Environmental Science and Pollution Research

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-30567-9

REVIEW ARTICLE

Benzotriazole UV stabilizers (BUVs) as an emerging contaminant

of concern: a review
Ankur Khare1,2 · Pradip Jadhao1,2 · Atul Narayan Vaidya1,2 · Asirvatham Ramesh Kumar1,2

Received: 15 November 2022 / Accepted: 16 October 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
Benzotriazole UV stabilizers (BUVs) are a group of industrial chemicals used in various consumer products and industrial
applications. Due to its large-scale production and use, BUVs have been detected in all environmental matrices. Humans are
exposed to BUVs from environmental media, food, personal care products (PCPs), and consumer products. As a result, BUVs
are detected in human breast milk, attracting researchers and regulatory bodies worldwide. BUVs such as UV-328 exhibit the
characteristics of persistent organic pollutants (POPs); hence, it has been recently listed under Stockholm Convention POP list.
The current review focuses on the occurrence of BUVs in the environment with emphasis on persistency, bioaccumulation, and
toxicity (PBT). Scarcity of scientific data on BUVs’ properties, environmental occurrence, exposure levels, and effects on organ-
isms poses significant challenges to the policymakers and regulatory bodies in adopting management strategies. The need for a
science-based integrated framework for risk assessment and management of BUVs is recommended. Considering the potential
threat of BUVs to human health and the environment, it is recommended that BUVs should be taken as a subject of priority
research. Studies on the degradation and transformation route of BUVs need to be explored for the sound management of BUVs.

Keywords Benzotriazoles · Contaminant of concern · Persistent organic pollutants · Toxicity · Ultraviolet stabilizers ·
Scarcity of scientific data · Review

Abbreviations ESIPT Excited-state intramolecular proton

BAF Bioaccumulation factor transfer
BCF Bioconcentration factor GPx Glutathione peroxidase
BUVs Benzotriazole UV stabilizers HPV High production volume
CAGR​ Compound annual growth rate IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied
CoCAP Cooperative Chemical Assessment Chemistry
Program Km Metabolic rate constant
DT50 Dissipation time half-life KOC Organic carbon–water partition coef-
dw Dry weight ficient; it estimates the mobility of a
EAWAG-BBD EAWAG Biocatalysis/Biodegradation substance in soil
Database KOW Octanol/water partition coefficient (log
ECHA European Chemicals Agency value), a relative indicator of the ten-
dency of an organic compound to be
adsorbed to soil and living organism
LC-MS/MS Liquid chromatography tandem mass
Responsible Editor: Roland Peter Kallenborn spectrometry
LRT Long-range transport
* Asirvatham Ramesh Kumar
ar_kumar@neeri.res.in lw Lipid weight
ND Not detected
1
Chemical and Hazardous Waste Management Division, OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research and Development
Institute, Nagpur 440020, India
PBDEs Polybrominated diphenyl ethers
2
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR),
Ghaziabad 201002, India

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Vol.:(0123456789)

PBT Persistency, bioaccumulation, and
toxicity
PCPs Personal care products
POPs Persistent organic pollutants
REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorization,
and Restriction of Chemicals
ROS Reactive oxygen species
SC Stockholm Convention
SPE Solid-phase extraction
SPIN Substances in Products in the Nordic
countries
SVHC Substances of very high concern
TOFMS Time-of-flight mass spectrometry
UM-PPS University of Minnesota Pathway Predic-
tion System
USA United Sates of America
USEPA United States Environmental Protection
Agency
UV Ultraviolet
UV-320 2-Benzotriazol-2-yl-4,6-di-tert-butylphe-
nol, CAS 3846-71-7
UV-326 2-tert-Butyl-6-(5-chlorobenzotriazol-
2-yl)-4-methylphenol, CAS 3896-11-5
UV-327 2,4-Di-tert-butyl-6-(5-chlorobenzotria-
zol-2-yl)phenol, CAS 3864-99-1
UV-328 2-(2H-Benzotriazol-2-yl)-4,6-ditertpen-
tylphenol, CAS 25973-55-1
UV-329 2-(Benzotriazol-2-yl)-4-(2,4,4-trimethyl-
pentan-2-yl)phenol, CAS 3147-75-9
UV-P Phenolic benzotriazole UV stabilizer,
CAS 2440-22-4
ww Wet weight
WWTPs Wastewater treatment plants
w/w Weight by weight
∑ Sum
Fig. 1  Leaching mechanism of
additives (BUVs) with polymers
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Introduction
Benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers (BUVs) are considered
as a class of emerging environmental contaminants,
though they have been around us for almost six decades
(Jungclaus et al. 1978). During recent years, they received
a lot of attention as an emerging contaminant because of
their probable adverse impacts on human health and the
environment (SC 2021). Emerging does not imply that they
were not considered pollutants previously, mainly because
of the lack of monitoring data and the notion among the
scientific community as they were “non-toxic” (Stefanakis
and Becker 2016). In response to scientific evidence
published by researchers, several classes of BUVs have
been regulated by environmental agencies from time to time
(Jungclaus et al. 1978; Nakata et al. 2009; Montesdeoca-
Esponda et al. 2021). The United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA), back in 2008, classified
BUVs as emerging pollutants (Richardson 2008). All of the
synthetic polymeric industrial products used in our daily life
are exposed to natural degrading agents such as ultraviolet
(UV) radiation, numerous chemicals, and moisture. Their
cumulative consequences lead to abrasion or weathering of
the polymer matrix. BUVs are added to polymers, paints,
and several industrial and household products to protect
them against the harmful effects of UV radiation (Cantwell
et al. 2015; Vimalkumar et al. 2018). Since BUVs are not
covalently bonded to the monomer chain, they leak into
the environment throughout their life cycle (production,
application, and disposal) (Fig. 1). Different additives can
leak from polymers at varying rates (Teuten et al. 2009;
Kwon et al. 2017). A polymer with high permeability has a
rapid rate of additive leaching. The amount of additives that
leak from plastics is influenced by several variables, such as
temperature, light exposure, and weathering (Do et al. 2022).
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Fig. 2  Timeline of BUVs from production to applications, followed by their occurrence in different environmental matrices and legislations
Each class of BUVs has its own set of implications and
concerns for the receiving environment based on the usage
and applications (US EPA 2009). BUVs have been detected
in various environmental media including indoor dust (Wang
et al. 2013), surface water and sediments (Vimalkumar
et al. 2018; Castilloux et al. 2022), agricultural soils (Lai
et al. 2014a, b), and mussels and marine organisms (Nakata
et al. 2009, 2012) (Fig. 2). Despite meeting the persistency,
bioaccumulation, and toxicity (PBT) criteria (Supplementary
Table S1) of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) defined
by several international agencies, the potential risk of
these emerging pollutants to the environment and human
health remains unclear (ECHA 2014, 2018; SC 2021;
USEPA 2022). Independent researchers have raised
serious environmental concerns because of the increase in
production and applications of BUVs over the last decade,
emphasizing variations in concentrations on regional and
global environmenal transport (Rajak et al. 2011; Rani et al.
2017; Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. 2021).
We have used the acronym BUVs for “Benzotriazole
ultraviolet stabilizers” in this review article. All the other
acronyms were defined at their first mention and listed
under the “list of abbreviations.” Industrial and other
classical BUVs applications have not been extensively
addressed and are available in various articles, book
chapters, and technical reports (Cantwell et al. 2015; NTP
2011). Instead, emphasis is placed on their environmental
occurrence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity potential and POP
characteristics have been investigated. There are reviews
on the environmental fate of benzotriazoles, but limited to
parent benzotriazoles (BTri), and their derivatives such as
5,6-dimethylbenzotriazole (XTri), 5-methylbenzotriazole
(5-MeBT), 4-methylbenzotriazole (4-MeBT), and
5-chlorobenzotriazole (CBT) (Alotaibi et al. 2015; Shi et al.
2019). About 206 articles on BUVs have been published in
various journals from 1987 to 2023, including a few review
articles (~ 14) (Fig. 3). As new insights and knowledge
emerge, particularly about the role of benzotriazoles as UV
stabilizers, our understanding of BUVs needs to be updated.
This understanding is critical for assessing and managing the
risks posed by BUVs.
The present review article aims to summarize the current
state of knowledge about the environmental occurrence and
distribution of BUVs in different environmental matrices,
including adipose tissue and human breast milk, analytical
methods for detection, exposure pathways, and toxicity. It
also highlights the regulatory actions and policies for the
sound management of BUVs in different countries. All
articles published up to August 2023 were considered for
this review. The International Union for Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature, Chemical Abstracts
Service (CAS) Registry Number, and structure of BUVs are
13

