Buildings 11 00314 v2

buildings
Article
Energy Modelling of Traditional and Contemporary Mosque
Buildings in Oman
Haitham Al Rasbi * and Mohamed Gadi
Department of Architecture and the Built Environment, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK;
mohamed.gadi@nottingham.ac.uk
* Correspondence: hrasbi@gmail.com or haitham.alrasbi@nottingham.ac.uk
Abstract: Building energy efficiency is vital to achieve human thermal comfort with minimum
energy consumption. It is a great concern in extremely hot countries such as Oman. This study
aims to investigate the thermal performance of contemporary mosque buildings in comparison to
traditional mosque buildings in Oman. The research methodology employs energy modelling using
EDSL’s Tas Engineering computer simulation software. The analysis focused on how traditional
mosque buildings compare to contemporary mosque buildings in terms of dry bulb air temperature
and different thermal loads. The outcome showed the traditional mosque building design and
construction are better suited for free-running buildings, while contemporary mosque building
design and construction achieved less cooling load demand per area.
Keywords: thermal performance; energy modelling; vernacular architecture; mosques; traditional

buildings

Citation: Al Rasbi, H.; Gadi, M. 1. Introduction

Energy Modelling of Traditional and Sustainability and energy efficiency have vast global interest due to the continuously
Contemporary Mosque Buildings in increasing pollution and energy consumption. It is not imaginable now to live without
Oman. Buildings 2021, 11, 314.
electricity and air conditioning. Air conditioning is the most energy demanding use
https://doi.org/10.3390/
in buildings in most countries, and it is continuing to increase every year [1]. Oman
buildings11070314
features an extremely hot and arid climate with a maximum temperature recorded of about
50.7 ◦ C and relative humidity that can be very high (100%) in coastal areas and very low
Academic Editor: Elena Lucchi
(1%) in interior desert areas [2]. The building’s sector consumes about 75% of the total
energy consumption in the country according to The Authority of Electricity Regulation
Received: 30 June 2021
Accepted: 17 July 2021
in Oman [3]. Air conditioning accounts for most the energy consumed by the building’s
Published: 20 July 2021
sector [4].
This research aims to investigate the thermal performance in buildings in Oman
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
taking a traditional mosque and a contemporary mosque as two case studies. Mosque
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
architecture is unique, but also simple, which makes it an interesting study. Mosque
published maps and institutional affil- architecture is simple given its shape and layout is typical to mosques in general, but it is
iations. unique given its daily intermittent usage. The Sultanate of Oman features both recently
built mosques and traditional 600-year-old mosques. It is estimated that there are 16,000
mosques across Oman [5]. Contemporary mosques rely on active cooling systems, while
some traditional mosques still feature passive cooling systems. The materials used in the
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
construction of contemporary and traditional mosques are different. The general layout
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and design, however, has stayed mostly the same between old and new mosques [6].
This article is an open access article
Improving the energy efficiency of mosques could contribute to much needed reduction of
distributed under the terms and energy consumption. It could also contribute towards energy efficiency of other buildings
conditions of the Creative Commons since any techniques employed in the typical simple design of mosques can be potentially
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// replicated into other buildings.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ In 2017, Oman has put forward the 2040 vision. It outlines the 13 top priorities of
4.0/). the country to be achieved by 2040 which are called the “National Priorities”. Two of
Buildings 2021, 11, 314. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11070314 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2021, 11, 314 2 of 20
the National Priorities are the “Sustainable Development in Governorates and cities” and
“Natural Resources and Environmental Sustainability” [7]. This research also aims to
contribute to both these National Priorities. A more energy efficient mosque building
would contribute towards a more sustainable city and environment. Another significance
to this research is the fact that electricity is still subsidised for most buildings in Oman as
of 2021. This is changing very soon though. On 20 December 2020, it was announced that
electricity subsidies will be phased out over a period of five years starting from 2021 in
Oman [8]. This will put a greater emphasis on sustainable design and energy efficiency
research for all types of buildings in Oman.
Another aspect of this research is the impact of vernacular architecture in building’s
thermal comfort and performance. There were several studies conducted to investigate
how thermal comfort is achieved in vernacular buildings in Oman. There are features
that improved the thermal comfort of old buildings and could potentially apply to new
buildings. Compact patterns of settlement and courtyards are two examples from the
vernacular architecture in Oman that could improve thermal comfort in buildings [6]. Since
Oman’s mass modernisation in 1970, it began to depend on active air conditioning systems,
which made buildings built afterwards less efficient. Buildings built before this period
were built to achieve thermal comfort using passive means. Passive thermal comfort was
achieved by building’s design, orientation, and construction materials [9].
This research focuses more on the thermal performance aspect of mosque buildings
in Oman. A building can be considered as a thermal system with thermal energy inputs
and outputs. The environment, the building itself, and occupants all contribute to the heat
inputs and outputs [10]. The environment in Oman features hot and arid climate. Two
of the most significant building thermal performance factors when focusing on hot-arid
climate are solar gain and conduction through the building envelope [11].
Taking the surrounding environment into account, state-of-the-art research in energy
efficiency indicates that there are many techniques that could be employed to significantly
reduce cooling load [12]. Fenestration, building envelope insulation, building material,
and thermostat set point are believed to be areas for potential improvement in buildings in
hot arid regions [13].
Fenestration can be argued as the weakest element in a building. Controlling the
window-to-wall ratio (or glazing ratio) is key to achieve higher building efficiency. A study
conducted in mosques in Saudi Arabia concluded that the optimal value for glazing ratio
is around 15% overall [14]. It is also recommended to decrease the U-value of the building
envelope to limit thermal transmittance into the building. Increasing the thermostat set
point also yields considerable savings in cooling loads. As per a study conducted on
mosques in Kuwait, an electrical energy saving of 10% was achieved by increasing the
thermostat temperature by 1 ◦ C [15]. In another study conducted on government buildings
of Oman, it concluded that increasing the set point by 3 ◦ C yielded annual energy savings
of at least 13.23% [16].
Research Objective
The research objective is to contribute to the energy efficiency in buildings research. It
takes two different mosques as case studies. One is a contemporary mosque (built in 2016),
and the other is a traditional mosque (about 400 years old). This will help create a better
understanding of the thermal performance status of both new and old mosques.
It is interesting to see the effect of air conditioning in traditional old buildings in
comparison with contemporary buildings. A 400-year-old building witnessed generations
of usage in addition to continuous renovation and modifications. On the other hand, a
recently built mosque is relatively new and is built to the current standard of construction.
Comparing the thermal performance of the two mosques could help us understand the
areas for improvement in a contemporary building’s thermal performance. It could also
help us understand the unique and sustainable features of a vernacular building that do
not exist anymore in a modern building today.
Buildings
Buildings 2021,
2021, 11,11, x FOR
x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 3 3ofof2020
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 3 of 20
Mostofofthe
Most theair airconditioning
conditioningconsumption consumptionininOman Omanoccurs occursduringduringthe thesummer,
summer,when when
external
external temperature
temperature reaches
reaches a maximuma maximum of 50
of 50in°C. °C. During
During the winter,
theduring
winter,the dry
drysummer,bulb air
bulb airwhen tem‐
tem‐
Most of the air conditioning consumption Oman occurs
peraturevaries
perature variesbetweenbetweendifferent differentregions regionsofofOman. Oman. InMuscat, Muscat, itranges rangesbetween
between1515and and
external temperature reaches a maximum of 50 ◦ C. In During the itwinter, dry bulb air tem-
30 30°C°C[2].
[2].Most
Mostpeople peopleare arecomfortable
comfortablewith withnatural
naturalventilation
ventilationwithout withoutthe theuse
useofofair aircon‐
con‐
perature varies between different regions of Oman. In Muscat, it ranges between 15 and
30ditioning
ditioning
◦ C [2].duringduring
Most thethewinter.
people winter.
are comfortable with natural ventilation without the use of air
This research
This research
conditioning during aims
aims toanalyse
thetowinter.analysethe themosques
mosquesperformanceperformancebetween betweenwinter winterand andsummer
summer
considering
considering
This research internal
internal aims dry
drytobulb bulb temperature,
temperature,
analyse the mosques relative
relative humidity,
humidity,between
performance external
externalwinter dry
dry bulb bulb tempera‐
andtempera‐
summer
ture,
ture, andand cooling
cooling loads.
loads. Breakdown
Breakdown ofofthethe different
different
considering internal dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, external dry bulb loads
loads areare also
also analysed
analysed such
such asassolar
tempera- solar
gain,
gain, building
building heat
heat transfer,
transfer, andand heat
heat conduction
conduction
ture, and cooling loads. Breakdown of the different loads are also analysed such as solar gain.
gain.
gain,The Theresearch
buildingresearch attempts
heatattempts
transfer,toand toanswer
answer thethefollowing
heat conduction following questions:
questions:
gain.
  Which Which
The researchtypeofattempts
type ofmosques
mosques performbetter
toperform
answer thebetter ininOman
following Oman (contemporaryorortraditional)?
questions:
(contemporary traditional)?

