Induction motors have been used in the past mainly in applications requiring

a constant speed because conventional methods of their speed control have

either been expensive or highly inefficient. Variable speed applications have
been dominated by de drives. Availability of thyristors andpower transistors
have allowed the development of variable speed induction motor drives. The
main drawback of dc motors is the presence of commutator and brushes, which
require frequent maintenance and make them unsuitable for éxplosive and dirty
environments. On the other hand, induction motors, particularly squirrel-cage
are rugged, cheaper, lighter, smaller, more efficient, require lower maintenance
and can operate in dirty and explosive environments. Although variable speed
induction motor drives are generally expensive than dc drives, they are used in
a number of applications such as fans, blowers, mill run-out tables, cranes,
conveyers, traction etc. because of the advantages of induction motorS. Other
applications involved are underground and underwater installations, and explosive
and dirty environments.

6.1 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Three-phase induction motors are of two types: squirrel-cage and wound-rotor. In

squirrel-cage, the rotor consists of longitudinal conductor-bars shorted by circular
connectors at the twO ends while in wound-rotor motor, the rotor also has a
balancedthree-phase distributed winding having same poles as stator winding.
However, in both, stator carries a three-phase balanced distributed winding.
6.1.1 Analysis and Performance
in
Per-phase equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction motor is shown
and
Fig. 6.1(a). R, and X are the stator referred values of rotor resistance R,
rotor reactance X,. Slip is defined by
ms (6.1)
ms

where am and aOms are rotor and synchronous speeds respectively. Further
ms =
4nf rad/sec (6.2)
P

where f and p afe supply frequency and number of poles respectively.

 Induction Motor Drives 153

Since, stator impedance drop is generally negligible compared to terminal

voltage V, the equivalent circit can be simplified to that shown in Fig. 6.1(b).
Is Rs Xs X Rr/s Rs Xs
Im
E Xm E

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.1 Per-phase stator referred equivalent circuits of an induction motor
Also from Eq. (6.1)
Wm = 0ms(1- s) (6.3)
From Fig. 6.1(b),
(6.4)
R
R + +j(X, +X{)
Power transferred to rotor (or air-gap power)
P; =31*R{/s (6.5)
Rotor copper loss is
Pou =312R (6.6)

Electrical power converted into mechanical power

(6.7)

Torque developed by motor

T= P/om (6.8)

Substituting from Eqs. (6.3) and (6.7) yields

(6.9)
Wms S

Substituting from Eq. (6.4) gives

3
T= (6.10)
ms
R, + + (X, + X )²
 Drives
154 FundamentalsofElectrical
and (6.9) suggests that
A comparison of Eqs. (6.5)
T= P@ns (6.11)
Motor output torque at the shaft is obtained by deducting friction windage
torque.
and core-loss torques from the developed
only (Eq. (6.10)). Differentiatino
The developed torque is a function of slip zero gives the slip for maximum
T in (6.10) with respect to s and equating to
torque

Sm =t
R (6.12)
VR+(X, +X)2
Substituting from Eq. (6.12) into (6.10) yields an expression for maximum
torque

3
Imax = (6.13)
2@ms R tR + (X, + X,)²
Maximum torque is also known as breakdown torque. While it is independent
of rotor resistance, s, is directly proportional to rotor resistance.
The natures of speed-torque and speed-rotor current characteristics are shown
in Fig. 6.2. Both rotor-current and torque are zero at synchronous speed. With
decrease in speed, both increase. While torque reduces after reaching breakdown
value, the rotor-current continues to increase, reaching a maximum value at
zero speed. Drop in speed from no load to full load depends on the rotor
resistance. Whenrotor resistance is low, the drop is quite small, and therefore,
motor operates essentially at a constant speed. The breakdown torque is a
measure of short-time torque overload capability of the motor.
Motor runs in the direction of the rotating field. Direction of rotating field,
and therefore, motor speed can be reversed by reversing the phase sequence.
Phase sequence can be reversed by interchanging any two terminals of the
motor.
Sometimes, torque is expressed in terms of sm and Tmax which not only
facilitates calculations, but also enables a quick appreciation of nature of speed
torque characteristics. Dividing Eq. (6.10) by (6.13) and then substituting from
(6.12) yields

R,
T Sm
(6.14)
+2 R&
Sm
Sn R Sm
The nature of speed-torque
explained from Eq. (6.14). characteristics (Fig. 6.2) can now be readily
For slips much smaller than Sm, Second
Therefore, speed-torque relation from 0term of the denominator
to rated torque is
dominates.
approximately
 Induction Motor Drives 155

represented by a straight line. For slips much larger than sm, first term of the
denominator dominates and speed-torque relation takes a hyperbolic shape in
this region.
Wm
Wms

T, Ir
Fig. 6.2 Speed torque and speed rotor current
characteristics of an induction motor

In the whole region of motor operation, term (R,s/R() is small

compared
to 1 and dominating term in the denominator. Therefore, it can be dropped
from Eq. (6.14). Thus
2
(6.15)
Tmas Sm
Sm
S