Fig. 3  Number of publication
on BUVs from 1987 to 2023
presented in Supplementary Table S2, while Supplementary
Table S3 shows the physicochemical properties of different
BUVs reviewed in this article.
Stabilization of UV absorbers
Excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) is
the general mechanism behind the stabilization of BUVs
(Wypych 2020). The process is a photo-induced proton
transfer occurring between the keto and enol forms of the
molecule having intramolecular hydrogen bonding (Seo
et al. 2007). In the ground state, the molecules preferentially
adopt the enol form, due to better stabilization by hydrogen
bonding. Upon excitation, fast transfer of a proton from
enol form occurs, creating an excited keto tautomer in a
sub-picosecond time scale. In other words, upon absorption
of photons, the energy of the molecule from its ground
state (S0) increases to its excited state (S1). The energy
dissipation from the excited molecule is governed by
proton transfer, fluorescence, or radiationless deactivation,
leading to molecular stabilization (Seo et al. 2007; Schwalm
2007). Figure 4 shows the stabilization mechanism of the
UV-P stabilizer. BUVs’ surface properties are typically
altered by manufacturers through doping, resulting in
rapid photodegradation of the coated material. To prevent
photodegradation of such materials, ongoing surface
renewal/recoating is required, which increases the likelihood
of leaching into the surrounding environment.
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Production and applications of BUVs
The BUVs market has grown significantly due to the rise
in applications of the compounds in several household and
industrial applications such as antifreeze solution, antirust
coatings, oil antioxidants, and emulators (Kadar et al.
2009; Rajak et al. 2011). In addition, there is a growing
emphasis on research and development activities that lead
to innovations in various sectors, creating a massive market
opportunity for key players in the benzotriazole market.
BUVs are widely used in polymers, plastics, inks, paints,
and other coating formulations. BUVs are found in many
daily use and industrial products as absorbers and stabilizers
in concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 10% (Hauri et al.
2003). According to the cosmetic derivative report, BUVs
have been listed in Annex VI of Cosmetic Regulation No.
1223/2009 in the EU (Wahie et al. 2007). The concentration
of BUVs in different products ranges from 0.1 to 1.0% w/w
(BASF 2016). According to the recent report of Research
and Markets (2021), the global benzotriazole market was
estimated at US $355.5 million in 2020 during the COVID-
19 crisis and expected to reach US $531.8 million by 2027,
growing at a 5.9% compound annual growth rate (CAGR)
from 2020 to 2027. On the other hand, plastics are expected
to grow at a 6.7% CAGR with a market value of US $225.9
million by 2027.
The market for BUVs in the USA was estimated to be
$96.2 million in 2020. China, with the world’s largest pop-
ulation and second-largest economy, is expected to reach
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Fig. 4  Stabilization and energy dissipation of BUVs
a market size of $113.6 million by 2027, with a CAGR
of 9.1%. Other countries, such as Japan and Canada, are
expected to grow at a CAGR of 3.2% and 5.3%, respectively,
from 2020 to 2027. Germany, within Europe, is expected
to grow at a rate of 3.8% in the global benzotriazole mar-
ket. According to the Substances in Products in the Nordic
Countries (SPIN) database, the total usage of UV-328 in the
Nordic group of countries (Finland, Norway, Sweden, and
Denmark) since 2006 is < 10 tons per annum. UV-328 was
included in the high priority chemical list in the UK due to
its PBT characteristics (Brooke and Burns 2010).
On the other hand, UV-320 has been classified as a
“Class I specified chemical substance” under the Chemi-
cal Substances Control Law in Japan in 2007 due to its
PBT characteristics (Watanabe and Noma 2010). USEPA
reports non-confidential data reporting (CDR) informa-
tion on some chemicals that are produced and being used
in the USA in quantities greater than 10,000 lb (Cantwell
et al. 2015). Several BUVs have yet to be registered as
high-priority or production chemicals in various coun-
tries’ chemical lists. Thus, relatively minimal data on
the production of BUVs on a yearly basis is maintained.
Much of the BUVs production data is not accessible and
is displayed in broad weight intervals (time gap of 5 to 10
years). On the other hand, industrial analysts project that
the global market for plastic additives will grow from US
$43.82 billion in 2018 to US $61.25 billion by 2025 (Zion
Market Research 2019). Figure 5 represents the global
market segmentation of BUVs and their applications
in different products. The import/export, tonnage, and
manufacturing data of BUVs are very hazy. This hampers
the development of inventories required for the manage-
ment of chemicals by countries. Hence, the data should
be made available for detailed estimation of the exact
demand and supply chain of BUVs on a global scale.
Environmental occurrence and distribution
of BUVs
BUVs enter into the environment through a variety of
pathways. Some of them are (i) through wastewater
treatment plant (WWTP) effluents, (ii) plastic debris and/or
via weathering of outdoor plastics and products coated with
BUVs, and (iii) personal care products (PCPs) containing
BUVs (Lai et al. 2014a; Brausch and Rand 2011). The first
occurrence of phenolic BUVs was reported in the 1980s by
Lopez-Avila and Hites (1980). The key findings of the articles
highlighted the release of BUVs and other chemicals from
an industry in Cranston, USA, that was in operation until
1985. The wastewater-containing BUVs were discharged
into the Pawtuxet River, eventually reaching Narragansett
Bay in the USA. During the study, heavy deposition and
accumulation of BUVs was observed in both water bodies.
These findings indicated the persistence and environmental
transport of BUVs after their release from the chemical
plant. Figure 6 represents the environmental fate of BUVs
upon their release in the environment, while Supplementary
Table S4 summarizes the occurrence of BUVs in different
environmental matrices, including biological samples.
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Fig. 5  Global market segmentation and application of BUVs

