount the sacrifices
made to increase the pleasure of others. It is Happiness for everybody, including
ourselves, must be taken into account as the yardstick for determining what is
ethical. Liberal social practices that strive to improve people's quality of life and
utilitarianism are not mutually exclusive. every individual. According to Mill's
utilitarianism, it's critical to choose pleasure over pain because the largest number,
emphasizing morally upright behavior

LESSON 4: JUSTICE AND RIGHTS

In order for society to pursue the maximum pleasure of its members, Mill's
conception of justice is predicated on upholding rights. highest quantity. According
to him, rights are legitimate demands made on society that are supported by
necessity. Rights like Religion, free expression, and due process are all acceptable
because they advance society as a whole. happier society. Justice-related concerns,
according to utilitarians, have a great emotional significance since they are
closely linked to a person's most important interests. The utilitarian theory links
having moral and legal rights based on the utility premise. When our moral and legal
rights are upheld, we are treated fairly. are valued. While there are certain
exceptions, legal rights are neither inherent nor unassailable. It is it unfair to take
away someone

UNIT III

LESSON 1: THE LGBT+

"Natural" and "unnatural" are phrases that we frequently employ in language and
opinion expressing.
with little consideration. People use appearances to excuse their behavior.
natural and appropriate, while others determine that something is not natural based
on their perceived nature. This may cause some to criticize and categorize different
things as "unnatural." activities like eating meat, having sex, or getting blood
transfusions. It is It's crucial to consider the definitions of "natural" and "unnatural,"
as well as the potential for Reason in the nature of Man. Law theory will be built
upon this comprehension, which establishes the morality of our deeds. The issues
facing the LGBTQ+ community are highly disputed topic, and it's critical to
understand the numerous concerns and opposing viewpoints to Steer clear of

LESSON 2 ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

Medieval philosopher Thomas Aquinas is regarded as a pivotal influence in the

evolution of natural law philosophy. As a component of Thomas Aquinas's
understanding of the Christian faith, his moral philosophy is a major component of
his output. The massive Summa Theologine by Thomas Aquinas, covers a wide range
of important topics in Christian theology. The essential truth upheld according to
Thomas Aquinas, we were made by God and are meant to return to Him.In Aquinas's
ethics, the pursuit of happiness, the dynamic of human existence, and the formation
of negative or positive habits. According to him, leading a Christian life entails
growing in the abilities bestowed upon us by God into a moral nature that leans
toward goodness.Additionally, Aquinas suggests that there is a conscience inside

Lesson 3 The Greek Heritage

This lesson examines the Greek philosophers who influenced the creation of natural
law. hypothesis. A fundamental tenet of Christianity is the concept of a Neoplatonic
God. ultimate and transcendental virtue. The concept was first presented by the
ancient Greek philosopher Plato. more than a millennium prior to Thomas Aquinas,
and it still influences modern philosophy. According to Plato, the good is more
beautiful and is the source of science and truth. compared to both. A central theme
in Plato's writings was the concept of the good, which offered a factual foundation
for moral endeavor.Late philosophers were nonetheless inspired by and able to
consider the Platonic concept of the good. fresh as a more intimate creative

LESSON 4 The Essence and Varieties of Law

It is possible to pursue desirable goals or things, but they are not always good.
Common Good asserts that people behave in a society knowing that what is
beneficial to society is also beneficial to each of them separately. The appropriate
standard for our acts is set by law, and it belonged to the entire populace or to a
public figure concerned with the welfare of everyone. Upon Aquinas contends that
all acts and movements in all creation are guided by divine intelligence, and that
It is in our nature to consider what is right and wrong. organic, human, and
Theories in philosophy and ethics known as "divine law" contend that people are
endowed with internal principles that direct their thinking and actions
Lesson 5 NATURAL LAW
Thomas Aquinas developed the Natural Law Theory, which holds that good and evil
are Humans are naturally inclined to pursue good things and refrain from bad things.
malevolent ones. Aquinas compares animal impulses, including sexual ones, with
those of humans. sexual activity and physical well-being. Additionally, he says that
people have an desire to live in satiety and pursue the truth about God, which may
be impacted by social and epistemological aspects. According to Aquinas, human
rules can be changed by adding improvements to both community and individual
lives. This idea of natural law is crucial. in a Christian-based ethics that offers a
sophisticated framework based on our inherent tendencies, including the need to
reproduce and maintain our fecundity, as well as the application of logic.