6.1.2 Induction Motors with Special Designs

A general purpose induction motor is designed to operate at low slip at full load
in order to have good running performance. Depending on the rating, full load
slip varies from 2 to 7%. Such a motor has high starting current (5-8 times)
and low starting torque (full load torque to twice full load torque). Certain
applications require motor to be designed differently. Some of these are:
High Slip Induction Motors
For intermittent load applications, involving frequent start and stop and/or
running at low speeds for prolonged periods, induction motors are designed
with high rotor resistance. Such motors have low starting current and high
starting torque, but low full load efficiency due to high rotor copper loss.
Because these motors operate at a large slip (between 10 and 40% at full load,
they are called high slip motors. High slip motors are also suitable for fan
drives where speed is controlled by stator voltage control and are found among
both-squirrel-cage and wound rotor. The nature of speed-torque characteristics
of such motors is shown in Fig. 6.3(c).
In squirrel-cage induction motors, good starting performance (low starting
current and high starting torque) is realised without appreciably affecting tull
load performance by the use of deep-bar rotor or double-cage rotor motors.
Rotor frequency changes from 50 Hz to 1-3 Hz as the speed changes Trom
156 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives
standstill to full load. Variation of rotor frequency is utilised in these mote.
very small v
to vary rotor resistance from a large value at standstill to a
at full speed. Thus, while starting and low speed performance is improved, fol
load performance is nat appreciably effected.
Deep-bar Squirrel-cage Rotor Induction Motor
Stator of the machine is identical to a general purpose induction motor. Rotor
has deep and narrow conductor bars as shown in Fig. 6.3(a). Slot leakaoe
fluxes produced by the current in bar are also shown in the figure. One can
imagine that the bar is made of a number of narrOW layers connected in parallel.
Let us compare the behaviour of top and bottom layers. More leakage flux
links with bottom layer than the top layer. Consequently, bottom layer has a
much high¹r leakage inductance than the top layer. As rotor frequency is high
at low speeds, the reactance and impedance of bottom layer are much higher
than the top layer. Therefore, at low speeds highest amount of curent is carried
by topmost layer and lowest by the bottommost. Because of unequal distribution
of current across cross section of the bar, effective re[istance of rotor is high
and starting and low speed performance is improved. At near full load speed
both-frequency of rotor current and leakage reactance are low. Therefore,
current gets equally distributed across cross section of the bar and effective
rotor resistance has a low value.Thus, full load performance is not appreciably
affected. The nature of motor speed-torque curve is shown in Fig. 6.3(c).
top bar
rotor
bar bottom Dar

leakage (eakage
flux
flux

(a) Deep-rotor bar (b) Double-cage rotor

general purpose

-high slip
deep bar
double cage

(c) Speed torque curves

Fig. 6.3 Induction motors of special designs
 Induction Motor Drives 157

Double Squirrel-cage Rotor Induction Motor

Rotor consists of two layers of conductor bars in each slot (Fig. 6.5(0)) Snott
circuited by end rings. Top bar has smaller cross section than the bottom.
Therefore, it has higher resistance. Bottom bar links to higher amount of leakage
flux than the top bar and therefore has higher inductance. At low speeds, for
which rotor frequency is high, bottom bar has higher impedance. Consequently,
more current flows through the top bar. As the resistance of the top bar is high
good starting performance is obtained. At high speeds,for which rotor frequency
is low, bottom bar has much smaller impedance than the top one. Hence, rotor
current is carried mainly by bottom bar and full load performance remains
good as it has alow resistance. The nature of speed-torque characteristics is
shown in Fig. 6.3(c).
Torque Motor
Motors designed torun for longperiods in a stalled or low speed condition are
known as torque motors. They are designed to develop desired torque with low
current at low speeds. Their speed-torque characteristics are shaped to have
negative slope so that they provide stable operation with most loads at low
speeds. They can be squirrel-cage or wound-rotor type. Both three- and single
phase motors are available.

6.2 OPERATION WITH UNBALANCED SOURCE

VOLTAGES AND SINGLE-PHASING
As Supply voltage may sometimes become unbalanced,it is useful to know the
effect of unbalanced voltages on motor performance. Further, motor terminal
voltage may be unbalanced intentionally for speed control or starting as described
later.
A three-phase set of unbalanced voltages (V,, V, and V) can be resolved
into three-phase balanced positive sequence (V,), negative sequence (V,) and
zerosequence (Vo) voltages, using symmetrical component relations:
V,=(V, +aV, + a'V)

V, =(Va +a'V, +aV.) (6.16)

1
Vo=(V + V, + Ve)
aejl20° = cos 120° +j sin 120°
where (6.17)
Positive sequence voltages have the same phase sequence as original system,
and negative sequence voltages have opposite phase sequence. It will be assumed
here that machine does not have a neutral connection. In the absence of a
neutral connection, zero sequence line voltage becomes zero.
Motor performance can be calculated for positive and negative sequence
voltages separately. Resultant performance is obtained by the principle of super
position by assuming motor to be a linear system.
 ElectricalDrives
158 Fundamentals of
rotates a
sequence voltages produce an air-gap flux wave which
Positive direction. For a forward rotor speed Wn Slip
synchronous speed in the forward circuits are
sequence voltages, equivalent
sisgiven by Eq. (6.1). For positive Vis replaced by Vp. The positive sequence
same as shown in Fig. 6.1,except that by V, in Eqs. (6.4) and
rotor current and torque are obtained by replacing V
(6.10). Thus

Rs + K+j(X, +X{)

3 V²R/s
I, =
ms
(6.18)
+ (X, + X{)?

Negative sequence voltages produce an air-gap flux wave which rotates at

synchronous speed in the reverse direction. The slip is
W ms
W ms

Substitution from Eq. (6.3) gives

Sn = (2 - s) (6.19)
Again, equivalent circuits of Fig. 6.1 are
(2- s) or S, and Vare replaced by V,. applicable when s is replaced by
expressions are obtained for rotor currentProceeding as in Sec. 6.1, following
and torque:
V

R ++j(X, +X;)