Fig. 6  Environment fate of BUVs

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Occurrence in WWTPs
Several studies have reported the occurrence of BUVs
in both influent and effluent of WWTPs, with concentra-
tions ranging from ng/L to μg/L levels (Voutsa et al. 2006;
Cantwell et al. 2010; Liu et al. 2012). The removal efficien-
cies of BUVs in WWTPs showed wide variation and have
been attributed to factors such as source characteristics, pop-
ulation size and capacity of sewer shed, wastewater loading
time, hydraulic retention time, and treatment factors (with
or without biological units) (Cantwell et al. 2015; Cadena-
Aizaga et al. 2022).
The estimated levels of BUVs in both influent and
effluent of wastewater are generally low but uniform and
similar to other POPs (Shi et al. 2019). Montesdeoca-
Esponda et al. (2021) reported a substantial concentration
of six BUVs in influent (106.0–1933.0 ng/L) and efflu-
ent (47.54–57.09 ng/L) of conventional WWTPs at Gran
Canary Island, Spain. Detection of BUVs in the aqueous
phase with considerable concentration in effluent indi-
cates unsatisfactory removal of BUVs during treatment
which is in accordance with poor removal rates (< 80%)
in most treatment plants (Nödler et al. 2010; Stasinakis
et al. 2013; Herrero et al. 2014a, b; Herzog et al. 2014).
Contrary to conventional WWTP of Spain and other coun-
tries reported elsewhere, WWTP in Japan (Nakata and
Shinohara 2010) and China (Ruan et al. 2012) with a dif-
ference in unit operation reported significant removal of
BUVs (80–90%) during treatment. Differences in BUVs
elimination rates during treatment could be attributed to
differences in unit operations. The Japanese and Chinese
WWTPs were used with advanced sludge treatment meth-
ods such as cyclic activated sludge technology (CAST)
and activated sludge and biofilm process, which resulted
in substantial removal of BUVs. Liu et al. (2012) reported
the presence of UV-326 and UV-329 in Australia’s WWTP
with mean concentrations of 25.0 ng/L and 310.0 ng/L,
respectively. The mass balance result showed that second-
ary treatment (biological unit) was the most effective tech-
nique for removing BUVs with maximum removal of 91%
and > 99%. Biodegradation during wastewater treatment
can play a significant role in BUVs elimination because
low carbon content may force microorganisms to biode-
grade BUVs (Liu et al. 2012; Stasinakis et al. 2013). It is
interesting and noteworthy that some researchers (Nakata
and Shinohara 2010; Ruan et al. 2012) have reported
positive removal rates of BUVs during wastewater treat-
ment, which may be attributed to the transformation or
breakdown of BUVs to other complex molecules. Cadena-
Aizaga et al. (2022), in a recent study, emphasized the
implementation of advanced treatment units like mem-
brane microfiltration, filtering fine suspended solids fol-
lowed by UV disinfection after secondary treatment to
achieve better removal efficiency during wastewater treat-
ment. Studies have suggested open air system of lagoons
and high-rate transpiration system (HRTS) (< 27 days)
which may create favorable conditions like photodegra-
dation, transformation, and bioaccumulation for BUVs
degradation in WWTPs (Liu et al. 2012).
Occurrence in the receiving environment
Water
Although there are several reports available (Supplementary
Table S4) documenting the presence of BUVs in surface
water bodies and other interior waterways, ranging from Jun-
gclaus et al. (1978) to recent findings by Khare et al. (2023)
and Cadena-Aizaga et al. (2022), no study ever reviewed
these findings to provide a comprehensive and critical evalu-
ation of BUVs exposure via surface water. The incomplete
removal of BUVs from WWTPs leads to their presence in
the receiving water bodies (Zhao et al. 2017; Montesdeoca-
Esponda et al. 2021). The study of Jungclaus et al. (1978)
was the first to report the occurrence of BUVs in surface
water from Narragansett Bay, USA. The concentration of
BUVs from this site ranged from 0.5 to 4.7 mg/L, which is
the highest reported concentration till now. Stormwater run-
off is a well-known pathway for contaminants to the aquatic
ecosystem, but studies on the transport dynamics of BUVs
are scarce (Parajulee et al. 2018; Peter et al. 2020). De Silva
and Muir (2015) reported BUVs in San Francisco Bay’s sur-
face water with concentrations ranging from > 1 to 17 ng/L.
However, the study found no clear source evidence of BUVs
in the bay; storm water runoff might be a probable source
of BUVs contamination in the bay. Similar findings were
reported by Parajulee et al. (2018), who reported a high con-
centration (∑ 330.0 ng/g) of BUVs in urban streams receiv-
ing water from surface runoff events. Vimalkumar et al.
(2018) reported occurrence of six BUVs in surface water
samples in three regional rivers of India. Water samples
from the Kaveri were contaminated with several classes of
BUVs with UV-329 (31.3 ng/L) being the most prevalent in
India. However, the authors could not provide a clear expla-
nation for the presence of BUVs in surface water. Marine
water samples from Gran Canaria Island in Spain were con-
taminated by five BUVs (UV-P, UV-326, UV-327, UV-329,
and UV-360) with UV-326 as the predominant contaminant
with a concentration of 1642.0–2419.0 ng/L (Montesdeoca-
Esponda et al. 2021). The presence of BUVs in marine water
was directly associated with the use of sunscreen and PCPs
by the tourist visiting the beach (García-Guerra et al. 2016;
Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. 2012, 2013). We may infer that
the key determinants of BUVs in water are industrialization
and the nature of the receiving water resource.
13