• How How
Which does
does building
typebuilding
of mosques performance
performance
perform better change
changeinbetween between winter and
winter and summer?
Oman (contemporary summer?
or traditional)?
• How Howdoes much
much coolingperformance
cooling
building loadreduction
load reduction ininboth
change both casescan
cases
between canbebeand
winter achieved
achieved
summer? utilizingstate‐of‐
utilizing state‐of‐
• the‐art the‐art
How much passive
passive cooling energy
energy load saving
saving
reduction techniques?
techniques?
in both cases can be achieved utilizing state-of-the-
art passive energy saving techniques?
2.2.Methodology
Methodology
2. Methodology
AAbuilding
buildingenergy energymodellingmodellingand andcomputer
computersimulation simulationcan canserve
servemany manypurposes
purposesei‐ei‐
ther A building
for the energy
construction modelling
industry andor computer
research. simulation
It is
ther for the construction industry or research. It is imperative for all stakeholders involvedimperative can serve
for all many purposes
stakeholders either
involved
for
in the
the construction
building industry
simulation or research.
process to It
agreeis
in the building simulation process to agree on a performance criterion with defined imperative
on a for
performance all stakeholders
criterion involved
with definedin
the building
measures. simulation
Once the process
simulation to agree
is done, on thea performance
results
measures. Once the simulation is done, the results can be benchmarked against the per‐ can criterion
be benchmarkedwith defined
against measures.
the per‐
Once
formance
formance the measures
simulation
measurestoto isarrive
done,toto
arrive the
a asetresults
set can be benchmarked
ofofrecommendations
recommendations totothe against
thestakeholders
stakeholdersthe performance
ofofthe
thebuild‐
build‐
measures
inging[17].
[17]. to arrive to a set of recommendations to the stakeholders of the building [17].
There
Thereare
There areare aa wide
awide
wide range
range
range ofofsoftware
ofsoftware
software specialized
specialized
specialized forforthermal
forthermal
thermal comfortcomfort
comfort such as EDSL’s
such
such asasEDSL’s Tas
EDSL’s
Engineering,
Tas Engineering, IES VE, IES Ecotect,
VE, EnergyPlus,
Ecotect, EnergyPlus, and
Tas Engineering, IES VE, Ecotect, EnergyPlus, and Design Builder. The research method‐ Design
and Builder.
Design The
Builder. research
The methodology
research method‐
employed
ologyemployed
ology in thisinresearch
employed inthis is Tas isEngineering
thisresearch
research isTas
TasEngineering
Engineering software, an energy
software,
software, computer
ananenergy
energy simulation
computer
computer simu‐
simu‐
software.
lationsoftware.
lation Tas Engineering
software.Tas TasEngineering software
Engineeringsoftware specializes
softwarespecializes in simulation
specializesininsimulation of dynamic
simulationofofdynamic thermal
dynamicthermalperfor-
thermal
mance of buildings
performance and theirand systems. Itsystems.
uses a 3D model and integrates it with naturalit and
performance ofofbuildings
buildings and theirsystems.
their ItItuses
usesa a3D 3Dmodel modeland and integrates
integrates it withwith
forced
natural airand
flowforcedalong with air HVAC
flow along systems
with to
HVACestimate energytodemand
systems estimate and resulting
energy demandinternal and
natural and forced air flow along with HVAC systems to estimate energy demand and
temperatures
resulting and humidity.
internal temperatures It accountsand for dynamic
humidity. It parameters
accounts for such
dynamic as airparameters
flow as wellsuch as
resulting internal temperatures and humidity. It accounts for dynamic parameters such
static parameters such as building material thermal capacity [18]. Tas Engineering
capacitysoftware
asasairairflow
flowasaswell well asasstatic
static parameters
parameters such
such asasbuilding
building material
material thermal
thermal capacity [18].Tas
[18]. Tas
was utilized
Engineeringsoftware for this
softwarewas research
wasutilizedbecause
utilizedfor it
forthisis deemed
thisresearch most
researchbecause suitable
becauseit itisisdeemedfor the
deemedmost purposes
mostsuitable of
suitableforthis
for
Engineering
research.
thepurposes
purposesIt is simple and provide sufficient tools to study the different areas theof mosque
the thisresearch.
ofofthis research. ItItisissimple
simple and andprovide
provide sufficient
sufficient toolstotostudy
tools study different
the different
buildings’
areasofofmosque thermalbuildings’
mosque propertiesthermal [19,20].properties
It was utilized [19,20]. to study two mosque buildings from
areas buildings’ thermal properties [19,20]. ItItwas
wasutilized
utilized totostudy
study twomosque
two mosque
two different
buildingsfrom eras
fromtwo in Oman.
twodifferent
differenteras erasininOman.Oman.
buildings
Table
Table 1 1shows
shows thethe details
details ofofthe thetwotwomosquesmosquesselected selectedfor forthis
thisresearch.
research.By By energy
Byenergy
energy
Table 1 shows the details of the two mosques selected for this research.
modelling both types of mosques, the comparison could lead to possibilities of using old
modellingboth
modelling bothtypes typesofofmosques,mosques,the thecomparison
comparisoncould couldlead leadtotopossibilities
possibilitiesofofusing usingold old
methods in new buildings to achieve a more sustainable building. Additionally, it could
methodsininnew
methods newbuildings
buildingstotoachieve achievea amore moresustainable
sustainablebuilding. building.Additionally,
Additionally,it itcould could
help make recommendations implementable in different types of buildings not restricted
helpmake
help makerecommendations
recommendationsimplementable implementableinindifferent differenttypes typesofofbuildings
buildingsnot notrestricted
restricted
to mosques.
to mosques.
to mosques.
Table 1. A list of mosques for the case study.
Table1.1.AAlist
Table listofofmosques
mosquesfor
forthe
thecase
casestudy.
study.
Maximum Typical
Year
Year Maximum Number
Mosque’s
Mosque’s Picture
Picture Mosque’s Name
Mosque’s Name Location
Location Year Maximum
AreaArea Number
Number ofofofTypical
Typical
NumberNumber
Number
of Zones
Zones(Area)
(Area)
Mosque’s Picture Mosque’s Name Location Built Area
Built Worshippers
Worshippers ofof Worshippers Zones (Area)
Worshippers
Built Worshippers Worshippers
Hudhayfah
Hudhayfah Bin
Bin
Hudhayfah Bin 1120
1120 Zone (906
Zone 1 (906
Zone 11 (906 mm2m
)2)
2)
Muscat,
Muscat, Oman
Oman
Muscat, Oman 2015
2015
2015 1120 m2 1100
1100 1100 150
150
150
Alyaman
Alyaman
Alyaman Mosque
Mosque
Mosque mm2 2 Zone
Zone
Zone 2 (174
22 (174
(174mm )2) 2)
2m
Zone 1 (278 2 m2)

Zone
Zone 11 (278
(278 mm )2)
Al Wafi, Al
AlAl Wafi,
Wafi, AlAl Kamil
Kamil Zone
Zone 2 (168
2 (168m 2
)m
2) 2)
Kamil Wal Wafi, Zone 2 (168 m
Al Wafi
Al Wafimosque
mosque Wal Wafi,
Al Wafi mosque Wal Wafi,Oman
Oman
Oman
(250(250
(250 1600
km 1600 s 470 m2
m2 m2
1600 s 470 470 350350
350 6060
60 Zone 3
Zone
Zone 3 ‐court‐
3 ‐court‐
-courtyard-
kmkm from
from
from Muscat)
Muscat)
Muscat) 2
yard‐ (212
(212(212
yard‐ m ) mm2) 2)
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 4 of 20
2.1. Computer Simulation

The computer simulation process via EDSL’s Tas Engineering software (version 9.5.1,
Environmental Design Solutions Ltd, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom) consist of: 3D
modelling the building, setting the location and weather data, assignment of construc-
tion materials, setting internal gains and conditions, building thermal simulation, and
simulation results analysis.
2.2. Calendar
Muscat and Al Wafi’s climate features two seasons throughout the year: summer
and winter. For the purposes of this simulation, it was considered that the winter season
spanned from 1 November until 28 February, while the rest was considered summer
season. The buildings for this simulation were free running during the winter season and
air-conditioned during the summer season.
2.3. Weather Data

The weather data for both the Hudhayfah mosque and Al Wafi mosque were Typical
Metrological Years (TMY) files in EPW weather format for Muscat International Airport
region. The weather data was derived from the period 2004 to 2018 [21].
2.4. Orientation
All mosques are oriented towards the Qiblah (Direction towards the Kabaah), which
makes both Hudhayfah and Al Wafi mosques’ orientation towards the west [13].
2.5. Height
Hudhayfah mosque’s prayer hall ceiling height is about 4.2 metres and its Qubba’s
(Dome’s) ceiling height reaches 9 metres, while Al Wafi mosque’s prayer hall ceiling height
ranges between 3.5 and 6.5 metres since it has an arched roof.
2.6. Age of Building

The Hudhayfah mosque was built in 2015, while the Al Wafi mosque was built in the
1600s. The Al Wafi mosque was renovated several times throughout its history. A major
restoration was done in 1989 [22].
2.7. Fenestration
The Hudhayfah mosque uses windows with aluminium frames, while the Al Wafi
mosques has windows with timber frames. All windows considered are double-glazed.
2.8. Internal Gains

Air conditioning is used throughout the year except the winter season. Some buildings
in Oman have cooling air conditioning active even during the winter [16]. For the purposes
of this research, both mosque buildings are considered free running during the winter
season (from 1 November until 28 February). During the rest of the calendar the air
conditioning is used for cooling only. Mosques are used intermittently, five times a day.
The air-conditioning runs for two periods. The first period is from 3 am till 5 am for the
fajr prayer. The second period covers four prayer congregation times, which is from 12 pm
until 9 pm. Table 2 shows the typical daily prayer times during the day. Each prayer lasts
for about 30 min, except for Friday congregational prayer which lasts for about 90 min [23].
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 5 of 20
Buildings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20

Table 2. Daily prayer times in Muscat, Oman [24].
Prayer Sequence Prayer Start Time Range