3
T, =
W
ms
VRI(2 -s) 2
Rs + R{ (6.20)
(2 - s) + (X, + X{)²
Torque has a negative sign
synchronous speed is (- om). because for negative sequence
The rms rotor
current and torque are given by voltages the
I= (; + Ijn
(6.21)
 Induction Motor Drives 159

T= T, t In

3 v'RIs VR/(2 - s)
Wms 2
R Rf
R, + + (X, + X)? + (X, + X?)'
R,t2-s (6.22)
Positive sequence, negative sequence and the resultant speed-torque charac
teristics are shown in Fig. 6.4(a).
Wmt
Wms positive
Sequence

negative I
Sequence i negative l net
net, sequencel /positive
sequence

(a) Unbalanced stator voltages (b) Single phasing

Fig. 6.4 Speed-torque curves of an induction motor with unbalance stator voltages
Single phasing (when supply to any one phase fails) is the extreme case of
unbalancing, when V,= Va At zero speed, s is also equal to s, consequently
starting torque is zero. Speed-torque curves for single phasing are shown in
Fig.6.4(b). For analysis of star connected machine under single phasing, method
of analysis described in Sec. 6.6.3 for ac dynamic braking with two lead
connection and equivalent circuit of Fig. 6.6(a) must be used.
Interaction between positive sequence air-gap flux wave and positive
sequence rotor currents produce positive sequence torque Ip Negative seq
uence torque I, is produced due to interaction between negative sequence
flux wave and negative sequence rotor currents. Interactions between positive
sequence flux wave and negative sequence rotor currents, and negative sequence
flux wave and positive sequence rotor currents also produce torques. How
ever, these torques are pulsating in nature with zero average values. The
pulsating torques cause vibrations which reduce the life of motor and produce
hum.
Equations (6.22) and (6.21)suggest that while the torque is reduced, copper
losses (and also core losses) are increased. Thus, the unbalanced operation
substantially reduces the motor torque capability and eficiency. To prevent
burning of the motor, it is not allowed to run for a prolonged period when the
unbalance in voltages is more than 5%. For the same reason. motor is disconneCted
from the source whenever single phasing occurs, unless the single phasing is
always accompanied by a light load.
 160 Fundamentals of ElectricalDrives
EXAMPLE 6.1
Y-connected induction motor has follos.
A 440V, 50 Hz, 6pole, 950 rpm,
= 0.4 S2, X, = X= 1.20
ing parameters referred to the stator: R, = 0.5 S2, Rf which is given by T.
Xm = 50 2. Motor is driving a fan load, the torque of
motor Speed and
0.0123 w. Now one phase of the motor fails. Calculate
period?
current. Will it be safe to allow the motor to run for a long

Solution
120 f_ 120 x 50 = 1000rpm = 104.72 rad/sec
Synchronous speed= p 6

Full load slip = 1000 950 = 0.05

1000
Full load rotor current

If= 440//3
0.4
0.5 + + (1.2 + 1.2)
0.05)
I = 28.76 Z-15.77° A

0,= i; +in
= 28.76-15.77°+. 440
2-90°
W3 x 50
= 30.5 Z-25°

For single phasing operation the

Thus, equivalent circuit here is asequivalentin circuit of Fig. 6.16(a) is applicable.
shown Fig. E.6.1.
Rs -0-5 Xg=1:2
x(=12
V= 440
Zf Xm=50
V3
-Zb Xm=50
2-s 2-s
Rs=0-5 X= 12 Xr=12
Fig. E.6.1
From
the motor.equivalent
This curvecircuit
of Fig.
and the loadE.6.1, one can obtain
Intersection
let us provides the values of
steadyspeed-torque speed-torque
curve are plotted oncurve for
Compute motor current and state a
and torque. As a grap.
torque for a speed
slip of 0.05. sampi
 Induction Motor Drives 161

jXm R
+ jX;
Z, = R, t JAs
jX, +
R+i(X;+
+j
Xm)
0.4
j50 +jl.2
0.05
= 0.5 +j1.2 +
0.4
0.05
+j(51.2)
= 7.94 + j3.536 2

R 0.4
jXm +jX; j50 +jl.2
2 -s 1.95
Z, =R, +jX, + = 0.5 +jl.2 + 0.4
R{ +j(Xm t +X) +j(51.2)
2-s 1.95

= 0.7 +j2.37 S2
Z = + Z, = 7.94 +j3.536 + 0.7 +j2.37 = 8.64 +j5.91
V 440/\3 = 24.25 A
IZI IZI
Now

Ip =
1 31² XR-s 3(24.25)2 x (50) x 0.4/0.05
0.4 )2
Wms +(Xf + Xn)? 104.72|0(O.05, + (S1.2)?