Sediments
Sediments are an integral part of the aquatic ecosystem
and also the main sink and source of organic contaminants
(Sharma et al. 2014). Several researchers have reported
sediment contamination by BUVs across the globe (Hart-
mann et al. 2005; Cantwell et al. 2010; Nakata et al. 2009;
Zhang et al. 2011; Vimalkumar et al. 2018; Montesdeoca-
Esponda et al. 2021; Khare et al. 2023). A summary of the
occurrence of BUVs in sediments is given in Supplemen-
tary Table S4. Reddy et al. (2000) found extremely high
levels of BUVs in Pawtuxet River sediments (USA), with
concentrations of 4300.0 mg/kg for UV-P and 5200.0 mg/
kg for UV-327. To date, this is the highest concentration
of BUVs ever reported.
Sediment samples from Narragansett Bay (USA) con-
tained a concentration of 10.0 to 25.0 mg/kg, which was sev-
eral folds lower than Pawtuxet River sediments (Lopez-Avila
and Hites 1980). A follow-up study carried out by Pruell
and Quinn (1985), in sediment cores across Narragansett
Bay, reported spatial and temporal distribution of BUVs.
Their study also provided evidence of the “idea of protective
mechanism” of contaminants by the organic-rich sediments,
i.e., the contaminants are retained and trapped in a gel-like
matrix of humic substances, which protect these contami-
nants from exchanging or partitioning into the aqueous
phase. The relatively high BUVs concentration in sediment
from these locations is associated with the wastewater dis-
charged from a chemical plant that operated until 1985. The
average concentration of BUVs in wastewater from the plant
ranged from 0.5 to 4.7 mg/L (Jungclaus et al. 1978) which
resulted in the deposition and accumulation of compounds
in the sediments. When examining the bioavailability, toxic-
ity, and remediation of hydrophobic organic contaminants
(HOCs), it is essential to know their environmental fate in
water and sediments.
BUVs were detected in 16-cm-long sediment core sam-
ples collected from Lake Ontario, Canada. The top 8 cm
of the core was sliced into 0.5-cm segments and analyzed
for BUVs. UV-328 was found in the range of 36 to 77 ng/g
dry weight (dw) in all 16 portions of the core representing
the period 1975–2013 (De Silva et al. 2014). Urban streams
in Canada had concentrations of UV-328 with concentra-
tions up to 240.0 ng/g in sediments, an order of magnitude
higher than that in rural stream sediments (Parajulee et al.
2018). The Gran Canaria Island, Spain, coast is subjected to
the continuous input of BUVs via PCPs such as sunscreen
lotions and shampoos (Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. 2012,
2013). Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. (2021) showed that
sediment samples from Gran Canaria had a maximum con-
centration of UV-326 (93.46 ng/g dw) and resulted in the
bioaccumulation in the aquatic organisms.
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Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Biological samples
Aquatic organisms BUVs are lipophilic compounds (logKOW:
4.31–8.28); hence, it is expected that once BUVs enter the
aquatic environment, they accumulate in the biological tis-
sues of aquatic organisms. BUVs have been detected in
different aquatic invertebrates (Nakata et al. 2009, 2012),
fishes (Lu et al. 2017, 2018, 2019), and marine mammals
(Nakata and Shinohara 2010). Pruell et al. (1984) were the
first to report the bioavailability of two BUVs (UV-327 and
UV-328) in bivalve molluscs (Mercenaria mercenaria) from
Narragansett Bay in the range of 1.0 to 8.5 μg/kg and 7.0
to 61.0 μg/kg wet weight, respectively. Molluscs are rich
sources of protein and minerals, and these molluscs contami-
nated with BUVs may serve as a probable source of BUVs
to human beings. Kim et al. (2011a) reported the presence
of eight BUVs in fish collected from Manila Bay, Philip-
pines, indicating their ubiquitous presence in marine water.
Among the BUVs, UV-328 was predominantly detected with
the mean concentration of 34.2 ng/g lipid weight, indicat-
ing its widespread use in Philippines. The study also sug-
gested high uptake and low metabolic capacity in fishes
to eliminate BUVs. Mussels have long been studied as a
standard reference material for the environmental monitor-
ing of POPs. Nakata et al. (2012) reported individual con-
centrations of four BUVs (UV-320, UV-326, UV-327, and
UV-328) in blue–green mussels collected from 11 Asia–
Pacific countries. UV-326 showed the highest concentration
(ND-1500.0 μg/kg wet weight (ww)), whereas UV-328 was
detected in most sampling locations. In mussels collected
from Japanese water, UV-320 was detected at low concen-
trations (mean: 33.0 ng/g lipid weight (lw)), indicating the
effectiveness of the ban on UV-320 and the minimal use of
this substance in the Asia–Pacific region. Occurrence, tis-
sue-specific distribution, and elimination pathways of BUVs
were investigated by Lu et al. (2017). The concentration of
BUVs (wet weight) decreased in the following order: liver >
carcass > bile > plasma. BUVs were partitioned from blood
to liver, indicating liver is the primary location for BUVs
accumulation in fish. On the other hand, biliary excretion
seemed to be a minor pathway for BUVs in fish. Fish sam-
ples collected from Gran Canaria Island were contaminated
with UV-326 (9.6–34.9 ng/g dw). Seawater (1642.0–2419.0
ng/L) and sediment (93.46 ng/g dw) samples from the spe-
cific location were contaminated with UV-326, making it
readily bioavailable for the aquatic organisms (Montesde-
oca-Esponda et al. 2021). This is probably because this fish
is omnivorous, so it could incorporate these pollutants by
bioaccumulation. Furthermore, the unique characteristics of
fish skin also enhance the absorption rate of organic contam-
inants, possibly due to higher lipid content in fish muscle,