UNIT IV

DEONTOLOGY

Deontology is an important branch of moral philosophy that seeks to provide a

sound foundation for its guiding ideas. Establishing truth claims that are always and
already true is its main goal. without consulting actual data. This implies that the
ability of reason is all that is required. to confirm these statements. The goal of
deontology is to provide sound moral theories. and generally applicable to all, much
like "1+1=2" is applicable to all. This entails proving the first category of truth
assertions discussed in the moral domain, resulting in ethical guidelines that are both
universally and empirically binding, with the the fact that they are always and
already legitimate. This strategy is crucial in an ethics course to guarantee the
legitimacy and enforceability of moral beliefs

MORAL CONVICTION

Moral convictions, often rooted in strong moral principles, can significantly influence
an individual’s actions and behaviour, even in challenging or unpopular situations,
demonstrating their strong commitment to their moral principles

DUTY AND AGENCY

Deontology, a moral theory based on duty that was developed from the Greek
word "Deon," which means "being necessary," emphasizes the need of completing
duties. In addition to being sentient, people are also logical and have the ability to
think. to use mental abstraction to create concepts that extend beyond our
immediate environment, a ability resulting from rational processes.

AUTONOMY

Kant posits that the rational will’s property is autonomy, the opposite of
heteronomy. The
Greek words autos, heteroses, and nomos, meaning self, other, and law respectively,
are used to describe autonomy, which means self-legislating, and heteronomy,
which means other law.

UNIVERSALIZABILITY

We must comprehend an in order to comprehend how reason might result in

autonomous action. a particular process that illustrates the will's independence. Two
varieties exist of Formal and substantive theories of morality. Formal moral theories
offer the foundation for the moral theory, which emphasizes universal law, action,
maxim, and will. A maxim defined by Kant as a personal code of conduct that guides
our everyday activities but is not moral order. Rather, maxims illustrate the recurring
themes in our actions, offering a structure for recognizing the necessity of
categories. This differentiation clarifies the function of rationale in directing
independent behavior

ENLIGHTENMENT MORALITY

Kant’s categorical imperative is a formal moral philosophy that allows us to test an

action and determine its permissibility. It is a tool that tells us whether an action is
morally permissible or not. Instead of receiving substantive moral commands, we
can create our own list of moral commands using our rational faculty. This procedure
is used to determine the moral permissibility of an action. While we are often taught
which actions are right or wrong, this knowledge is often based on authority figures,
such as parents, priests, school rules, and government ordinances. This allows us to
determine the moral permissibility of an action.

UNIT V

Lesson 1:Preliminary: A Case on the Effects of TV Violence on Children

Luistro's assertion is predicated on an understanding of early development in which

kids have not yet attained complete mental and personal development. Because of
their weakness, they susceptible to the harmful consequences of watching violent
television. Research indicates that Children who see violence may grow numb to the
effects and think using violence as a fix for issues. How long can someone be
exposed to violence? influences how a child's environment and character
development are portrayed on television. growth into a moral person is essential.

Lesson 2- Aristotle: Happiness as the ultimate purpose of man

Born in Macedonia between 384 and 322 BCE, Aristotle studied philosophy in Athens
under Plato. Later on, he established Lyceum, his own school. He was a fruitful
scholar and an instructor of Great Alexander. Aristotle's principal contribution to
moral philosophy is the Nicomachean Ethics. According to Plato, reality is
understandable by the mind and transcends human understanding.
sensorial encounter. The ethical system developed by Aristotle emphasizes human
actions as advantageous, with deeds advancing greater goals. His pursuit of the
highest good is both ultimate and independent. Utopia, or happiness, is seen as the
ultimate ideal because it is wanted for its own independence and sake. The moral
precept of Aristotle is that contentment is the ultimate goal and greatest good for
people, emphasizing contentment within external objectives.