= 125.45 N-m

-1 31'x R/(2 - s) -3 (24.25 x 50) x 0.4/1.95

TN = 2
Wms
(R3 /+ (Xf + X)? 104.72 +(51.2)2|
=- 3.29 N-m

Net torque T = 125.45 - 3.29 = 122.2 N-m

Also for S= 0.05, m = @ns( - s) =99.5
Hence T = 0.0123(99.5)'= 121.8 N-m
Since T=T, s 0.05 is an approximate solution
Nowmnotor current = 24.25 A and motor speed =
950 rpm
As motor current is less than full load, the
motor will run safely.
6.3 OPERATION WITH UNBALANCED ROTOR IMPEDANCES
Earlier unbalanced rotor impedances were employed for startinginand speed
control. They are not in use any more. However, a loose contact the
circuit can cause unbalance in the rotor resistance. It is therefore rotor
examine the effect of unbalance on motor performance. useful to
Unbalanced
impedance causes unbalance in rotor currents. The unbalanced rotor rotor
can be resolved into positive and negative sequence components. Positive currents
rotor currents produce driving torque in the same way as in a motor wisl
balanced rotor resistances. The negative sequence components produce a
sequence
field which moves with respect to rotor at a speed (- rotating
s@ms) and in space at a
speed of oms 1 2s). This field induces currents in the stator. Interactis
between these currents and the negative sequence rotor field,
For (0 sss0.5), the speed of negative sequence rotor field is produces a torgue
interaction between this field and stator currents induced positive,
by it,
therefore.
positive torque on the stator and consequently a negative torque onproduces a
the rotor.
Thus for (0Ss S 0.5), torque acting on rotor is the
and negative sequence torques. Similarly, it can bedifference between positive
S 1), the two torques add. Figure 6.5 explained that for (0.5 S s
shows the nature of the motor speed
torque characteristics. A large dip in torque occurs at half of synchronous
speed. The extreme case of rotor unbalance arises
in rotor. In this torque developed by the when single phasing occurs
the motor may not accelerate beyond thismachine
at s = 0.5 will be zero, and
point in starting.

'positive
sequence
negative
Sequence
net

Fig. 6.5 Speed-torque curves with unbalanced rotor resistance

Interaction between positive and negative sequence
pulsating torques with zero average values.
Presence
components produees
of
components while reduces the motor torque, copper andnegative sequence
substantially increased. core losses are
are substantially reduced.Consequently,
When
efficiency and motor torque capability
of steady-state voltage single phasing occurs in the rotor, peak valup
excess of twice appearing open rotor phase may reach values in
in
normal. one phase of
If
time, so that the machine operates with the stator also gets opened at the same
single phase stator and rotor,
6.4 Induction Motor Drive
ANALYSIS OF INDUCTION MOTOR FED
A NON-SINUSODAL VOLTAGE
non-sinusoidal voltage can be
SUPPLY
FROM
harmonics by Fourier series. For resolved into fundamental
of Fig. 6.1 will be fundamental component the component and
equivalent
as shown in Fig. applicable.
equivalent circuit circuits
For any nth harmonic
to the skin effect6.6(a). Each reactance has been increased by a factor will be
resistances will also be increased several times. Slip s,
nth harmonic is given
n. Due
by: for the
n ms

Negative sign is applicable to harmonics which produce forward

and the positive sign to those which produce rotating te
backward rotating fields. S are
S, is close to unity, resistance (Rrnls) has a small value. As reactances
very large compared to resistors, equivalent circuit of Fig. 6.6(a) can bereplaced
by the simplified circuit of Fig. 6.6(b). When fed from a semiconductor converter,
it can be shown that the net torque produced by harmonics is close to zero. In

n(Xs+X)
In Rsn jnXs jnx, Rrn/Sn In

Vn nXm Vn

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.6 Harmonic equivalent circuits of an induction motor
circuits of
view of this motor torque can be evaluated from equivalent supply
Fig 6.1(b), using Eq. (6.10), where Vis the fundamental component Eof (64)
voltage. Fundamental component of rotor current is obtainedfrom
and the nth harmonic current is calculated from Fig. 6.6(b) as

(623)
nX
where X= X, + Xf.
Generally, supply will have odd
tripplen harmonics (third
motor current Ins Will thenharmoni
harm onics. When
be c
and its ultiples)

when
will notmotor is
delta-csoounrcee.ctedIh,e sotuinrCole en harces
flow in the
 by he rms motor pl
(6.24)
hase
muthplyingmn
heabtained
by
byE ,
given

nm3,5,...
Curem Induction Motor Drives 165
knuble cage seuitrel-cage motots When needed, methods employed for starting
Rxagivenmotortorqueandpower, ng current flowing throuph he ntt squirrel-cage motors are:
skin effect harnonic
rotor (i) Star-delta starter

BOcaUtsecsicoapnceienrcre
to
Firtherdue of harmonics increase (2) Auto-transformer starter
value.
higher Therefoe
presence
increascdby harmonics. (he ha (3) Reactor starter
has& valne.
lossesare
also
inthe
sense
that the power of lmy (4) Saturable reactor starter
1o beoutput
higher Core derated (5) Part winding starter
subsiantially.
tobe thesame temperature
rise has
motorhas (6) ac voltage controller siarter
inkocses, from
he
obiained
eficieneyis
also
machinefor
reduccddue
of
toincrease
in losses.
non-sinusoidal
supply
rotating
is the
production ol smaller, Th
Following method is sed for starting of wound-rotor motor.
importantefiect field
hpaurmlsoaninicg
Another interactionbetween
the
harmonic.
produced by one (7) Rotor resistance starter
Korguesdueto ofanother
current
Methods (1H5) and (7) are described here and Method (6) in Sec. 6.11.
androtor 6.5.1 Star-delta Starter
65 STARTING In this method, an induction motor designed to operate normally with delta
chosen based the load
on requirements
arrangementis have and nature of connection is connected in star during starting, This allows reduction in stator
Starting stif). I may be
required to
following features: voltage and current by /N3. Since motor torque is proportional to the square
supply(weak or
() Motorshould develop enough starting torque to overcome friction, load of stator terminal voltage, starting torque is reduced to one-third. A circuit for
and thus,
star-delta starting is shown in Fig, 6.7.Circuit breakers CB, and CB, are closed
inertia offmotor-load system,
torqueand
process within a prescribed time limit. complete
the starting to start the machine with star connection. When steady-state speed is reached
CB, is opened and CB, is closed to connect machine in deita.
(ü) Starting curent magnitude should be such that it does not cause the
machine and does not cause a dip in the
overbeating of the value. source
permissible
voltage beyond a
Usually a motor draws 5-7
times rated current during starting.
torque during starting and motor-loai-inertia are not large, the startingWhenprocess
load C8m
is over in a few seconds and therefore, motor temperature does not exoead a
permissible value. In such applications, motor can always be started directon
line, provided the voltage dip caused by large starting current is not beyond a stator