gills, and ovaries (Tierney et al. 2013).
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Humans Fishes and other aquatic organisms are one of
the primary sources of a rich protein diet for humans. The
link between human exposure via consumption of aquatic
organisms is well documented (Sharma et al. 2014; Vimal-
kumar et al. 2018). Application of personal care products
and ingestion of dust contaminated with BUVs have also
been reported as the significant sources of BUVs (Lee et al.
2015). Human adipose tissue samples from Spain, Japan,
Korea, and the USA contained UV-328 (Yanagimoto et al.
2011). Tissue samples from Japan had the highest concen-
tration of UV-328 (35.0 ng/g lw), followed by Korea (20.0
ng/g lw), Spain (6.0 ng/g lw), and the USA (2.0 ng/g lw).
BUVs in human breast milk has been the subject of very
little research so far (Kim et al. 2019). BUVs were detected
in human breast milk samples from Korea (Lee et al. 2015)
and three other Asian countries (Vietnam, Philippines, and
Japan), with UV-328 having a detection frequency of 97.6%
and 16% with concentrations reaching up to 334.0 ng/g lw
and 1.2 ng/g lw, respectively (Kim et al. 2019). It was note-
worthy that concentration of two BUVs (UV-P and UV-326)
was up to 25 folds higher in milk samples from the Philip-
pines than in those from Korea, suggesting high production
and usage of these compounds. The estimated daily intake
(EDI) to infants via milk consumption was estimated to be
0.36 μg/kg bw/day, suggesting infants are more susceptible
to BUVs exposure and are at higher risk (Lee et al. 2015).
However, the study failed to provide provisional tolerable
daily intake (PTDI) value for the reported BUVs.
Air and house dust
Extensive usage and applications of BUVs have led to their
occurrence in environmental matrices, especially ambient and
indoor air (Brorström-Lundén et al. 2012; Xue et al. 2016;
Maceira et al. 2020). Inhalation is the second most prevalent
human exposure pathway after ingestion (Carpinteiro et al.
2010). In a health risk assessment study by Maceira et al.
(2018) in Spain, the average daily intake (ADI) of BUVs via
inhalation was nearly 1.0 ng/kg body weight/day as a worst-
case scenario. However, due to the scarcity of toxicological
data on BUVs, the reported values were relatively low com-
pared to other types of exposure. House dust and vehicle cabin
dust samples from Spain were reported to contain BUVs
(UV-326, UV-327, and UV-328) in the range of 22.0–4880.0
ng/g, signifying emissions from consumer products are one
of the primary sources in domestic settings (Carpinteiro et al.
2010). Avagyan et al. (2015) found a relevant concentration
of UV-328 (mean ± SD; 106 ± 1.30 ng/g) in fabrics used for
clothes in Sweden. Although UV-328 was detected only in
two samples, it may occur in textiles as a contaminant from
plastic packaging. Kim et al. (2012) reported the presence
of seven BUVs in indoor dust samples from residential and
municipal dumping areas. Among the BUVs, UV-234 was the
predominant (817 ng/g), accounting for ~ 50% of total BUVs
concentration (∑BUVs 1020 ng/g) in residential area than in
dumpsites (∑BUVs 277 ng/g). The EDI via inhalation were 29
ng/day and 156 ng/day for adults and toddlers, respectively,
in residential areas, while it was 9.5 ng/day and 51 ng/day at
an area close to dumpsites when high dust ingestion of 200
mg (95% ingestion) as a “worst case scenario” was applied.
Although the EDI via inhalation in the residential area was
two to four times lower than the guideline value (600 to
210,000 ng/day and 150 to 52,500 ng/day for adults and tod-
dlers, respectively), toddlers were at higher risk of exposure
to BUVs during their developmental phase. The presence of
BUVs in various environmental compartments raises concerns
about their potential exposure to human and animal popula-
tions. Hence, comprehensive studies to investigate other pos-
sible exposure pathways of BUVs to the human population are
needed (Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2021).
Analytical methods for the determination
of BUVs in environmental samples
BUVs are usually found at the concentration of ng/L or
ng/kg levels in environmental compartments. Quantitative
analysis of BUVs is therefore a challenging task (Herrero
et al. 2014c; Jover et al. 2009). Efficient extraction processes
combined with sensitive instrumental techniques are neces-
sary for their determination. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) is
the most commonly used technique for extraction of BUVs
from aqueous matrix (Herrero et al. 2014a; Montesdeoca-
Esponda et al. 2021). Other extraction methods such as
solid-phase microextraction, stir-bar sorptive extraction
(SBSE), dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction, pressur-
ized liquid extraction (PLE), and ultrasound-assisted solvent
extraction (UASE) are also used for solid matrices (Herrero
et al. 2014b; Liu et al. 2011; Nuñez et al. 2020). However,
SPE is preferred over other extraction techniques due to less
extraction time and better recoveries (Kuznetsov et al. 2010).
As aqueous matrices containing suspended materials and
organic matter are complex, sample filtration is an essential
step to prevent the clogging of SPE cartridges. Supplemen-
tary Table S5 summarizes the typical examples of using SPE
to determine BUVs in environmental samples. Chromato-
graphic separations by liquid chromatography (LC) or gas
chromatography (GC) coupled with tandem mass spectrom-
etry (MS/MS) are generally used for quantitation. However,
LC with UV–Vis or fluorescence detection has also been
reported for BUVs quantitation (Herrero et al. 2014b).
Sample preparation and extraction
The most commonly used SPE sorbents are Oasis HLB
(N-vinylpyrrolidone-divinylbenzene copolymer) and
13