Prayer Name Time Held
during the Day
First prayer Fajr Prayer Before sunrise (Varies Throughout
3:52 am–5:32 amthe Year)
Second prayer
First prayer Dhuhr Prayer
Fajr Prayer At noon
Before sunrise 11:55
3:52am–12:26 pm
a.m.–5:32 a.m.
Second prayer
Third prayer Dhuhr Prayer
Asr prayer At noon
Afternoon 11:55 a.m.–12:26
3:04 pm–3:45 pm p.m.
Third prayer
Fourth prayer Asr prayer
Maghrib prayer Afternoon
After sunset 3:04 p.m.–3:45
5:24 pm–7:03 pm p.m.
Fourth prayer Maghrib prayer After sunset 5:24 p.m.–7:03 p.m.
Fifth prayer
Fifth prayer Ishaprayer
Isha prayer Night‐time
Night-time 6:39
6:39 pm–8:25
p.m.–8:25pm
p.m.
2.9. Cooling
2.9. Cooling
The Hudhayfah mosque has a DX roof top packaged units for air conditioning, while
The Hudhayfah mosque has a DX roof top packaged units for air conditioning, while
Al Wafi mosque utilizes a DX split unit system [4]. It is noted that according to a survey
Al Wafi mosque utilizes a DX split unit system [4]. It is noted that according to a survey
conducted most occupants in residential buildings preferred a thermostat setpoint be‐
conducted most occupants in residential buildings preferred a thermostat setpoint between
tween 20 and 22 °C [25], while the government buildings’ thermostat setpoint is around
20 and 22 ◦ C [25], while the government buildings’ thermostat setpoint is around 22 ◦ C [16].
22 °C
On the[16].
other Onhand,
the other
24 ◦ Chand, 24 °C is considered
is considered to be the
to be the optimal optimal thermostat
thermostat set point toset point
achieve
to achieve thermal comfort according to a pilot measurement study
thermal comfort according to a pilot measurement study in Oman [26]. For the purposes in Oman [26]. For the
purposes of this simulation, the thermostat setpoint for the air‐conditioning
of this simulation, the thermostat setpoint for the air-conditioning system is set for an system is set
for an upper limit of 23 °C and is set for cooling from 1 March to 31 October.
upper limit of 23 ◦ C and is set for cooling from 1 March to 31 October. The buildings are The buildings
are considered
considered as naturally
as naturally ventilated
ventilated for rest
for the the of
rest ofyear.
the the year.
Hudhayfah mosque’s DX roof top packaged
Hudhayfah mosque’s DX roof top packaged unit introduces unit introduces 10%10% fresh
fresh air,
air, while
while Al
Al
Wafi mosque’s DX split unit system does not introduce fresh air. For the
Wafi mosque’s DX split unit system does not introduce fresh air. For the purposes of this purposes of this
research, itit is
research, is assumed
assumedthatthatboth
bothmosques
mosqueshave have0.5
0.5air
airchanges
changesper perhour.
hour.
2.10. Climate
2.10. Climate Conditions
Conditions of
of Muscat
Muscat and
and Al
Al Wafi
Wafi
Both Muscat
Both MuscatandandAl AlWafi
Wafiareareclassified
classified asas hot
hot and
and drydry according
according to to
thethe Köppen–Gei‐
Köppen–Geiger
ger climate
climate classification.
classification. [27].[27]. Muscat
Muscat is aishot
a hot climate
climate city
city whichisislocated
which locatedby bythe
thecoastline
coastline
of
of Gulf
Gulf of
of Oman.
Oman. It It features
features long
long summers
summers and and short
short warm
warm winters
winters [28].
[28]. Al
Al Wafi
Wafivillage
village
is
is located
located 250
250 kilometres
kilometres away
away from
from Muscat,
Muscat, which
which features
features aa similar
similar climate
climate to Muscat.
Muscat.
For
For the
the purposes
purposes of of this
this research,
research, Muscat
Muscat weather
weather data
data was
was input
input into
into the
thesimulations
simulationsofof
both
both mosques’
mosques’ buildings.
buildings. Figure 1 shows the location location ofof Muscat
Muscat and and AlAl Wafi.
Wafi. Figure
Figure 22
shows
shows meanmeantemperatures
temperaturesand andhumidity
humiditythroughout
throughouta atypical
typicalyear,
year, while
whileFigure 3 shows
Figure 3 showsa
bioclimatic chart for Muscat. Figure 3 shows the bioclimatic chart that
a bioclimatic chart for Muscat. Figure 3 shows the bioclimatic chart that most months have most months have
ambient ◦ C. The green area is the comfort zone area under air
ambient air air temperature
temperature aboveabove 3030 °C. The green area is the comfort zone area under air
conditioning,
conditioning, whichwhichmakes
makes2020toto2424 thermostat
thermostat setset point
point reasonably
reasonably withinwithin the comfort
the comfort zone
zone if humidity
if humidity is between
is between 30% and30%80%.
and 80%.
Figure 1.
Figure 1. A
A map
map showing
showing the
the location
location of
of Muscat
Muscat city
city and
and Al
Al Wafi
Wafivillage.
village.
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 6 of 20
40 80
40 80
(°C)
35
Temperature(°C)
35 70
(%)
30 70
Humidity(%)
30
25 60
Temperature
25 60
RelativeHumidity
20 50
20
15 50
15
10 40
10 40
5 30
05 30
Relative
0 20
20
10
10
0
0
November
August
September
February
January
May
October
March
June
July
April
December
November
August
September
February
January
May
October
March
June
July
April
December
Mean High Air Temperature Mean Air Temperature
Mean High Air Temperature Mean Air Temperature
Mean Low Air Temperature
Mean Low Air Temperature
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) Mean ambient air temperature in a typical year in Muscat, Oman. (b) Mean relative humidity
Figure humidity in a typical year
Figure 2. (a) Mean ambient air temperature in a typical year in Muscat, Oman. (b) Mean relative humidity in a typical year
in Muscat,
Muscat, Oman.
Oman.
in Muscat, Oman.
Figure 3. Bioclimatic chart for Muscat. Solid lines are for months from normal Typical Metrological
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Bioclimatic chart for Muscat. Solid lines are for months from normal Typical
Typical Metrological
Metrological
Years (TMY), while dashed lines are for months from TMY developed for passive cooling [29,30].
Years(TMY),
Years (TMY),while
whiledashed
dashedlines
linesare
arefor
formonths
monthsfrom
fromTMY
TMYdeveloped
developedfor
forpassive
passivecooling
cooling[29,30].
[29,30].
3.
3. Design and Construction Details of Hudhayfah and AlAl Wafi Mosques
Mosques
3. Design
Design and
and Construction
Construction Details
Details ofof Hudhayfah
Hudhayfah and and Al Wafi
Wafi Mosques
3.1. Hudhayfah Mosque
3.1. Hudhayfah Mosque
The Hudhayfah
Hudhayfah bin binAl
AlYaman
YamanMosque
Mosquewas wasbuilt
built inin
2015 in in
2015 Muscat,
Muscat, thethe
capital of the
capital of
The Hudhayfah bin Al Yaman Mosque
2 and 2
was built in 2015 in Muscat, the capital of the
Sultanate
the of Oman.
Sultanate of The area
Oman. The is 1120
area is m
1120 m fits
anda maximum
fits a of
maximum 1100 worshippers.
of 1100 Figure
worshippers.
Sultanate of Oman. The area is 1120 m2 and fits a maximum of 1100 worshippers. Figure
4Figure
shows the Hudhayfah
4 shows mosque
the Hudhayfah ground
mosque floor plan
ground floordrawing,
plan drawing,and the
andground floor floor
the ground plan
4 shows the Hudhayfah mosque ground floor plan drawing, and the ground floor plan
modelled
plan into into
modelled the Tas software.
the Tas software.Figures 5 and
Figures 5 and6 show
6 show different
different3D3Dviews
viewsfrom
from the
the Tas
modelled into the Tas software. Figures 5 and 6 show different 3D views from the Tas
software as well as an east elevation view. view. It can be noticed that the southern wall misses
software as well as an east elevation view. It can be noticed that the southern wall misses
three windows in the Tas model as this is the case in built mosque. The Tas model shows
three windows in the Tas model as this is the case in built mosque. The Tas model shows
the mihrab
mihrab (the
(the semi-circular
semi‐circularnichenicheininthe
themosque’s
mosque’swestern
western wall
wallindicating
indicating thethe
direction
directionof
the mihrab (the semi‐circular niche in the mosque’s western wall indicating the direction
thethe
of qibla) in the
qibla) western
in the western wall as aassquare
wall a squareshape instead
shape insteadof aof
semi-circular shape
a semi‐circular to simplify
shape to sim‐
of the qibla) in the western wall as a square shape instead of a semi‐circular shape to sim‐
the model
plify [13]. Table
the model [13]. 3Table
lists the construction
3 lists details ofdetails
the construction the Hudhayfah mosque’smosque’s
of the Hudhayfah building
plify the model [13]. Table 3 lists the construction details of the Hudhayfah mosque’s
elements.elements.
building It featuresItafeatures
typical construction detail found
a typical construction in most
detail foundrecent
in mostbuildings in Oman.
recent buildings
building elements. It features a typical construction detail found in most recent buildings
ings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20
Buildings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER in

REVIEW 7 of 2
Oman. A typical window size in Hudhayfah mosque is 1.9 metres by 2.54 metres, while
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 a typical door is 2.4 metres wide by 3 metres high. 7 of 20
in Oman. A typical window size in Hudhayfah mosque is 1.9 metres by 2.54 metres, while
a typical door is 2.4 metres wide by 3 metres high.
in Oman. A typical window size in Hudhayfah mosque is 1.9 metres by 2.54 metres, whil
Aa typical
typicalwindow
door issize
2.4 metres wide by
in Hudhayfah 3 metres
mosque is 1.9high.
metres by 2.54 metres, while a typical
door is 2.4 metres wide by 3 metres high.
(a) (b)
(a) floor plan of Hudhayfah Mosque; (b) ground floor plan (b)
Figure 4. (a) Ground of Hudhayfah Mosque as shown in Tas
(a)
software showing the two zones. (b)
Figure 4. (a) Ground floor plan of Hudhayfah Mosque; (b) ground floor plan of Hudhayfah Mosque as shown in Tas
Figure
Figure4.
4. (a)
(a) Ground floorplan
Ground floor planofofHudhayfah
Hudhayfah Mosque;
Mosque; (b) ground
(b) ground floor floor plan
plan of of Hudhayfah
Hudhayfah MosqueMosque
as shownasinshown
Tas in Tas
software showing the two zones.
software
softwareshowing thetwo
showing the twozones.
zones.
Figure 5. Three‐dimensional (3D) views of Hudhayfah mosque.
Figure 5.Figure
Figure Three-dimensional
Three‐dimensional
5. 5. (3D) (3D)
Three‐dimensional views
views
(3D) of Hudhayfah
ofviews
Hudhayfah mosque.
mosque.
of Hudhayfah mosque.
Figure 6. East elevation view of Hudhayfah mosque. The Qubba’s (Dome’s) maximum height is 9 metres, while the main
prayer hall’s height is 4.2 metres.
prayerFigure
hall’s 6.
height is 4.2 metres.
East elevation view of Hudhayfah mosque. The Qubba’s (Dome’s) maximum height is 9 metres, while the main
Table 3. Construction details of Hudhayfah mosque.