permissible value. For small size motors voltage dip in the supply line is winding
uSually below acceptable level. When the motor is of large capacity and/or fed
from aweak system, some starting arrangement becomes necessary for reducing
the starting current. In these applications it does not matter if the reduction in
slaring curment is accompanied by a reduction in starting torque.
When either the load torque during starting is high or load inertia is
the
starting process takes longtime. If motor large,
it will get carries large current during starting
direct on line.damaged due to CB, CBs
overheating.
In these cases,
those
Therefore, motor cannot be started
without a decreasemethods
in starting current of starting which allow a decrease Fig. 6.7 Start-delta starting
in
applicatmay
current
an starting
ions be increasein starüng torque ac torque by a decrease in starting
are employed. In some
6.5.2 Auto-transformer Starter

In a required. accompanied Reduced voltage for starting can also be obtained from an auto-transforme
performancesquirrelmay-cagebe takenmotorat design
For a secondary to primary turns ratio of a, motor terminal voltage and stat
some measures for improvement of starting current are reduced by a. This reduces the current drawn from supply by c
Stage, as in deep-barand
case of high slip,
 ElectricalDrives
Fundamentals of terminal
166 squareof motor voltage, it is also Induction Motor Drives 161
proportional tothe accelerated, it is connected to
Sincetorque is Afterthe motor has 6.8(a). full supply
reduced bya. circuit is shown in Fig. First CB
auto-transformerstarter has acceleratedto full speed,

auto-transf,CoBgirmers
voltage. An Whenmotor disconnect ptotg CBm
followed by CB-. is opened to
isclosed closed. Now CB,
stator
opened and CB
from the supply. winding

de CBm
C®s1 CBm bi1 CBsI CBs
CBs2
lo
&8ordinary or
saturable
reactor
stator
Fig. 6.9 Reactor starting
winding
|stator auto
winding transtormer CBs2 reactor at the neutral end of stator winding. This minimizes its voltage rating
(b) Closed circuit transition and also maintains its voltage and the voltage of breaker CB, at neutral potential
(a) Open circuit
transition during normal motor operation.
Fig. 6.8 Auto-transformer starting 6.5.5 Soft Start Using Saturable Reactor Starter
In some applications starting torque must be controlled steplessly. For example
6.5.3 Closed Circuit Transition fibre threads will
methods, changeover from low in textile machines, it must be varied smoothly, otherwise
In both, star-delta and auto-transformer starting break during starting. Such a starting arrangement is termed soft start.
voltage to fullvoltage connection disrupts the flow of stator current and stator
constant. Thyristor voltage controller scheme (see Sec. 6.10) is now widely used for
field collapses. Rotor current continues to flow due to its large time soft start. A number of existing drives also employ saturable reactor starter in
in the stator windings. Phase
Field produced by rotor currents induces voltages which a three-phase saturable reactor is connected in series with the
stator.
of the induced voltages is independent of supply voltages. A large current Reactance of saturable reactor can be
Saturable reactor has dc control winding.
inrush is produced at the time of reconnection when induced and supply voltages
are out of phase. When the current inrush is not acceptable, closed circuit
varied steplessly by changing the control winding current. For starting, reactance
transition is employed. Aclosed-circuit transition scheme for an auto-transformer is initially set at the highest value. Starting torque is close to zero. Reactance
is now reduced smoothly by increasing the control winding current. This gives
starter is shown in Fig. 6.8(b). It employs three circuit breakers: CBsj CB, stepless variation of starting torque. Consequently, motor starts without any
and CBm. First CB is closed to close the star point connection of the auto jerk and accelerates smoothly.
transformer. CB, is closed next. This completes low voltage connection of
auto-transformer and the motor starts. After steady-state speed is reached, circuit 6.5.6 Unbalanced Starting Scheme for Soft Start
breaker CB, is opened. Motor now runs with the upper part of auto-transformer For soft start, a cheaper alternative shown in Fig. 6.10(a), can also be employed.
phase windings in series with the stator. Windings simply function as series It consists of a variable impedance Z in one of the phases of machine. When
reactors. Now circuit breaker CB is closed, which bypasses series reactors impedance is very high, machine operates with single phasing and its speed
and connects motor directly to the supply.
torque characteristic is similar to characteristic A of Fig. 6.10(b), with a zero
At the beginning of starting alternatively, first CB, is closed instead of CB,. starting torque. When impedance is completely removed, speed torque curve is
Then motor and transformer will not produce magnetizing current surge similar to the characteristic B, which is the natural characteristic of machine.
simultaneously.
For intermediate values of impedance, speed-torque curve will lie in between
6.5.4 Reactor Starter curves A and B. A smooth start, without a jerk, is achieved when impedance
Starting current can also be reduced by connecting a three-phase reactor in is controlled steplessly. The impedance may be a variable resistor or a single
series with stator. When motor reaches full speed, the reactor is phase saturable reactor.
bypassed,
Figure 6.9 shows such a scheme. CB is closed to start the machine. After ful Motor operates with unbalanced stator voltages, therefore, copper losses
speed is reached CB, is closed to short the reactor. It is advantageous to connect increase. Thus, this scheme is suitable only for short duty operation.
168
Wm