Strata-X (N-vinylpyrrolidone chemically modified divinylb-
enzene polymer) which are polymeric balanced and retain
most BUVs due to high polarity. Herrero et al. (2014a)
determined BUVs in river and sewage using two SPE car-
tridges, viz. Oasis HLB and Florisil cartridges, to remove
matrix interferences. As a result, recoveries > 90% were
obtained, while the matrix effect was reduced to 20%. Mon-
tesdeoca-Esponda et al. (2021) performed different extrac-
tion techniques for estimating BUVs in aqueous and solid
samples. For sludge and sediment samples, SPE was utilized
(Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. 2013, 2019). This resulted in
a more purified extract with LOD ranging from 0.07 to 0.15
ng/g for the sludge sample and even lower (0.05–0.11 ng/g)
for sediment samples. Recently, Cadena-Aizaga et al. (2022),
in a research work, determined BUVs in seawater using SPE
technique. Three different SPE cartridges (500 mg Sep-Pak
C18, 200 mg Oasis HLB, and 500 mg Strata-X) and dif-
ferent organic solvents were investigated. Best recoveries
were achieved on C18 cartridge with MeOH:ACN (1:1, v/v)
as the eluting solvent. However, LODs were relatively high
and ranged from 11.3 to 36.4 ng/L for seawater samples.
Nonetheless, due to its robustness, high preconcentration
factors, and high recoveries, SPE remains the most suited
extraction method for BUVs in aqueous matrices (Her-
rero et al. 2014a). However, preconcentration may not be
required in the case of samples such as untreated sewage and
large volume of sample, i.e., 60.0–100.0 μL may be injected
into the LC-MS/MS (Weiss and Reemtsma 2005). The direct
injection technique would be much useful if the number of
samples is high. However, depending on the matrix and sub-
stance, the resulting limit of detection may not be enough,
necessitating extraction and preconcentration procedures
(Jover et al. 2009).
Generally, solid samples are oven-dried or freeze-dried,
ground, and sieved to obtain homogeneity. Anhydrous
sodium sulfate and sodium azide are added to solid samples
to check interferences due to suspected microbial activity
(Liu et al. 2011). Homogenized samples are extracted by
UASE, PLE, and microwave-assisted extraction (Nacca-
rato et al. 2021). Liquid–solid extraction (LSE) based on
conventional quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe
(QuEChERS) method minimizes considerable time and
solvents (Peysson and Vulliet 2013). Although PLE needs
specialized equipment, it has a benefit over other procedures
because it uses less solvent and is quicker. Several authors
have performed PLE and obtained recoveries in the range
of 66.0–133.0% (Wick et al. 2016; Herrero et al. 2014a;
Liu et al. 2011; Zhang et al. 2011). A novel PLE using hot
water extraction with recoveries > 80% has been reported
by Herrero et al. (2014a). Most of these extraction tech-
niques require organic solvents compatible with sample
injection/preconcentration prior to injection on GC or LC.
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
Additionally, sample cleanup is needed to avoid any interfer-
ence with the target analytes.
Determination of BUVs
Concentrations of BUVs in the environmental compartments
are measured in ng/L or ng/g level; thus, analytical determi-
nation of BUVs is a challenging task. As can be seen from
Supplementary Table S6, the preferred instrumental tech-
nique is GC or LC coupled with MS/MS due to its high sen-
sitivity and selectivity (Jover et al. 2009). Although several
studies used GC to separate and identify BUVs (Carpinteiro
et al. 2010, 2012; Kameda et al. 2011; Nakata et al. 2009),
LC is preferred by some workers as it can handle both vola-
tile and non-volatile analytes (Giger 2008; Kim et al. 2011a,
b; Ruan et al. 2012; Liu et al. 2014; Song et al. 2014; Peng
et al. 2015). These systems are often used in conjunction
with mass spectrometry detectors, which offer the selectivity
and sensitivity needed to detect BUVs to the level of ng/L
or ng/kg (Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. 2013, 2021; Cadena-
Aizaga et al. 2022). Researchers reported the presence of
BUVs using SPE as a pretreatment method for LC-MS/MS
with a detection limit of as low as 0.3 ng/L, whereas a detec-
tion limit of 2.0 ng/L was reported without using SPE (Alo-
taibi et al. 2015; Ruan et al. 2012). However, Vimalkumar
et al. (2018) achieved a detection limit of 0.1 ng/L without
using SPE for surface water samples. Selection of SPE sorb-
ent material is very critical as BUVs show a wide range
of polarities. Therefore, hydrophilic-hydrophobic-balanced
SPE sorbents such as O ­ asis® HLB and A ­ cclaim® Polar
Advantage II are the preferred SPE cartridges (Liu et al.
2014; Zhao et al. 2023). A homemade novel mixed-mode
zwitterionic graphene-modified silica sorbent was reported
for BUVs extraction which does not require cleanup (Moral
et al. 2023).
Electrospray ionization (ESI) is the most widely utilized
ion source for BUVs, since they are polar compounds with
better ionization efficiency in positive mode (Wick et al.
2016; Herrero et al. 2014b). Wick et al. (2016) compared
atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) with
ESI for several contaminants, including some BUVs. They
found that APCI offered four to five times better limits of
quantification (LOQs) than ESI for BUVs and other ben-
zothiazole compounds in sewage samples. It could be due
to lower matrix effect that leads to significant ion enhance-
ment in APCI in contrast to ESI. GC/LC coupled to tandem
mass analyzers (MS/MS) is the method of choice for BUVs
determination (Kloepfer et al. 2004; Carpinteiro et al. 2012;
Voutsa et al. 2006; Loi et al. 2013; Reemtsma 2000). Few
studies report high-resolution MS such as time-of-flight
MS (TOFMS) (Ferrer and Thurman 2003) and Orbitrap
MS for BUVs determination (Hidalgo-Serrano et al. 2019).
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
TOFMS offers better resolution and more structural informa-
tion which are useful for screening of suspected/unknown
molecules, whereas Orbitrap offers detection limits in the
sub-ng/L range for a wide variety of environmental and bio-
logical samples. LC-MS/MS seems to be the most power-
ful technique for the simultaneous determination of BUVs
among the instrumental analytical techniques employed
(Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. 2021). However, GC-based
analytical methods are also employed because they are
more compatible with miniaturized extraction techniques,
like SPME or SBSE, that have recently been used for the
determination of BUVs.
Properties of BUVs as per POP criteria
Persistency
Environmental persistence of BUVs is predicted based on
their physicochemical properties (Cantwell et al. 2015;
Lai et al. 2014a, b). There are evidences that BUVs remain
structurally intact in the environmental compartment post-
release (Lopez-Avila and Hites 1980; Pruell et al. 1984;
Nakata et al. 2009). In a ready biodegradability test,
conducted for 28 days with 10.0 mg/L, 2–8% degrada-
tion was reported for UV-328 (OECD 2015). UV-327 and
UV-328 were detected in sediments of Narragansett Bay,
USA, decades after the closure of the manufacturing plant
(Lopez-Avila and Hites 1980). Two decades later, Reddy
et al. (2000) and Hartmann et al. (2005) came up with
similar findings and reported similar trends in BUVs con-
centrations (5200.0 mg/kg) from Narragansett Bay. These
findings suggest slow degradation of BUVs in aerobic
sediments. It is because of the functional group of BUVs
that does not undergo hydrolysis under aerobic condi-
tions. logKOW and logKOC values indicate the tendency of an
organic compound to be adsorbed to soil/sediments and
living organisms (EPA 2012). The higher these values,
the more readily the substance will partition onto organic
matter. BUVs can adsorb onto suspended organic matter,
which offers some degree of protection from degrada-
tion. As a result, BUVs are not significantly degraded by
hydrolysis, photolysis, or oxidation. In a study employ-
ing biosolid-amended sludge, UV-328 had a half-life of
179–218 days. However, there were certain limitations in
the study, viz. only dissipation monitoring was done, no
homogeneous sampling was carried out, and long analysis
time of 3 years (Lai et al. 2014a). Another finding by the
same researcher reported that UV-328 has a dissipation
time half-life ­(DT50) of 99–223 days. The half-life of four
other BUVs (UV-P, UV-326, UV-327, and UV-329) was
estimated to be 81–186 days (Lai et al. 2014b). Coupled
with persistence and based upon the findings of Lai et al.
(2014a, b), long-term application of biosolid-amended
sludge to enrich soil may lead to an exaggerated buildup
of BUVs in soil.
Although the occurrence of BUVs in the environment
has been established since decades, knowledge on its envi-
ronmental behavior and fate is poorly understood (Cantwell
et al. 2015). Programs (models) for biodegradation predic-
tion like BIOWIN, EAWAG-BBD, UM-PPS, and others are
useful because of the lack of scientific evidences on BUVs
degradation. Although the modeling dataset on BUVs is
limited, the situation appears to be improving, since sev-
eral researchers have published half-life predictions for
BUVs using models (Ruan et al. 2012; Lai et al. 2014a,
b; Xue et al. 2022). ­DT50 of UV-328 was projected to be
> 100 days in sediments and < 2 days in water (removal by
sedimentation, not by degradation) using BIOWIN (EPA
2012; Rorije et al. 2011; Strempel et al. 2012). Moreover,
the BIOWIN model predicted a ­DT50 of 74 days in water
and 136 days in the soil, while it was 16.3 h in the gase-
ous phase predicted using AOPWIN. It may be noted that
results from all the biodegradation models indicate slow
biodegradation of BUVs. Xue et al. (2022) reported the
degradation of four BUVs in sewage bacteria by molecular
docking technique. The rate of biodegradation using these
bacteria was enhanced by 1.60–33.38% which provides new
perspectives for further study in this direction. Recently,
Kiejza et al. (2023) have proposed advanced oxidation (AO)
as a possible degradation pathway of BUVs using peracetic
acid (PAA) in combination with transition metal ions (­ Fe2+,
­Co2+). The end products using ­Fe2+/PAA or ­Co2+/PAA con-
tain –OH group, which suggested oxidation as a possible
degradation pathway for BUVs. Although AO mechanism
for POP degradation is a proven technology, the present
work opens a new insight for further research on the degra-
dation of BUVs using AO pathway.
Considering the chemical structure of BUVs, modeled
and experimental data, and metabolic transformation rate,
BUVs are expected to persist for a longer duration in the
environment (SC 2021; Lai et al. 2014a, b). BUVs are
unlikely to undergo hydrolysis, phototransformation, or
oxidation due to their limited water solubility. A read-
across study based on the weight of evidence (WoE)
approach was conducted to cover the experimental data
gaps, suggesting the long-term persistence of BUVs in the
environment (SC 2021). Therefore, the available data sug-
gest that BUVs meet the criteria of persistency established
by different regulatory agencies.
Bioaccumulation
BUVs are considered to bioaccumulate in organisms.
Based upon measured bioconcentration factor (BCF), mod-
eled bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) above threshold, high
13