Table 3. Construction details of Hudhayfah mosque.
Construction
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 Thickness U‐ Value Specific Heat Time Constant 8 of 20
Construction Construction Detail Thickness U‐2 Value Specific Heat Time Constant
Type Construction Detail (mm) (W/m .K) (J/kg.K) (hours)
Type (mm) (W/m2.K) (J/kg.K) (hours)
Concrete brick wall insulated with polyurethane
External wall Concrete brick wall insulated with polyurethane 375 0.4 953.56 8.5
External wall board
Table 3. Construction details of Hudhayfah 375
mosque. 0.4 953.56 8.5
board
Internal wall Concrete brick wall 225 2.47 904.72 3.2
Internal wall Concrete brick wall 225 U-Value2.47 Specific904.72 3.2
Roof
Construction Concrete slab insulated
Type with polyurethane
Construction Detail board Thickness
265 0.82 996.35 Heat Time Constant
8.3
Roof Concrete slab insulated with polyurethane board (mm) 265 (W/m · K)
0.8 (J/kg · K)
996.35 (hours)8.3
Window frame Aluminium 60 5.9 896 0
External wall
Window frame Concrete brick wall insulated with polyurethane board
Aluminium 375 60 0.4 5.9 953.56896 8.5 0
Double glazed
Internal wall Concrete brick wall 225 2.47 904.72 3.2
Double glazed 3 mmConcrete
glass +slab
12 insulated
mm air space + 3 mm glass 21 7.8 ‐ 08.3
window Roofpane 3 mm glass + 12 mmwithair polyurethane
space + 3 mm board
glass 265 21 0.8 7.8 996.35 ‐ 0
window
Window framepane Aluminium 60 5.9 896 0
Door frame
Double glazed Aluminium 60 5.9 896 0
Door frame 3 mm glass + 12 Aluminium
mm air space + 3 mm glass 21 60 7.8 5.9 - 896 0 0
Door panepane 3 mm glass + 12 mm air space + 3 mm glass
window 31 7.8 ‐ 0
Doorframe
Door pane 3 mm glass + 12Aluminium
mm air space + 3 mm glass 60 31 5.9 7.8 896 ‐ 0 0
Door pane 3 mm glass + 12 mm air space + 3 mm glass 31 7.8 - 0
3.2. Al Wafi Mosque
3.2. Al Wafi Mosque
Al Wafi Mosque is in Al Kamil and Al Wafi, about 250 km away from Muscat, Oman.
It 3.2.
wasAl Al in
Wafi
Wafi
built Mosque
1600sMosque
[31], andis inrenovated
Al Kamil and Al Wafi,
in 1989, and about 250 km
since then away
there werefrom Muscat,
minor restora‐ Oman.
It was
tions toAlthe built
Wafi in
Mosque
Mosque 1600s
up is [31],
tillindate.and
Al Kamil renovated
and vary
The walls in 1989,
Al Wafi, and
about500
between since
250and then
km 1000 there were
awaymillimetres minor
from Muscat, restora‐
Oman.
in thick‐
ness [22]. It is important to mention that this simulation of Al Wafi Mosque is as perinits
It tions
was to
builtthe
in Mosque
1600s up
[31], till
and date. The
renovated walls
in vary
1989, between
and since 500
then and 1000
there millimetres
were minor thick‐
restora-
nessto[22].
tions
condition in It is The
the2015.
Mosque important
up till to
courtyard mention
date. that
wasthis
The3)walls
(Zone simulation
vary
recently closed of
between 500Aland
Wafi
completely, Mosque
1000 is as
millimetres
but it was per
con‐ in its
condition
thickness in
[22]. 2015.
It is The
sidered as a naturally ventilated open courtyard in the simulations. Figures 7–9 shows Alcon‐
important courtyard
to (Zone
mention 3)
thatwas
thisrecently
simulationclosed
of completely,
Al Wafi Mosquebut it
is was
as per
itssidered
Wafi condition
mosques as design
ainnaturally
2015.inThe ventilated
plans, courtyard open
sections, courtyard
(Zone
and 3) was
3D views.inA the
recentlysimulations.
closed
typical Figures
completely,
window 7–9 shows
it was Al
butmetre
size is 0.7
Wafi
byconsideredmosques design
as a naturally
1 metre, while a typical doorin plans,
ventilated sections,
is 1.2 open
metres and 3D
courtyard views.
width byin1.8 A typical
themetres window
simulations. size is
height.Figures 7–9 shows0.7 metre
by 1 metre, while a typical door is 1.2 metres width by 1.8 metres
Al Wafi mosques design in plans, sections, and 3D views. A typical window size is 0.7 height.
metre by 1 metre, while a typical door is 1.2 metres width by 1.8 metres height.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. (a) Al Wafi Mosque floor plan showing zones in Tas (Reproduced from [22]); (b) 3D view of Al Wafi Mosque.
Figure
Figure 7. (a)
7. (a) AlAl Wafi
Wafi Mosque
Mosque floor
floor plan
plan showing
showing zones
zones in Tas
in Tas (Reproduced
(Reproduced from
from [22]);
[22]); (b) (b)
3D 3D view
view of Wafi
of Al Al Wafi Mosque.
Mosque.
Figure
Figure 8. 8. Three-dimensional
Three‐dimensional (3D)
(3D) views
views ofof
AlAl WafiMosque.
Wafi Mosque.
Figure 8. Three‐dimensional (3D) views of Al Wafi Mosque.
Figure
Figure 9. North
9. North elevation
elevation of of
AlAl Wafi
Wafi Mosque.
Mosque.
The construction details are shown in the Table 4 featuring clay as the main material
in the building. It is common in the region for such clay walls to have a density of about
1730 kg/m3 [32]. ASHRAE 2009 handbook states that clay or adobe walls can have a con‐
ductivity that range between 0.7 to 0.85 W/m.K. for a 1730–1800 kg/m3 dense clay walls
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 9 of 20
The construction details are shown in the Table 4 featuring clay as the main material
in the building. It is common in the region for such clay walls to have a density of about
1730 kg/m3 [32]. ASHRAE 2009 handbook states that clay or adobe walls can have a
conductivity that range between 0.7 to 0.85 W/m·K. for a 1730–1800 kg/m3 dense clay
walls [33]. Al Wafi mosque walls decrease in thickness as it increases in height, and the
thickness varies from a wall to another. This means U-values are different at any given
point across all the walls and roof of Al Wafi mosque. For the purposes of this research, it
can be estimated that the walls of Al Wafi Mosque (mean thickness of 1 metre) can have
a U-value of 0.7 W/m2 ·K. The roof (mean thickness of 0.7 metre) is estimated to have a
U-value of 1.1 W/m2 ·K.
Table 4. Construction details of Al Wafi mosque.
Construction Specific Heat Time Constant

Construction Detail Thickness (mm) U-Value (W/m2 ·K)
Type (J/kg·K) (hours)
Varies between Varies between
Walls Clay/Mud wall Varies (average of 0.7) 837
500 and 1200 15 and 80
Aluminium partition wall 12 5.9 896 0
Clay/Mud roof and wood Varies between Varies between
Roof Varies (average of 1.1) 837
beams 300 and 750 5.8 and 28
Window frame Timber 40 2 1632.85 0
Double glazed 3 mm glass + 12 mm air space
3 7.8 - 0
window pane + 3 mm glass
Door frame Timber 40 2 1632.85 0
Door pane Timber 40 2 1632.85 0
4. Results and Discussion

The results in this section present data from Hudhayfah and Al Wafi mosques’ simu-
lations. Both mosques’ simulation results are split into winter and summer results. The
winter results and summer results presented are for the winter design day in Muscat, day
20, and the summer design day in Muscat, day 179, respectively. The presented results com-
pare between the external dry bulb temperature (DBT), internal DBT, and loads breakdown
of the different zones in each mosque.
4.1. Hudhayfah Mosque Winter Simulation Results