HoN]
+

(a) (b)
variable impedance in the stator
Fig. 6.10 Starting with a single

6.5.7 Part Winding Starting windings which are connectod

or more stator
Some squirel-cage motors have two is
parallel during normal operation. During starting, only one winding
in impedance and reduces starting current. Such
connected. This increases stator
starting scheme is called part winding starting. Its implementation for a machine
a 6.11. Machine starts with winding 1
with twO stator windings is shown in Fig. reached, CB, is closed to connect
when CBm is closed. After full speed is
winding 2.

lotglCBm

2e1

Fig. 6.11 Part winding starting

6.5.8 Rotor Resistance Starter
Wound-rotor motors are generally started by connecting external resistors in
the rotor circuit (Fig. 6.12(a)). The highest value of resistance is chosen to
limit current at zero speed within the safe value. As the motor accelerates,
sections in the external resistor are cut out one by one by closing contacts C1:
C and C3 so as to limit the rotor current between specified maximum and
minimum values (Fig. 6.12(b).
Since nmost of the rotor copper loss occurs in external resistors, rotor
temperature rise during starting is substantially lower compared to starting
 Induction Motor Drives 169

bo°CBm normal
running

C3
C2

Irmin Irmax
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.12 Rotor resistance starting

methods described earlier. Important feature of this starting method is that the
starting torque and torque-to-current ratio are high. It is, therefore, suitable for
applications requiring fast acceleration, frequent starts and stops, starting with
heavy load, and starting with high inertia load.
While maximum torque is independent of rotor resistance value (Eq. (6.13),
speed at which maximum torque is produced can be controlled by changing the
value of external resistors (Eq. (6.12)). External resistors can therefore be
varied to accelerate the machine at maximum torque (Fig. 6.41). Section 6.15
gives more infornmation about the rotor resistance control.

EXAMPLE 6.2
A 2200V, 2600kW, 735 rpm, 50Hz, 8 pole, 3-phase squirrel-cage induction
motor has following parameters referred to the stator:
R, = 0.075 L, R = 0.12, X, = 0.45 2, X= 0.552. Stator winding is delta
connected and consists of two sections connected in parallel.
i) Calculate starting torque and maximum torque as a ratio of rated torque,
if the motor is started by star-delta switching. What is the maximum
value of line current during starting?
(ü) Calculate transformation ratioof an auto-transformer so as to limit the
maximum starting current to twice the rated value. What is the value of
starting torque?
(ii) What will be the value of maximumn line current and torque during
starting, if the part-winding methodof starting is employed?
Gv) If motor is started by connecting series reactors in line, what should
be the value of reactors so as to limit line current to twice the rated
value?
 Drives
170 Fundamentals of Electrical
Solution
At rated operation
750 735 = 0.02
S=
750

Full load phase current

2200 = 4253 A
I,= , 0.1 2

|0075 0.02)
+ (045 + 0.55)2

Full load line current = 3I,= 3 x 4253 = 736.7 A

750 x 2n
= 78.54 rad/sec
60

Full load torque T= 31,Rs 3x (4253) x 0.1 = 34545.5 N-m

0.02 x 78.54
ms

(i) Maximum line current during

starting =
V(R, + R()' + (X, + X{)²
2200/43.
Jo.075 + 0.1)² + (0.45 + 0.55)
= 1251 A

Starting torque T, =3x (1251)' x 0.1 = 5979.3N-m

78.54

T
5979.3
34545.5 = 0.173
From Eq. (6.13)

Tmax 2x 78.54 (2200/V3)2

0.075 + = 28588 N-m
o.075 +1
Imax 28588.0 = 0.83
345455
(ii) Starting
current direct on-line = 2200 V3
If a is the
ratio of (0.075 +0.1)² +1 =3753.5 A
transformer will be a xtr3753.5
ansformatA. iThus
on, the starting line current with auto
 Induction Motor.Drives 171
a x 3753.5 = 2 x
736.7
of
aT = 0.627

Starting motor line current = 2x736.7 = 2350 A

0.627

Starting motor phase current I, = 2350 = 1356.7A

V3

Starting torque =
31, R 3x (1356.7)² x 0.1
ms 78.54 7031 N-m
(ii) With part winding starting, only one section of
stator winding (out of
two in parallel) is connected, therefore
R = 0.075 x 2 = 0.15, X, ÷ 0.45 x 2 =
0.9

Starting line current 3 x 2200

=2590 A
(0.15 + 0.1) + (0.9+ 0.55)
Phase current I,P = 1495 A
3x (1495) x 0.1
Starting torque = 78.54
= 8537 N-m

(iv) Reactors will be connected in lineof the delta connected motor. Let us
replace delta connected motor by an equivalent star connected motor. Then
the motor parameters will be one-third, i.e. R, = 0.025, R = 0.1/3, X, = 0.15,
X= 0.55/3.
Let external reactor be X.. Then

Line current at start

V//3
V(R, + R) + (Xe + X, + X{)
2200/V3 = 2 x 736.7
Therefore,
V(0.025 + 0.333) + (X, + 0.15+ 0.1833)
which gives X, = 0.527 S2.
6.6 BRAKING
motor:
Fol()lowiRegenerative
ng methods are employed for braking of an induction
braking
(2) Plugging or reverse voltage braking
(3) Dynamic (or rheostatic) braking: This may further be categorised into
(a) ac dynamic braking
(6) Self-excited braking using capacitors
172 Fundamentals of Electrical Drives
(c) dc dynamic braking
(d) Zero sequence braking