lipophilicity, and a slow metabolic transformation rate,
BUVs accumulation in organisms occurs mainly through
diet (Arnot and Gobas 2004; Arnot et al. 2008a, b; Vimalku-
mar et al. 2018). The reported BCF values ranged from 370
to 10,000 L/kg for different BUVs in diverse organisms like
Cyprinus carpio and Daphnia species. BCF > 5000 indicates
a tendency to bioaccumulate rather than being present in
the surrounding water (SC 2021). Figure 7 represents the
range of BCF values of BUVs reported in different aquatic
species. BCF of 940 and 2400 was obtained for UV-328
in a 60-day study at a test concentration of 1 × ­10−4 and 1
× ­10−5 mg/L, respectively. UV-327, structurally similar to
UV-328, accounted for a much higher BCF of 7600 L/kg
at similar concentration and time (NITE 2016). Neverthe-
less, the limited water solubility of BUVs poses limitations
on the BCF measurements; hence, BCF of BUVs and other
less soluble chemicals have inherent uncertainties. A recent
finding by Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. (2021) reported sig-
nificant concentration of four BUVs in muscle (maximum
tissue concentration: 34.9 ng/g) and viscera (maximum
tissue concentration: 45.6 ng/g) of marine fish from Gran
Canaria Island, Spain. Although the detected concentration
was low, the source of BUVs was directly linked with the
usage and applications of PCPs. The results of a 60-day bio-
accumulation study on Cyprinus carpio done according to
the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Develop-
ment (OECD) test methodology demonstrated accumula-
tion in several internal organs, with the gut accumulating
the most, followed by the head, skin, and muscles (Fig. 8)
(ECHA 2014; NITE 2016). The fact that fish use their gills
to respire by absorbing dissolved oxygen from water may be
Fig. 7  BCF values of different
BUVs in fish
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
a cause of the maximum accumulation of BUVs in the gut.
The accumulation of BUVs in the head (cranium) may be
a cause of concern, and it should be further investigated if
BUVs may cross the blood–brain barrier and enter the brain.
For bioaccumulating compounds with logKOW > 4, the
introduction of multiple bioaccumulation values based on
laboratory studies is insufficient for estimation (Nakata and
Shinohara 2010). It is because the test organism is exposed
to the substance from water alone, and uptake via food or
dietary intake is not considered. In aquatic species, there is
no major metabolic transformation of compounds with logKOW
> 4. It is because of low lipid content (less than 20%) of the
model organisms (generally fish, rat, or rabbit) used for BCF
estimation in laboratories. Arnot and Gobas (2006) gathered
over 2900 BCF and BAF observations on over 450 chemicals
from secondary literature. They concluded that the BAF can
be much greater (1 to 2 orders of magnitude) than the BCF
for compounds with logKOW greater than 4. Figure 9 attempts
to relate BUVs with other classical POPs based on logKOW.
Since experimental data on BAF for BUVs were lacking,
a kinetic mass balance model called “AQUAWEB” was used
to fill the data gap. BAF, metabolic rate constant (Km), and
whole body tissue concentration of approximately 20 aquatic
organisms could be estimated using the model. Metabolic rate
is the ability of an organism to metabolize absorbed com-
pounds into simpler forms. Apart from experimental and esti-
mated datasets, several findings have highlighted the occur-
rence of BUVs in aquatic organisms. Nakata et al. (2012)
monitored BUVs in five finless porpoises in the Ariake Sea
of Japan from 1998 to 2009. The average concentration of
29.0 ng/g ww and 14.0 ng/g ww was reported for UV-328
Environmental Science and Pollution Research