Hudhayfah mosque Zone 20 s DBT is higher than Zone 10 s DBT throughout day 20.
Figure 10 shows the external DBT during the coldest day of the year, day 20, along with
the DBT inside the mosque. Both zones maintain a higher DBT than external temperature
throughout the day. Zone 20 s temperature is consistently higher than Zone 1 throughout
the day by at least 2 ◦ C at 07:00 and reaches to a difference of up to 6 ◦ C at 14:00. It is also
evident that Zone 20 s DBT fluctuates throughout the day similar to external DBT. Zone 2
DBT increases from 26 ◦ C at 07:00 to 30 ◦ C at 14:00, while Zone 1 stays within one degree
Celsius from 23 ◦ C.
Zone 20 s higher DBT could be attributed to higher solar gain. Figure 11 shows the
breakdown of the most influential loads for Zones 1 and 2. The main contributing factor
for heat gain and heat loss for both zones are solar gain and external opaque conduction,
respectively. Solar gain starts to increase by 07:00, reaches its peak at 11:00, and gradually
decreases to zero by sunset. Most of the heat gain during this period is lost via external
opaque conduction. Zone 2 is affected more by solar gain, hence the increase in DBT
through the day, while Zone 1 keeps a steady DBT through day and night at 23 degrees
Celsius. Zone 2 has a higher glazing ratio in external walls of 59% compared to 27.5%
for Zone 1. Most of Zone 2 windows are in the eastern wall, which is exposed to direct
sunlight, hence a higher solar gain.
28
Temperature (°
26
24
22
20
Buildings 2021, 11,2021,
Buildings x FOR 31418 REVIEW
11, PEER 10 of 20 10 of 20
16
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (Hour)
32
30 External Dry Bulb Temperature Zone 1 DBT Zone 2 DBT
Temperature (°C)
28
26
Figure24
10. External dry bulb temperature and internal dry bulb temperatures in Hudhayfah Mosque by the hour during
day 2022
(Winter).
20
18 Zone 2′s higher DBT could be attributed to higher solar gain. Figure 11 shows the
16 breakdown of the most influential loads for Zones 1 and 2. The main contributing factor
14 for heat gain and heat loss for both zones are solar gain and external opaque conduction,
1 2 3 4 respectively.
5 6 7 8Solar 9 gain
10 starts
11 12to 13 14 15by16
increase 17 reaches
07:00, 18 19 its
20 peak
21 at
22 11:00,
23 24 and gradually
decreases to zero by sunset. Time (Hour)
Most of the heat gain during this period is lost via external
External through
Dry Bulb Temperature
the day, while Zone 1 keeps Zone 1 DBT DBT throughZone
a steady day 2andDBTnight at 23 degrees
Celsius. Zone 2 has a higher glazing ratio in external walls of 59% compared to 27.5% for
Figure 10. External dry bulb Zone
Figure 10. External dry bulb temperature 1. Most
temperatureand ofinternal
and Zone dry
internal 2dry
windows
bulb are in theineastern
temperatures
bulb temperatures wall,
in Hudhayfah
Hudhayfah which
byisthe
Mosque
Mosque exposed
by to direct
theduring
hour hour sun‐
during
day 20 (Winter).
day 20 (Winter). light, hence a higher solar gain.
20,000
Zone 2′s higher DBT could be attributed
30,000 to higher solar gain. Figure 11 shows the
15,000 breakdown of the most influential loads for Zones 1 and 2. The main contributing factor
20,000
10,000 for heat gain and heat loss for both zones are solar gain and external opaque conduction
Load (W)
Load (W)
5,000 10,000
0
respectively. Solar gain starts to increase by 07:00, reaches its peak at 11:00, and gradually
0
-5,000 decreases to zero by sunset. Most of the heat gain during this period is lost via externa
-10,000 -10,000
-15,000 -20,000
1 3 5through
7 9 11 13 the15day,
17 19 while
21 23 Zone 1 keeps a steady1 DBT
3 5 through
7 9 11 13day and
15 17 night
19 21 23 at 23 degrees
Celsius.
Time Zone
(Hour) 2 has a higher glazing ratio in external walls Time of 59% compared to 27.5% for
(Hour)
Zone 1. Most of Zone 2 windows are in the eastern wall, which is exposed to direct sun‐
light,
Zone 1 Solar hence a higher solar gain.
Gain Zone 2 Solar Gain
Zone 1 Inf/Vent Gain Zone 2 Inf/Vent Gain
Zone 1 Building Heat Transfer Zone 2 Building Heat Transfer
20,000 Zone 1 External Opaque Conduction
30,000 Zone 2 External Opaque Conduction
15,000 Zone 1 External Glazing Conduction Zone 2 External Glazing Conduction
20,000
10,000
Load (W)
Load (W)
5,000 10,000
0 (a) 0 (b)
-5,000
Figure 11.
-10,000
11. (a)
(a) Loads
Loadsbreakdown
breakdown inin Hudhayfah
Hudhayfah mosque
mosque (Zone
(Zone -10,000
1) during
1) during day
day 20 20 (winter);
(winter); (b) breakdown
(b) loads loads breakdown in Hudhay‐
in Hudhayfah
fah mosque
mosque (Zone(Zone
2) 2) during
during day day
20 20 (winter).
(winter).
-15,000 -20,000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
4.2.
4.2. Hudhayfah
Hudhayfah
Time (Hour)
Mosque
Mosque Summer
Summer Simulation
Simulation Results
Results Time (Hour)
Unlikesummer,
Unlike summer, during
during winter
winter both
both zones
zones of Hudhayfah
of Hudhayfah mosquemosque
havehave a very
a very similar
similar
DBTthroughout
DBT throughoutday day 179.
179. Figure
Figure 12a12a shows
shows the the external
external DBTDBT during
during the summer
the summer designdesign
Zone 1 Solar Gain Zone 2 Solar Gain
day,
day,day
day179, compared
179, to the
compared tointernal
the DBT inside
internal DBT the mosque
inside the and the cooling
mosque and load
the required,
cooling load re‐
Zone 1 Inf/Vent Gain Zone 2zones
Inf/Vent Gain
respectively. The external DBT reaches 44.8 C. Both reach the setpoint temperature
Zone 1 Building Heatquired,
Transferrespectively. The external DBT reaches Zone
44.8 C. Both zones reach the setpoint tem‐
during the during
perature two periods
the as per
two the schedule
periods as per (3 am
the to 52 am,
schedule
Building
and Heat
(3 am pmTransfer
12 to 5 to
am,9 pm).
and The
12 pmcooling
to 9 pm).
Zone 1 External Opaque Conduction Zone 2 External Opaque Conduction
system start and ends at the times mentioned, which means that the system turns off every
Zone 1 External Glazing Conduction Zone 2 External Glazing Conduction
day at 5 a.m. and 9 p.m.
(a) (b)
Figure 11. (a) Loads breakdown in Hudhayfah mosque (Zone 1) during day 20 (winter); (b) loads breakdown in Hudhay‐
fah mosque (Zone 2) during day 20 (winter).
4.2. Hudhayfah Mosque Summer Simulation Results

Unlike summer, during winter both zones of Hudhayfah mosque have a very similar
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 11 of 20

The cooling system start and ends at the times mentioned, which means that the system
turns off every day at 5 am and 9 pm.
120,000
Temperature (°C)
46
100,000
40
80,000
Load (W)
34
60,000
28
40,000
22
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 20,000
Time (Hour) 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
External Dry Bulb Temperature Time (Hour)
Zone 1 DBT
Zone 1 CL Zone 2 CL
Zone 2 DBT
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 12.12.
(a)(a) External
External drydry bulb
bulb temperature
temperature versus
versus internal
internal dry dry
bulbbulb temperature
temperature in summer
in summer in Hudhayfah
in Hudhayfah mosque
mosque dur‐
during
daying day
179; (b)179; (b) cooling
cooling loadduring
load (CL) (CL) during
summersummer in Hudhayfah
in Hudhayfah mosquemosque by theduring
by the hour hour during day 179.
day 179.
Zone
Zone 2 peak
2 peak cooling
cooling load
load is is about
about 25,864
25,864 Watts
Watts while
while ZoneZone 1 peak
1 peak cooling
cooling loadloadis is
102,406 Watts although both spaces have thethesame thermostat setpoint of 23 ◦ C as shown
102,406 Watts although both spaces have same thermostat setpoint of 23 °C as shown
in in
Figure 12b.
Figure Zone
12b. Zone20 s 2′s
smaller
smallerarea,area, m2 , m
174 174 compared
2, compared to Zone 10 s area
to Zone of 906ofm906
1′s area 2 , could be
m2, could
one of the factors for the high difference in cooling load demand between
be one of the factors for the high difference in cooling load demand between the two zones the two zones [10].
From
[10].5:00
Fromto5:00
12:00to the
12:00 airtheconditioning
air conditioningsystem doesdoes
system not operate,
not operate, andand thethe
external
external DBTDBT
increases byby1010degrees ◦
increases degreesduringduringthis this period from from 33 33toto4343°C.C. Hence,
Hence, thethe internal
internal DBT DBTman‐
manages ◦ C at 5:00 ◦ C at 12:00 before the air conditioning system
ages totoincrease
increasefromfrom23 23°C at 5:00 to 35.6
35.6 °C at 12:00 before the air conditioning system
starts again
starts againforfor
thethe
second
second period.
period.
Figure
Figure1313shows
shows thetheloads
loads breakdown
breakdown forfor
Zones
Zones 1 and
1 and2 during
2 during summer.
summer. Sensible
Sensible
loads shown are for the active cooling load by the air conditioning
loads shown are for the active cooling load by the air conditioning system during system during thethetwotwo
occupancy periods. External opaque conduction contributes
occupancy periods. External opaque conduction contributes to heat gain as a counter to heat gain as a counter to to
thethe
sensible
sensibleload during
load during thetheoccupancy
occupancy periods.
periods. Between
Between 5:00 and
5:00 and12:00
12:00when
when thethemosque
mosque
is not occupied,
is not occupied, solar
solargain
gain is the main
is the mainfactor
factor to to
heat gain.
heat gain.In In
contrast
contrast to to
thethewinter,
winter, ZoneZone 1 1
has more solar gain than Zone 2 when it is free running. This could
has more solar gain than Zone 2 when it is free running. This could be attributed to the be attributed to the
different
Buildings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW solar
different orientation
solar orientation andand the the
longer periods
longer periodsof exposure
of exposureto solar irradiance
to solar 12inof summer
irradiance 20
in sum‐
compared to winter.
mer compared to winter.
15,000
30,000 10,000
10,000 5,000
-10,000 0
Load (W)
Load (W)
-30,000 -5,000
-50,000 -10,000
-15,000
-70,000 -20,000
-90,000 -25,000
-110,000 -30,000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Time (Hour) Time (Hour)
Zone 1 Sensible Load Zone 2 Sensible Load