6.6.1 Regenerative Braking

The power input to an induction motor is given by
Pin = 3VI, cos ,
where , is the piase angle between stator phase voltage Vand the (6.26)
phase curent I,. For motoring operation , < 90°. If the stator
rotor speed becomes
grcater than synchronous speed, relative speed between the rotor conduet
and air-gap rotating field reverses. This reverses the rotor induced emf ro
curent and component of stator current which balances the rotor
turns. Consequently, angle , becomes greater than 90° and powerampere flow
reverses, giving regenerative braking. Magnetizing current required to pro
duce air-gap flux is obtained from the source. Equations (6.1)-(6.13) are
applicable, except that slip is negative. The nature of
teristic is shown in Fig. 6.13. When fed from a sourcespeed-torque charac
of fixed frequency,
regenerative braking is possible only for speeds greater than synchronous
speed. With a variable frequency source it can also be obtained for speeds
below synchronous speed. When regenerative braking is employed for holding
motor-speed against an active load, stable operation is generally possible
between synchronous speed and the speed for which braking torque is
maximum.

4Wm

regeneratlve Wms
braking motoring,

Fig. 6.13 Regenerative braking

Main advantage of regenerative braking is that generated power is usefully
employed and main drawback being that when fed from a constant frequency
source, it cannot be employed below synchronous speed.
ExAMPLE 6.3
A 400 V, star connected, 3-phase, 6-pole, 50 Hz induction motor has
following
parameters referred to the stator: Rs = R = 1 2, X, = Xf= 2 2.
 Induction Motor Drives 173

For regernerative braking operation of this motor determine:

i) maximum overhauling torque it can hold and range of speed for safe
operation.
(ii) speed at which it will hold an overhauling load with atorque of 100 N-m.
maximum overhauling torque the motor can hold as aratio of maxirnum
(ii)
overhauling torque without capacitor if a capacitive reactance of 22 is
inserted in cach phase of stator.

Solution
ms = 104.72
()
For regenerative braking operation from Eq. (6.12)
R 1
- 0,.242
Sm
R+(X, +X{)? 1P+42
400/43 = 45.5 A
2

+ + (X,+ X)? + (4)2

31Rs 3x (45.5) x 1/(- 0.242) =-244.5 N-m

Tmax
ms 104.72

Maximumn overhauling torque motor can hold = 244.5 N-m

Speed at which torque is maximum = (1 - Sm) Xsynchronous speed
= (1 + 0.242) × 1000 = 1242 rpm

Stable operation during regenerative braking occurs from synchronous to speed

at which the torque is maximum. Thus range of speed for safe operation will
be from 1000 to 1242 rpm.
() At steady-state operation
T= T,

3 2
-=T
ms
+ (X, +X )?

(400) x /s =-100
l04,73 X +(2+ 2)2

17s + 17.3s + 1=0 (1)

S=-0.957 - 0.063
 ElectricalDrives
174 Fundamentals of
0.957 will give unstable operation. Therefore, s = - 0.062 :
Slip s = -
solution of Eq. (1).
1063 rpm
Motor speed = 1.063 x 1000 =
R,
Sm
(iiü) VR + (X + X(+ X¢)?
where X is the reactance of the capacitance
1 0.447
Sm
V1+ (2+ 2 - 2)?

If= 2
R + (X, + X, + X)?
Sm

400/\3 = 98.2 A
2

+(2 + 2- 2)?

Tmax =
31 R; Is 3x (98.2)² x 1/(- 0.447)
@ms 104.72 -618 N-m

Tmax - 618
Imax - 244.5 = 2.53

Thus, presence of capacitor increases

maximum braking torque 2.53 times.
6.6.2 Plugging or Reverse Voltage
When phase sequence Braking
of supply of the motor
by interchanging
connections of any two phasesrunning
of
at a speed is reversed,
terminals, operation shifts from motoring to stator with respect to supply
Plugging characteristics are actually plugging as shown in Fig. 6.1.
negative phase sequence from quadrant extension of motoring
reverses the
direction of I to II. Reversal ofcharacteristics for
Sny then rotating field. If the slip for phase sequence
plugging is denoted by
ns =2- s
ns (6.27)
Motor performance can be
by s, or (2-s).
Since at thecalculated
2, the rotor induced instant
from Eqs.(6.4) to (6.10)
of when s is replaceo
motor current is voltage can be twiceswitchover to
of its value at plugging, slip can be upto
large, although zero speed. Consequently,
motors, a resistance
equal to twicebraking torque is
the starter low. In case of wound-rotor
resistance is
inserted inthe rotof
 Induction Motor Drives 175
Wm
Wms
plugging
Wms
motor ing
2

pluggin9

---- tms
characteristic (b) Plugging in IV quadrant
(a) 1:natural resistance with large external
2: with external
resistance in rotor
in rotor

Fig, 6.14 Plugging

as
to limit braking current to starting value. This also increases braking torque
shown by curve 2 (Fig. 6.14).
As seen in Fig. 6.14, torque is not zero at zero speed. When
used for
stopping motor, it is necessary that the motor should be disconnected from
Supply at or near zero speed. This makes it necessary to use an additional
device for detecting zero speed and disconnecting motor from supply. This
braking is suitable for reversing the motor. As motor is already connected for
operation in reverse direction and torque is not zero at zero or any other speed,
motor smoothly decelerates and then accelerates in the reverse direction.
Aspecial case of plugging occurs when an induction mnotor connected to
Positive sequence voltages is driven by an active load in the reverse direction
(quadrant IV). Crane hoist is one such application. A large rotor resistance is
employed so that the characteristics have a negative slope, and thus, drive is
steady-state
In this
stable (Fig. 6.14(b).
load or frommethod,
kinetic mechanical energy supplied to the rotor, either by active
energy stored in motor and load inertia, is converted into
electrtheical energy and wasted
frorm in rotor
resistance. Additional energy is taken
from Sourceand wasted in rotor resistance.
synchr
is given by o nous
(3/2) speed,
J total amount of
energy
When braked under no load
in rotor resistance
(6.63) which is threedissipated
inertia. o
Thus, an (Eq. times the ener8y stored in
EXAMPLE 64 additional energy equal to Jo. is taken from the source.
Motor of
speed of 950Example 6.3 is to be
i) rpm. Stator to braked by
loadCalcvalulautees.the initial
rotor turns plugging
ratio is 2.3.
from its initial full load