Lesson 3-THE HIGHEST END AND GOOD IS ACHIEVED BY DOING ONE’S FUNCTION
WELL

Aristotle’s concept of the highest good involves examining how an individual

functions to achieve their ultimate purpose, which is to perform their function well.
This sets them apart from other beings and makes them different from plants and
animals. A good person’s rational activity is performed well or in an excellent way,
which makes them closer to meeting the conditions of happiness. Aristotle believes
that human good is an activity of the soul in accordance to virtue, and if there are
more than one virtue, in accordance with the best and most complete. Being human
can be easily realized by performing the activity of reason, but a good human being
strives hard to perform it in an excellent way. Virtue, or arete by the Greeks, is
something that one strives for in time and cannot be accomplished by a single act.
A good person’s actions are of a higher purpose, and they stand closer to meeting
the conditions of happiness because their actions are of a higher purpose. Being
virtuous cannot be accomplished by a single act, and being an excellent individual
works on doing well in their day-to-day existence.

Lesson 4-MORAL VIRTUE

The human soul is divided into two parts: the rational element and the rational
faculty. The rational element consists of the vegetative and attractive aspects, while
the attractive aspect works as the directing faculty. Desire is an impulse that
naturally runs counter to reason, and desires are subject to reason. Intellectual
excellence is achieved through teaching through time and learning from vast
experiences in life. There are two ways to attain intellectual excellence: philosophical
and practical. Philosophical wisdom is concerned with understanding the
fundamental principles and rules that govern the universe, while practical wisdom is
about knowing the right conduct in carrying out a particular action. A morally good
person must achieve the intellectual virtue of practical wisdom in order to perform
the task of being moral. A morally good person does not necessarily have to achieve
the intellectual virtue of practical wisdom in order to perform the task of being
moral. For Socrates, moral goodness is already within the realm of intellectual
excellence, but for Aristotle, it does not necessarily mean that one already has the
capacity to do the good. Knowing the good needs to be done is different from doing
the good that one needs to accomplish.

UNIT VI

Lesson 1 Introduction: What is a Class in Ethics for?

The value of a college-level ethics class lies in understanding the four major ethical theories:
utilitarianism, natural law ethics, Kantian deontology, and virtue ethics. These theories aim
to provide answers to the questions "What ought I to do?" and "Why ought I to do so?"
These questions are universal and require continuous grappling with. Reason plays a crucial
role in addressing these questions, as it helps distinguish between morally right and
nonmoral situations. Ethics teaches that moral valuation can occur at personal, societal, and
physical levels. Personal refers to one's relationship with others and their personal growth.
Ethics helps navigate the right way to act in relation to others and towards self, as well as in
relationships with family members, friends, or close acquaintances. Structural levels involve
various aspects of social life, including culture, laws, fields of knowledge, and customs. Ethics
guides individuals through the potentially confusing thicket of their interactions with their
wider world of social roles, which can come into conflict with one another or even with their
own system of values. In conclusion, ethics is essential for understanding the human
condition and making informed decisions in moral situations. It helps individuals navigate
the complex interplay of personal, societal, and physical aspects of life, ultimately leading to
better decision-making and personal growth. In the twenty-first century, individuals must
navigate the balance between their own society and the global community. Ethics can help
navigate cultural clashes with outside values, as well as the responsibility to care for the
natural world. The environmental crises, such as global warming and species extinction,
emphasize the need for ethical considerations. A college course in ethics aims to apply
rational deliberation to determine one’s ethical responsibility to oneself, society, and the
environment. The moral agent, who makes ethical decisions, must be shaped by various
factors within and outside the individual. This complex ethical situation requires mature
rational thinking and courageous decision-making.

Lesson 2

The Moral Agent and Its Contexts

The concept of “who one is” is a fundamental aspect of human identity, as it is shaped by
various forces and events that occurred outside of one’s choosing. Filipino philosopher
Ramon C. Reyes (1935-2014) identified four cross-points: physical, interpersonal, social, and
historical. Physical events in the past and material factors in the present are not choices, as
individuals are inherited from their biological parents and have been shaped by
environmental factors specific to their location. Interpersonal factors include the character
of one's parents and the people surrounding them, which shape one’s personality, character
traits, and overall way of thinking and feeling. Social factors include the kind of society and
culture one belongs to, which influences one’s way of doing things, beliefs, values, and
notions of right and wrong. For example, the Philippine history of colonization has
influenced the formation of Philippine society and culture, shaping the individual Filipino.
Historical events, such as the Christianization of the Philippines during the Spanish conquest,
also shape one’s identity. However, being a product of these cross-points is just one side of
"who one is.” Ethics plays a significant role in this existential challenge of forming one’s self,
as what one ought to do in life is not dictated by physical, interpersonal, social, or historical
conditions. The human individual always exists in the tension between being conditioned by
external factors and being a free agent, as they never exist in a vacuum. The relationsh”p
between ethics and one’s own culture is a major issue in ethical thought, as it highlights the
importance of understanding and addressing the complex moral problems faced by
individuals