(a) (b)
FigureFigure 13.Loads
13. (a) (a) Loads breakdown
breakdown in in Hudhayfahmosque
Hudhayfah mosque (Zone
(Zone 1)
1)during
duringday
day179 (summer);
179 (b) loads
(summer); breakdown
(b) loads in
breakdown in
Hudhayfah mosque (Zone 2) during day 179 (summer).
4.3. Al Wafi Mosque Winter Simulation Results
Unlike the Hudhayfah mosque, Zone 1 and 2 of Al Wafi mosque had similar DBT
throughout the winter design day. Figure 14 shows the external DBT during the coldest
day of the year, day 20, along with the internal DBT. The simulation is free running during
Zone 2 Building Heat Transfer
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 (a) (b) 12 of 20

Figure 13. (a) Loads breakdown in Hudhayfah mosque (Zone 1) during day 179 (summer); (b) loads breakdown in
4.3.
4.3. Al
Al Wafi
Wafi Mosque
Mosque Winter
Winter Simulation Results
Simulation Results
Unlike
Unlike the
the Hudhayfah mosque, Zone
Hudhayfah mosque, Zone 11 and
and22of ofAl AlWafi
Wafi mosque
mosquehad hadsimilar
similarDBTDBT
throughout the winter design day. Figure 14 shows the external DBT
throughout the winter design day. Figure 14 shows the external DBT during the coldest during the coldest
day
day ofof the
the year,
year, day
day 20, along with
20, along with the
the internal
internalDBT.
DBT.The
Thesimulation
simulationisisfree
freerunning
runningduring
during
the winter. Zone 1 maintains a steady DBT throughout the day closer to 23 ◦ C, while Zone
the winter. Zone 1 maintains a steady DBT throughout the day closer to 23 °C, while Zone
22 fluctuates ◦ C. Zone 2 has the entire eastern wall as an aluminium
fluctuates between
between 22 22 and 25 °C.
and 25 Zone 2 has the entire eastern wall as an aluminium
partition
partition wall with windows
wall with windowsthroughout
throughoutthe thewhole
whole toptop part
part of the
of the wall.
wall. Zone Zone 3 isex‐
3 is an an
exposed
posed area,area,
andandthat
thatisiswhy
whyitsitsDBT
DBTisisvery
verysimilar
similartotoexternal
externalDBT.
DBT.See
Seethe
thelayout
layoutofofAlAl
Wafi mosque in Figure
Wafi mosque in Figure 7. 7.
26
Temperature (°C)
23
20
17
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (Hour)
External Dry Bulb Temperature Al Wafi Zone 1 DBT Al Wafi Zone 2 DBT Zone 3 DBT
Figure14.
Figure 14. External
External DBT
DBT vs.
vs. Al
Al Wafi DBT in
Wafi DBT in winter
winter by
by the
the hour
hour during
during day
day20.
20.
Loads breakdown
Loads breakdown are shown shown for
for Zones
Zones 11 and
and 22 in
in Figure
Figure 15.
15. Both
Bothzones
zonesgain
gainheat
heat
through external
through external opaque conduction
conduction during
during night‐time
night-timealthough
althoughexternal
externalDBT DBTisislower
lower
than internal DBT
than DBT (reaches
(reachesaadifference
differenceofofupup
to to
8 degrees
8 degrees Celsius). The The
Celsius). buildings are be‐
buildings are
lieved toto
believed gain
gainheat
heatvia
viathe
theheat
heatabsorbed
absorbedinto
intothe
thethermal
thermalmass.
mass.AlAlWafi
Wafimosque’s
mosque’sclay clay
walls have
walls have relatively
relatively similar heat capacity and and density
density asas Hudhayfah’s
Hudhayfah’sconcrete
concretewalls.
walls.Al Al
Wafi mosque, though, features clay walls (up to 1.2 metres thick) almost three times the
Wafi mosque, though, features clay walls (up to 1.2 metres thick) almost three times the
thickness of Hudhayfah concrete walls (0.375 metres thick). Al Wafi external walls feature
thickness of Hudhayfah concrete walls (0.375 metres thick). Al Wafi external walls feature
significantly higher
significantly timetime
higher constant as as
constant perper
Tables 3 and
Tables 3 and4.4.Consequently,
Consequently, it
it is
is reflected into Al
reflected into
Wafi’s clay wall to have a continuous high external opaque conduction load
Al Wafi’s clay wall to have a continuous high external opaque conduction load through‐ throughout
winteroutnights
winterand mornings.
nights and mornings.
1000 4000
500 2000
Load (W)
Load (W)
0 0
-500 -2000
-1000 -4000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 15. 15. (a)breakdown
(a) Loads Loads breakdown in Al
in Al Wafi Wafi mosque
mosque (Zone
(Zone 1) 1) during
during day 20day 20 (winter);
(winter); (b) loads
(b) loads breakdown
breakdown in AlinWafi
Al Wafi
mosque
mosque (Zone 2) during day 20 (winter).
(Zone 2) during day 20 (winter).
Solar gain reaches a peak of 735 Watts for Zone 1 at 13:00, while the peak of Zone 2
is 3502 Watts, which happens at 10:00. Zone 2 has a glazing ratio of 10% compared to Zone
1′s glazing ratio of 4.2%. The higher solar gain for Zone 2 could be attributed to the orien‐
tation of Zone 2′s glazed wall to the east, which is exposed directly to sunlight between
9:00 and 12:00.
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 13 of 20
Solar gain reaches a peak of 735 Watts for Zone 1 at 13:00, while the peak of Zone
2 is 3502 Watts, which happens at 10:00. Zone 2 has a glazing ratio of 10% compared to
Zone 10 s glazing ratio of 4.2%. The higher solar gain for Zone 2 could be attributed to
the orientation of Zone 20 s glazed wall to the east, which is exposed directly to sunlight
between 9:00 and 12:00.
4.4. Al Wafi Mosque Summer Simulation Results

Figure 16 shows Al Wafi mosque’s external DBT during the hottest day of the year,
day 179, compared to the cooling load required. The external DBT reaches 44.8 ◦ C. The
thermostat set point is set at 23 ◦ C, and that is why Zones 1 and 2 reach this temperature
during the two air-conditioning periods as per the schedule (3 am to 5 am, and 12 pm
to 9 pm). Unlike Hudhayfah mosque’s summer case, Al Wafi mosques’ two zones react
differently during the unoccupied period from 5:00 to 12:00. Al Wafi Zone 1 increases its
DBT by 10 ◦ C while Zone 2 increases by 16 ◦ C from the thermostat setpoint temperature
(23 ◦ C).
Figure 17 shows the loads breakdown for Al Wafi mosque during summer for Zone 1
and Zone 2, respectively. As the space is air conditioned, the higher difference between
internal and external DBT means an increasing external conduction gain through the
building envelope.
50 45,000
46 40,000
Temperature (°C)
42 35,000
38 30,000
Load (W)
34 25,000
30 20,000
26 15,000
22 10,000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
5,000
Time (Hour)
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
External Dry Bulb Temperature Time (Hour)
Al Wafi Zone 1 DBT
Al Wafi Zone 2 DBT Al Wafi Zone 1 CL Al Wafi Zone 2 CL
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 16.16.
(a)(a) External
External DBTDBT
vs.vs.
DBTDBT
in in summer
summer in Al
in Al Wafi
Wafi Mosque
Mosque during
during dayday
179;179;
(b)(b) external
external DBTDBT
vs.vs.
CLCL in summer
in summer in in
Al Wafi Mosque during day
Al Wafi Mosque during day 179. 179.
It was noticed that Zone 2 is more affected by solar gain than Zone 1. This is due to the
11,000
incidence of sunlight that directly affects the east and west walls during the summer. Zone
8,000
20 s east wall is mostly exposed to sunlight 6,000
between 7:00 and 12:00 and has a glazing ratio
-2,000 of 13.65%. Zone 10 s west wall is exposed to1,000sunlight between 12:00 and 19:00, and it has a
Load (W)
Load (W)
glazing ratio of 3.86% in the west wall. Hence, Zone 1 is less affect by solar gain than Zone
-4,000
-12,000
2. Building heat transfer also impacts Zone-9,000
2 more than Zone due to the building envelope
-22,000 of both zones. The walls of the mosque are all thick clay walls that varies between 500 and
1200 mm, except for the east wall of Zone 2-14,000
which is 15-milimetre aluminium partition wall.
-32,000
This wall was added during the 2000s to -19,000
close Zone 2, which was previously a Riwaq (an
-42,000 arcade). Zone 2 east wall would allow more heat to be transferred from than other walls
-24,000
1 3 5 7due9 to
11 its
13 higher
15 17 19 21 23 of 7.27 W/m2 ·K compared
U-value 1 3 to50.77 W/m
9 11 213
·K15U-value
17 19 21for
23 clay wall.
Zone 1 Sensible Load Zone 2 Sensible Load

Zone 1 Inf/Vent Gain Zone 2 Solar Gain
Zone 1 Building Heat Transfer Zone 2 Inf/Vent Gain
Zone 1 External Opaque Conduction Zone 2 Building Heat Transfer
Zone 1 Solar Gain Zone 2 External Opaque Conduction
(a) (b)
Time (Hour)
Al Wafi Zone 1 DBT
Al Wafi Zone 2 DBT Al Wafi Zone 1 CL Al Wafi Zone 2 CL
(a) (b)
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 14 of 20
Figure 16. (a) External DBT vs. DBT in summer in Al Wafi Mosque during day 179; (b) external DBT vs. CL in summer in
Al Wafi Mosque during day 179.
11,000
8,000 6,000
-2,000 1,000
Load (W)
Load (W)
-4,000
-12,000
-9,000
-22,000
-14,000
-32,000
-19,000
-42,000 -24,000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Buildings 2021, 11, x FORZone