braking current and torque as a ratio of their full

 Drives
176 Fundamentals of Electrical
rotor circuit to reduce
(iü) What resistance must be inserted in
braking current to 1.5 times full load current? What the
braking torque now?
will
mabeKiInmituima
Solution
Synchronous speed= 1000rpm
1000 950
Full load slip = = 0.05
1000

Full load current If = 400/\3 = 10.8A

2
1
0.05
+ (2 + 2)2

Full load torque T; = 3 x (10.8) + 1/0.05 = 66.83 N-m

104.72
(i) In plugging, slip for 950 rpm = 2- S = 2 - 0.05 = 1.95

Initial braking current I = 400//3 = 54 A

1
|1+ 1.95 + (2 +2)

54
=5
10.8
Initial braking torque
T= 3x (54)² x 1/1.95
104.72 = 42.84

T 42.84
= 0.64
T; 66.83
Note that although current has
by a factor of 0.64. increased five times, torque has reduced
(ii) With an external
resistance Re in rotor
I,=
2
R, + R +R
2 -s + (Xs + X)?
where R: is the stator referred value of Re
Or 1.5 x 10.8 = 400/V3
2
1+ Re
1.95 + (2 + 2)2
 Induction Motor Drives 177
2
400
R(= 1.95| - 16
or
V3 1.5 x 10.8 -1|-1=23.73 2
Re = R = 4.486 Q
(2.3)2

T=
3 x (1.5 x 10.8) >x 24.73/1.95
= 95.35 N-m
104.72
95.35
= 1.427
T; 66.83

IÜse of external resistance reduces current from5 times to 1.5 times full lo2d
eurent: torque is increased from 0.64 to 1.427 times full load torgue.
6.6.3 Dynamic (or Rheostatic) Braking

(a) ac Dynamic Braking

ac dynamic braking is obtained when the motor is run on a singBe phase supply
by disconnecting one phase from the source and either leaving it open
(Fig. 6.15(b)) or connecting it with another machine phase (Fig. 6.15(c). The
two connections of Figs. 6.15(b) and (c) are respectively known as two and
three lead connections. When connected to a 1-phase supply, the motor can be
considered to be fed by positive and negative sequence three-phase set of

A
B
C Ap 8C

(a) Motoring (b) Two lead (c) Three lead

connection
connection
Fig. 6.15 ac dynamic braking of a wound rotor motor
voltages. Net torque produced bythe machine is sum oftorques due to positive
anc
ttwoorqueandnegatis inegative
ve Sequence
and braking
voltages.operation
When is obtained,
rotor has a The
high resistance, the net
motor analysis for
three lead Connections is done as follows:
 Drives 181
Induction Motor

iSO/4.9
+j12
1.95
R- s +jX = 0.5 + jl.2 +
jXm 2 4.9 +j(51.2)
Z, = R, +jX, + R +j(X; + Xm) 1.95
2-s L40.75° 2
j2.49 = 3.81
2.39 + j1.29 = 2.89 +
=0.5 + j1.2 +

254/\3 = 42.52L- 40.75°

I, = 81 Z40.75° j50
40.75° x
= 42.522- 4.9 +j51.2
1.95

2 -s
= 41.45-37.95°
r R= 4.9 Q 3(41.45)² x 4.9/1.95 =- 123.7 N-m
0.5, + (2.4) 31}R(I(2 - s) 104.72
ms
120 f 120 50 = 1000 pm N-m
ymhunnIs speed - = -116.45
6 T= 7.24 - 123.7 L- 40.75 | =
45.83 A
- 63.23 + 42.52
JO00-950 + I, |=l3.55
J000
=0.05 Motor current I =|I,
current
ci om equivalent circuit of Fig. 6.17, impedance of positive sequer' Fullload motor
of
tlhe equivalent circuit
440/V3 = 28.76 A
CO 2
an
0.4 + (2.4)2
4.9 0.05)
JXm j50 005
sp
on
= 0.5 +jl.2 + Full load motor
torque
4.9
+j(X +X) 0.05 +j(61) 0.4/0.05 = 189.59 N-m
3 x(28.76) x
T; = 104.72
= 0.5 +jl.2 + 20.03 +j395
= 20.53 + j40.7 = 45.6 Z63.230 45.83 = 2.29S

254/N3
Now 28.76
116.45
45601)3.5S2- 63.230 T = 0.614
Î189.59

Using Capacitors permanently connected across the

(b) Self-excited Brakingcapacitors are kept when disconnected
In this method three chosen that
of capacitors is so induction generator. Braking
= l.606-0.8° motor terminals. Values works as a self-excited
from the line, motor process is explained in
and self-excitation magnetization
Ir shown in Fig. 6.18(a) curve of
connection is Curve A is no load
of pc
sequ
and
3s6x 49/0.05 = 7.24N-m Fig. 6.18(b) for no load condition.