Culture and Ethics

Generalizations about Filipino traits often end up as empty stereotypes, as it is difficult to
think if any other culture does not exhibit such traits. For example, the concept of hospitality
may be a species-wide question, but how Filipinos express hospitality may be a reflection of
their own cultural heritage and responses to human questions. American philosopher James
Rachels (1941-2003) argued against cultural relativism in ethics, arguing that there is no
objective truth in morality. He argued that cultural differences do not necessarily mean that
there is no objective truth in morality, but rather that cultures may hold certain values in
common. For example, if one scrutinizes the beliefs and practices of different cultures, no
culture would promote murder instead of prohibiting it. Rachels concluded his article by
noting that someone can recognize and respect cultural differences while still maintaining
the right to criticize beliefs and practices that they think are wrong if they perform proper
rational deliberation. However, the challenge of ethics should not be reduced to one’s own
cultural standards, nor should it simplistically dismiss one’s unique cultural beliefs and
practices. Ethics should neither be reduced to one’s own cultural standards nor should it
simplistically dismiss one’s unique cultural beliefs and practices. Moral development is a
prerequisite for encountering ethical situations with a clear mind and with values properly
placed with respect to each other. This includes the relationship between one’s religion and
the values of others. In conclusion, the challenge of ethics lies in understanding and
respecting the differences between cultures, rather than attempting to reconcile them in the
name of a universal value system. By recognizing and respecting cultural differences,
individuals can develop a more mature approach to ethical decision-making and moral
development.

Religion and Ethics

Many religious followers believe that their religion's teachings define what is right or wrong,
good or bad. This relationship between religion and ethics is a philosophical exploration.
Many religious followers assume that what their religion teaches can be found in their
sacred scripture, writings, or other forms of preaching. A critical philosophical question in
ethics is "What exactly does sacred scripture (or religious teaching) command?" This is a
question of interpretation, as even the same passage from a particular religious tradition can
have many different interpretations from religious teachers. One must also determine what
justifies the claim of a particular religious teaching when it commands its followers on what
they "ought to do." Plato's philosophical question in Euthyphro, "Is it holy only because it is
loved by the gods, or is it holy in itself and that is why it is loved by the gods?" has been
modified into a moral version: "When something is "morally good," is it because it is good in
itself and that is why God commands it, or is it good because God simply says so?" Critical
questions about one's culture and religious beliefs show the need for maturity or growth in
one's morality, both in terms of intellect and character. The responsible moral agent is one
who does not blindly follow externally-imposed rules but has a well-developed "feel" for
making informed moral decisions

Lesson 3

The Role of Moral Development and Feelings in Moral Deliberation Moral

Development

Moral development is a crucial stage in an individual's life, characterized by the growth of

moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg, an American moral psychologist, proposed six stages
of moral development, divided into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-
conventional. The preconventional level is centered on obedience and avoidance of
punishment, while the conventional level is when older children, adolescents, and young
adults learn to conform to societal expectations. Kohlberg's theory suggests that a morally
mature individual must outgrow both the pre-conventional level and the conventional level,
which may seem like a sensible approach to morality. The third and highest level of moral
development, post-conventional, is where the morally responsible agent recognizes that
what is good or right is not reducible to following the rules of one's group but is a question
of understanding personally what one ought to do and deciding using one's free will. This
stage is divided into two stages: the fifth and the sixth, representing the individual's
realization that the ethical principles they have rationally arrived at take precedence over
societal rules or conventions. The sixth and highest stage of moral development is choosing
to perform actions based on universal ethical principles determined by oneself. This stage
recognizes that the question of what one ought to do goes back to the individual moral
agent and their own rationality. Kohlberg's insight is that ultimately, one must think for
herself what they ought to do, even if it means going against what the community of
rational thinkers deems as good if they really think they must. While Kohlberg's theory does
not completely explain moral development, it helps to highlight the differences in moral
reasoning between young children and morally mature individuals. It emphasizes the
importance of personal rationality and the need for a more mature approach to moral
decision-making.