PEER1 Sensible
REVIEWLoad Zone 2 Sensible Load 15 of 20
Zone 1 Inf/Vent Gain Zone 2 Solar Gain
Zone 1 Building Heat Transfer Zone 2 Inf/Vent Gain
Zone 1 External Opaque
4.5. Conductionbetween
Comparison Zone 2 Building Heat Transfer
Hudhayfah and Al Wafi Mosques
Zone 1 Solar Gain Zone 2 External Opaque Conduction
Figure 18a shows the DBT of both Hudhayfah and Al Wafi mosques’ Zone 1 com‐
pared to the external DBT in winter. Both Mosques appear to maintain their internal DBT
(a) (b)
similarly in a free running building setting.
Figure
Figure 17.17.
(a)(a) Loads
Loads breakdown
breakdown in
Al Al
in Figure Wafi
Wafi 18bmosque
shows
mosque (Zone
the
(Zone 1) during
same,
1) during butday
day in179
179 (summer);
summer.
(summer); (b)(b) loads
Hudhayfah
loads breakdown
appearsin to
breakdown in
AlAlbe Wafi
Wafi affected
mosque
mosque (Zone
(Zone 2) during
2) during dayday 179 (summer).
slightly
179 more by the rise of external DBT, which can be attributed to the different in U‐
(summer).
value of the two mosques’ building envelope. Hudhayfah mosque’s walls, which consist
4.5. It was
ofComparison
a 350 mmnoticed
between
thick that Zone
Hudhayfah
concrete 2 is
brick more
and
wall affected
Alwith
Wafi bythick
Mosques
50 mm solarpolyurethane
gain than Zone 1. Thisinsulation
thermal is due to
the incidence
board,
Figure have of sunlight
18aashows
lowerthe that
U‐value directly
DBT ofofboth
0.4 W/maffects
2
Hudhayfah the east
.K compared and west walls
to a U‐value
and Al Wafi during
mosques’ofZone the
0.7 W/m 2 summer.
.K for Al
1 compared
Zone
to Wafi 2′s eastDBT
mosque’s
the external walliniswinter.
clay mostlyAl
walls. exposed
Wafi
Both to sunlight
mosque’s
Mosques Zone
appear between
to 1maintain7:00their
external andinternal
walls 12:00
have and
aDBT has
glazing a glazing
ratio of
similarly
ratio
injust ofrunning
4.2%
a free 13.65%.
comparedZone to1′s
building west wall
a setting.
27.5% is exposed
glazing ratio fortoHudhayfah
sunlight between
Zone 1′s12:00 and 19:00,
external walls. and it
has a glazing ratio of 3.86% in the west wall. Hence, Zone 1 is less affect by solar gain than
Zone 2. Building heat transfer also impacts Zone 2 more than Zone due to the building
24 envelope of both zones. The walls of47the mosque are all thick clay walls that varies be‐
23
tween 500 and 1200 mm, except for the east wall of Zone 2 which is 15‐milimetre alumin‐
22 42 during the 2000s to close Zone 2, which was pre‐
ium partition wall. This wall was added
Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)
21
viously a Riwaq (an arcade). Zone 2 east wall would allow more heat to be transferred
20 37
19
from than other walls due to its higher U‐value of 7.27 W/m2.K compared to 0.7 W/m2.K
18 U‐value for clay wall. 32
17
16 27
15
14 22
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
External Dry Bulb Temperature External Dry Bulb Temperature
Hudhayfah Zone 1 DBT Hudhayfah Zone 1 DBT
Al Wafi Zone 1 DBT Al Wafi Zone 1 DBT
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 18.18.
(a)(a) Comparison
Comparison between
between Hudhayfah
Hudhayfah andand Al Wafi
Al Wafi mosque’s
mosque’s ZoneZone
1 dry1 bulb
dry bulb temperatures
temperatures during
during Day
Day 20 20 (Win‐
(Winter);
ter); (b) Comparison between Hudhayfah and Al Wafi mosque’s Zone 1 dry bulb temperatures during Day
(b) Comparison between Hudhayfah and Al Wafi mosque’s Zone 1 dry bulb temperatures during Day 179 (Summer). 179 (Summer).
Figures
Figure 18b19 and the
shows 20 show
same, the
but cooling loadHudhayfah
in summer. in each of appears
the mosques is different.
to be affected Total
slightly
cooling
more load
by the is of
rise higher for Hudhayfah
external DBT, whichmosque’s Zone 1 given
can be attributed to theitsdifferent
larger area (See Table
in U-value of 1
the
fortwo mosques’
areas building
of each zone). Onenvelope. Hudhayfah
the other hand, mosque’s
the cooling walls,
load per areawhich
and theconsist
coolingofload
a
350 mm
per thick concrete
volume brick wall
are the lowest with 50 mmmosque’s
for Hudhayfah thick polyurethane
Zone 1. It isthermal insulation
also observed thatboard,
cooling
load per area and per volume are substantially higher for Zone 2 of both mosques.
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 15 of 20
have a lower U-value of 0.4 W/m2 ·K compared to a U-value of 0.7 W/m2 ·K for Al Wafi
mosque’s clay walls. Al Wafi mosque’s Zone 1 external walls have a glazing ratio of just
4.2% compared to a 27.5% glazing ratio for Hudhayfah Zone 10 s external walls.
Figures 19 and 20 show the cooling load in each of the mosques is different. Total
cooling load is higher for Hudhayfah mosque’s Zone 1 given its larger area (See Table 1 for
areas of each zone). On the other hand, the cooling load per area and the cooling load per
volume are the lowest for Hudhayfah mosque’s Zone 1. It is also observed that cooling
load per area and per volume are substantially higher for Zone 2 of both mosques.
160
100,000 160
100,000 140
140
Load per area (W/m2)

80,000 120
Load per area (W/m2)

80,000 120
100
Load (W)
60,000 100
Load (W)
60,000 80
80
40,000 60
40,000 60
40
20,000 40
20,000 20
20
0 0
0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
Hudhayfah Zone 1 Hudhayfah Zone 2 Hudhayfah Zone 1 Hudhayfah Zone 2

Hudhayfah Zone 1 Hudhayfah Zone 2 Hudhayfah Zone 1 Hudhayfah Zone 2
Al Wafi Zone 1 Al Wafi Zone 2 Al Wafi Zone 1 Al Wafi Zone 2
Al Wafi Zone 1 Al Wafi Zone 2 Al Wafi Zone 1 Al Wafi Zone 2
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 19.19.
(a) (a) Comparison
Comparison between
between Hudhayfah
Hudhayfah and
and AlAl Wafi
Wafi mosque’s
mosque’s total
total cooling
cooling loads
loads across
across Zones
Zones 1 and
1 and 2 for
2 for both
both
Figure 19. (a)during
mosques Comparison
day 179between Hudhayfah
(Summer); (b) and Al Wafi
comparison mosque’s
between total cooling
Hudhayfah and Al loads
Wafi across Zones
mosque’s 1 andloads
cooling 2 forper
both
area
mosques during day 179 (Summer); (b) comparison between Hudhayfah and Al Wafi mosque’s cooling loads per area
mosques
across during1day
Zones and 179
2 (Summer);
for both (b) comparison
mosques during day between
179 Hudhayfah and Al Wafi mosque’s cooling loads per area
(Summer).
across Zones
across Zones 11 and
and 22 for
for both
both mosques
mosques during
during day
day 179
179 (Summer).
(Summer).
45
45 40
Load per volume (W/m3)
Load per volume (W/m3)
40 35
35 30
30 25
25 20
20 15
15 10
10 5
5 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Time (Hour)
Time (Hour)
Hudhayfah Zone 1 Hudhayfah Zone 2 Al Wafi Zone 1 Al Wafi Zone 2

Hudhayfah Zone 1 Hudhayfah Zone 2 Al Wafi Zone 1 Al Wafi Zone 2
Figure 20. Comparison between Hudhayfah and Al Wafi mosques’ cooling loads per volume across Zones 1 and 2 for
Figure
Figure 20.
both20. Comparison
Comparison
mosques between
duringbetween Hudhayfahand
day 179Hudhayfah
(Summer). andAlAlWafi
Wafi mosques’
mosques’ cooling
cooling loads
loads perper volume
volume across
across Zones
Zones 1 2and
1 and for 2both
for
both mosques
mosques during
during day(Summer).
day 179 179 (Summer).
It could also prove that traditional mosques achieve better performance for passive
It
It could also prove that traditional mosques achieve better performance for passive
cooling, while contemporary mosques achieve better performance for active cooling. It is
cooling,
cooling, while contemporary mosques achieve better performance for active cooling. It is
evident that Al Wafi mosque requires the most cooling load per area and per volume as
evident
evident that
that Al Wafi
Al19b
Wafi requires the most cooling load per area and per volume as
per Figures andmosque
20, respectively.
per Figures 19b and 20, respectively.
respectively.
4.6. Validation of Simulated Model
The simulated data was validated using measured energy consumption from elec‐
The simulated data was validated using measured energy consumption from elec‐
tricity bills of both mosques. Cooling load from the simulated data was compared to the
tricity bills of both mosques. Cooling load from the simulated data was compared to the
air conditioning energy consumption. According to ASHRAE Guideline 14–2014, the ac‐
air conditioning energy consumption. According to ASHRAE Guideline 14–2014, the ac‐
curacy of a simulation can be checked using normalized mean bias error (NMBE) and
curacy of a simulation can be checked using normalized mean bias error (NMBE) and
coefficient of variance of the root mean squared error (CV RMSE) [34,35].
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 16 of 20