Feelings in Moral Deliberation

Emotions play a crucial role in moral decision-making, as they are not a separate entity from
rationality. Aristotle argues that moral virtue goes beyond intellectually identifying the right
thing to do, but rather involves cultivating one’s character to manage emotions. Emotions
are part of human nature, and the mouth may say one thing, but the heart drives one to do
another. Aristotle acknowledges that there can be a disconnect between intellectual
knowledge of the good and the actual ability of an individual to perform accordingly. Moral
virtue involves habitually managing one’s feelings in the rightful manner, and the
responsible moral agent must educate and cultivate their feelings to avoid self-centered
feelings and dismissing the “right feelings” required for informed moral decisions. A mature
moral agent recognizes that they are a product of many forces, elements, and events that
shape their situation and options for a decision. A meaningful moral decision is one made in
full cognizance of where they come from and where they ought to go.

Lesson 4

Steps in Moral Deliberation and the Role of Ethical Frameworks Moral Problems

A morally mature individual must determine their level of involvement in a potential ethical
issue and distinguish between making a judgment on a specific case and making a morally
responsible decision for a situation they are actually part of. They must also identify which
activity they are engaged in, whether they are making a judgment on a case they are not
involved in, or if they truly need to make a decision in a situation that demands action. After
determining their involvement, they must ensure they are confronted with a moral situation
and account for all stakeholders and their interests. They must avoid blind simplification and
avoid minimizing other values in favor of a valid one. Cultivating mature moral choice is a
continuous journey in life, and Aristotle recognizes the importance of continuous
habituation.
A moral individual is always a human being with finite intellect and dynamic passions, and is
placed in unique situations. There are no automatic moral decisions, and one must continue
to manage their reason and passions to respond effectively to the kaleidoscope of moral
situations they find themselves in.

The Value of Studying Ethical Theories or Frameworks

Ethical theories or frameworks play a crucial role in the development of moral choice and
moral valuation. They provide a guide to understanding morality and can shed light on
important considerations. Utilitarianism emphasizes impartiality, putting every stakeholder
at par with everyone else. Natural law theory emphasizes the objective, universal nature of
morally good, based on the theorized existence of a “human nature.” Kant deontology
emphasizes rational will as the only human capacity to determine one’s moral duty,
emphasizing one’s autonomy as a constitutive of moral law. These theories explore the roles
of reason and free will in identifying what one ought to do in a given moral situation.
Aristotle’s virtue ethics suggests the need for habituation of one’s character to make
these considerations possible. However, the philosophical study of ethical theories must not
end in a smorgasbord of theories, as this approach does not make substantial headway in
answering the twin questions of “What ought I to do?” and “Why ought I to do so?” The
responsible moral individual must continuously test the cogency and coherence of the
ethical theory against the complexity of the concrete experience at hand. This spirit of
experimentation allows the moral individual to identify the strengths and weaknesses of
each theory or framework in application to different realms of human action, including the
personal, social, and environmental realms

Lesson 5

Self, Society, and Environment

Individual/Self

In the realm of self-care, one must consider not only how one deals with themselves but also
how one interacts with others in personal relations. Four ethical theories can be used to
address this demand for ethically responsible care for the self:

1. John Stuart Mill’s utilitarianism emphasizes maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain,
elevating the human element above the animalistic and selfish aspects. This theory builds on
Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism by emphasizing the importance of the greatest happiness
for the greatest number affected by an action.

2. Thomas Aquinas’s natural law theory emphasizes the natural propensity to maintain
oneself in one’s existence, which is considered good, while actions that lead to destruction
are considered bad or evil. Aquinas calls for a commitment to the truth, avoiding lies and
ignorance, and living a peaceful social life.

3. Kant’s deontology celebrates the rational faculty of the moral agent, challenging the
moral agent to think beyond their own predilections and desires. Kant’s principle of
universalizability encourages the moral agent to treat humanity as the end or goal of all
human actions, rather than just as a means.
4. Aristotle’s virtue ethics teaches one to cultivate one’s intellect and character to achieve
eudaimonia in one’s lifetime. Aristotle is forgiving when it comes to individual actions, but
the key question is whether one’s actions lead to becoming a better person in terms of
cultivating their character.