The simulated data was validated using measured energy consumption from electric-
ity bills of both mosques. Cooling load from the simulated data was compared to the air
conditioning energy consumption. According to ASHRAE Guideline 14–2014, the accuracy
of a simulation can be checked using normalized mean bias error (NMBE) and coefficient
of variance of the root mean squared error (CV RMSE) [34,35].
1 ∑in=1 (mi − si )
NMBE = · × 100 (%)
m n − p
s
2
1 ∑in=1 (mi − si )
CV (RMSE) = · × 100 (%)
m n − p
mi = measured data
si = simulated data
n = number of data points
p = number of adjustable model parameters
m = mean of measured data
According to ASHRAE Guideline 14–2014, the acceptable range of tolerances are 5%
and 15% for NMBE and CV RMSE, respectively, which both buildings meet as shown in
Table 5 [34].
Table 5. NMBE and CV RMSE calibration values for Hudhayfah and Al Wafi mosques.
Mosque NMBE CV RMSE

Hudhayfah Mosque 2% 14%
Al Wafi Mosque 1% 15%
4.7. Application of Different Improvements to the Buildings and Its Effect on Cooling Load
There are many enhancements that can be done to improve a building’s thermal
performance. In this section, several improvements were applied to both Hudhayfah
Mosque and Al Wafi mosque. Zones 1 of both mosques are subsequently compared with
the seven different improved cases. Zone 1 was chosen for the comparisons as it is the main
prayer hall where prayer is performed, whereas Zone 2 in both mosques is used mainly as
a foyer to Zone 1.
Fenestration, building envelope insulation, building material, and thermostat set point
are believed to be areas for potential improvement in buildings in hot arid regions [13,36].
Fenestration can be argued as the weakest element in a building. Controlling the window-
to-wall ration (or glazing ratio) is key to achieve higher building efficiency. A study
conducted in mosques in Saudi Arabia concluded that the optimal value for glazing ratio
is around 15% overall [14]. To see the effect of the glazing ratio on both Hudhayfah and Al
Wafi mosques, the value will be halved and doubled as can be seen in 1st and 2nd cases,
respectively, of Tables 6 and 7.
It is also recommended to decrease the U-value of the building envelope to limit
thermal transmittance into the building [10]. The 3rd and 4th cases represent cases of
halving the U-value of the roof and walls, respectively, in Tables 6 and 7. The 5th case is an
experiment to exchange between the concrete and mud wall and vice-versa for Hudhayfah
and Al Wafi mosques.
Increasing the thermostat set point also yields considerable savings in cooling loads.
As per a study conducted on mosques in Kuwait, an electrical energy saving of 10%
was achieved by increasing the thermostat temperature by 1 ◦ C [15]. In another study
conducted on government buildings of Oman, it concluded that increasing the set point by
3 ◦ C yielded annual energy savings of 13.23% [16]. The thermostat set point is increased by
1 and 2 ◦ C in the 6th and 7th cases, respectively.
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 17 of 20
Table 6. Application of improvement cases into Hudhayfah Mosque simulation model.
Description of the Alteration of Each Case in Change in Cooling

Parameters
Comparison to the Base Case Load
Base case -
1st case Half the glazing ratio +2%
2nd case Double the glazing ratio +9%
Roof’s U value reduced from 0.816 W/m2 ·C to
3rd case −7%
0.413 W/m2 ·C
External wall’s U value reduced from 0.403 W/m2 ·C to
4th case +2%
0.201 W/m2 ·C
Building envelope material changed from Concrete to
5th case +7%
Mud wall
6th case Thermostat setpoint increase by 1 ◦ C −2%
7th case Thermostat setpoint increase by 2 ◦C −6%
Table 7. Application of improvement cases into Al Wafi Mosque simulation model.
Description of the Alteration of Each Case in Change in Cooling

Parameters
Comparison to the Base Case Load
Base case -
1st case Half the glazing ratio −1%
2nd case Double the glazing ratio +3%
Roof’s U value reduced from 1.25 W/m2 ·C to
3rd case −4%
0.62 W/m2 ·C
External wall’s U value reduced from 0.722 W/m2 ·C to
4th case 0%
0.361 W/m2 ·C
Building envelope material changed from mud wall to
5th case +13%
concrete
6th case Thermostat setpoint increase by 1 ◦ C −5%
7th case Thermostat setpoint increase by 2 ◦C −9%
As per Table 6, it is evident that the insulating the roof and increasing the setpoint
by 2 ◦ C yielded cooling load savings of −7% and −6% respectively. When changing the
building walls and roof from concrete to mud wall, cooling load increased by 7%.
As per Table 7, it is evident that increasing the setpoint by 1 and 2 ◦ C yielded cooling
load savings of −5% and −9% respectively. When changing the building walls and roof
from clay wall to concrete, cooling load demand increased by 13%.
5. Research Limitations
• All charts indicate spot results at 60 min intervals. Values in between the 60 min
intervals are not calculated.
• This research focused more on comparing the thermal performance of the buildings
rather than the thermal comfort of occupants and indoor air quality of each building.
• Occupancy, lighting, and equipment gains are assumed at the same rate per square
metres for both mosques.
6. Conclusions
Human thermal comfort depends on the surrounding environment, the built environ-
ment, or the human body itself. The research focused on the built environment performance
in a case of two different mosques. The research methodology employed was a building
Buildings 2021, 11, 314 18 of 20
thermal simulation software, Tas Engineering, which analysed both mosques’ building
thermal performance. This was an interesting research to conduct given that one mosque
is a traditional mosque built in the 1600s and the other is a contemporary mosque built
in 2015. They have different construction and environmental characteristics, but mosques
buildings in general are simple and similar in design.
The research aim is to compare between traditional and contemporary mosques’
thermal performance. The comparison between Hudhayfah and Al Wafi mosque indicate
Al Wafi mosque has more consistent DBT in a free running mode during winter, and lower
DBT when air conditioning is not operating during summer. Hence, it can be implied
that Al Wafi mosque’s building has a better thermal performance in free running mode.
Hudhayfah mosque building, on the other hand, showed less cooling load demand per
area, which indicate a better thermal performance in air conditioning mode than Al Wafi
mosque building.
The results of the energy modelling simulations show that buildings are controlled
by a set number of parameters that need to be studied collectively to achieve optimal
thermal efficiency in buildings. Recent literature has shown that there are a number of
improvements that can be made to the building by altering or changing the building’s
design, orientation, materials, fenestration, building envelope insulation, and thermostat
set point. Seven more simulations were conducted with different improvements in each
case to the validated base model of each mosque. Hudhayfah and Al Wafi mosques have
seen cooling load savings of up to 6% and 9%, respectively, by increasing the thermostat
set point by 2 ◦ C. Insulating the roof also yielded a substantial cooling load saving of up
to 7% and 4%, respectively. On the other hand, when exchanging the building envelope
material between both mosques by using clay roof and wall in Hudhayfah mosque and
using concrete roof and walls in Al Wafi, it yielded in an increase in cooling loads of 7% and
13%, respectively. This could mean that traditional mosques were designed to be passively
cooled, while contemporary mosques were designed to be actively cooled.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.G. and H.A.R.; methodology, M.G. and H.A.R.; soft-
ware, H.A.R.; validation, H.A.R.; formal analysis, H.A.R.; investigation, H.A.R.; resources, H.A.R.;
data curation, H.A.R.; writing—original draft preparation, H.A.R.; writing—review and editing,
M.G. and H.A.R.; visualization, H.A.R.; supervision, M.G.; project administration, H.A.R.; funding
acquisition, H.A.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author, H.A.R., upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
AC Air Conditioning
CL Cooling Load (Watts)
DBT Dry Bulb Temperature (◦ C)
DX System Direct Expansion System
EPW EnergyPlus Weather File
IES VE Integrated Environmental Solutions
Inf/Vent Gain Infiltration/Ventilation heat gain (Watts)
Tas Thermal Analysis Software
TMY Typical Metrological Years
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Keywords: thermal performance; energy modelling; vernacular architecture; mosques; traditional

Citation: Al Rasbi, H.; Gadi, M. 1. Introduction

Buildings 2021, 11, 314. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11070314 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Zone 1 (278 2 m2)

2.1. Computer Simulation

2.3. Weather Data

2.6. Age of Building

2.8. Internal Gains

Buildings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20

Prayer Sequence Prayer Start Time Range

Buildings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER in

Figure 5. Three‐dimensional (3D) views of Hudhayfah mosque.

Table 3. Construction details of Hudhayfah mosque.

Buildings 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

Table 4. Construction details of Al Wafi mosque.

Construction Specific Heat Time Constant

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Hudhayfah Mosque Winter Simulation Results

4.2. Hudhayfah Mosque Summer Simulation Results

Buildings 2021, 11, 314 11 of 20

Zone 1 Sensible Load Zone 2 Sensible Load

Buildings 2021, 11, 314 (a) (b) 12 of 20

Zone 1 Solar Gain Zone 2 Solar Gain

Zone 1 Inf/Vent Gain Zone 2 Inf/Vent Gain

Zone 1 Building Heat Transfer Zone 2 Building Heat Transfer

Zone 1 External Opaque Conduction Zone 2 External Opaque Conduction

Zone 1 External Glazing Conduction Zone 2 External Glazing Conduction

4.4. Al Wafi Mosque Summer Simulation Results

Zone 1 Sensible Load Zone 2 Sensible Load

Buildings 2021, 11, x FORZone

External Dry Bulb Temperature External Dry Bulb Temperature

Hudhayfah Zone 1 DBT Hudhayfah Zone 1 DBT

Al Wafi Zone 1 DBT Al Wafi Zone 1 DBT

Load per area (W/m2)

Load per area (W/m2)

Hudhayfah Zone 1 Hudhayfah Zone 2 Hudhayfah Zone 1 Hudhayfah Zone 2

Hudhayfah Zone 1 Hudhayfah Zone 2 Al Wafi Zone 1 Al Wafi Zone 2

4.6. Validation of Simulated Model

Mosque NMBE CV RMSE

Table 6. Application of improvement cases into Hudhayfah Mosque simulation model.

Description of the Alteration of Each Case in Change in Cooling

Table 7. Application of improvement cases into Al Wafi Mosque simulation model.

Description of the Alteration of Each Case in Change in Cooling

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