In conclusion, ethical responsibility to oneself involves addressing both personal

relationships and interactions with others, recognizing the importance of self-cultivation and
learning from mistakes to become a better person. Utilitarianism emphasizes the
importance of the greatest happiness principle in interpersonal interactions, emphasizing
the importance of considering the happiness of everyone affected by one’s actions. This
applies to relationships with family, friends, neighbors, classmates, and workmates. Natural
law theory provides an ethic of interpersonal relationships, emphasizing the value of
human life and the promotion of truth and orderly social life. Kant’s deontology emphasizes
the principle of humanity as end-in-itself, urging individuals to treat others as end-in-itself,
not as mere means. Aristotle’s virtue theory emphasizes the importance of finding and
acting on the mesotes, which involves identifying and managing relevant feelings in moral
situations. The saying “familiarity breeds contempt” suggests that many people tend to
lapse into hurtful attitudes towards others, which can be addressed by sifting through
feelings and avoiding contempt. Temperance, an Aristotelian virtue, applies to treating
oneself and others fairly and with much circumspection.

Social Life: In the Philippines Context and in the Global Village

In Philippine society, the demands of communal life are often conflicted with the traditions
of indigenous cultures. This raises ethical questions about whether actions taken by Filipinos
within their own territory can truly benefit everyone affected by them. Mill’s utilitarian
doctrine emphasizes the greatest happiness principle, which requires individuals to consider
whether their actions will truly benefit everyone affected by them. Thomas Aquinas’ natural
law theory focuses on principles that should guide individuals in actions that affect their
larger society. He believes that harmonious social life cannot be possible without values such
as human life, truth, and peaceful co-existence. Contemporary social issues like the
dissemination of “post-truth,” “alternative facts,” and “fake news” are targets of Thomistic
criticism. Immanuel Kant’s virtue ethics prescribes mesotes as the guide for actions,including
those involving the larger community of people. Virtues such as justice, liberality,
magnificence, friendliness, and rightful indignation are socially-oriented Aristotelian virtues
that should be guided by the individual’s understanding of their moral duty. Temperance is
another Aristotelian virtue that is crucial in dealing with other participants in social
intercourse. These four ethical frameworks can help individuals understand their moral
responsibility towards themselves, close relations, fellow members in society, and fellow
human beings in a global society. However, the nonhuman, physical environment that
human beings live in has recently gained attention and demands an ethical response.

The Nonhuman Environment

worry about environmental destruction, as long as it produces economic wealth for my

society? Such thinking is short-sighted, and, in the end, does not produce universalizable
maxims. Thomas Aquinas, on the other hand, may not necessarily talk about the physical
environment and the human moral responsibility to it as such, but one can try to infer from
his philosophy that certain actions should be avoided because they do not produce a
harmonious, peaceful society. One can argue that neglecting the
physical environment because of shortsighted economic goals (e.g., over-fishing the waters
off the coast of our islands or cutting down trees in our mountains and hills) will eventually
lead to disasters such as flooding or famines that will affect society in a detrimental fashion.
Lastly, Aristotle's virtue ethics also picks up on the problem of such shortsightedness, and
asks how this can possibly lead to becoming a better person. One may actually invent a neo-
Aristotelian vice here: the vice of myopia. This is a nearsightedness, not a physical one, but
in one's understanding of the implications of her actions. This problem is, therefore,
connected to a lack of intellectual virtue, to a deficiency in foresight. How can a
person claim that she is cultivating her character (for the purpose of finally attaining
eudaimonia) if she is guilty of the vice of myopia? One becomes a better person, therefore, if
she learns to expand her vision to see beyond what is merely at close hand. Thus, seeing
beyond the immediate is a virtue. One may argue, therefore, that Aristotle would support
the argument that a person has the moral responsibility to see beyond what is immediate. If
so, one must see beyond the satisfaction of immediate economic needs and make sure that
harming the environment for the sake of such will not eventually lead to something much
worse. What we have tried to show here in this current section is the possibility of classical
ethical theories contributing suggestions to potentially solve twenty-first century problems.
The important point here is not to "force answers," but to be open to real possibilities, as
well as accepting real dead-ends when they come up. One must see the value of testing
one's hypotheses, but also of the virtue of accepting the fact that sometimes one needs to
let go of one's favorite hypotheses