Fig. 8  BCF in different organs of fish based on nominal concentration of test substance

Fig. 9  Plot comparing KOW

values of UV absorbers (in red)
with other classical POPs (in
blue)

and UV-327, respectively. Although no reference or back- 100–1000 tons, while for UV-328, it was 1000–10,000 tons
ground value was available at that time, the authors predicted (SC 2021). There exist a probability of higher emission/dis-
a comparison between concentration and production/import charge and lower partitioning of UV-328 in water, resulting
of two BUVs in Japan in 2001. For UV-327, the tonnage was in higher tissue concentration.

13

BUVs meet the Stockholm Convention’s threshold (logKOW >
5) criteria based on the experimental and estimated values and
can be identified as bioaccumulative. BUVs have been detected
in freshwater (Vimalkumar et al. 2018) and marine food web
(Nakata et al. 2012; Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. 2021), and
exposure is expected mainly via dietary intake. Researchers
have emphasized the need to study the role of earthworms in
terrestrial and benthic invertebrates in the aquatic ecosystem to
establish the link between exposure-based effects in organisms.
Toxicity
The presence of BUVs in the aquatic environment is a subject
of increasing concern owing to potential toxicity to aquatic
species (Jungclaus et al. 1978; Kim et al. 2011a; Vimalkumar
et al. 2018; Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. 2021). Despite the
fact that BUVs are widely distributed, very little is known
about their toxicity (He et al. 2022). Bioaccumulation of
BUVs has been reported in several aquatic species; however,
the available data on the potential adverse effects on differ-
ent organisms are scarce (Pillard et al. 2001; He et al. 2022).
Acute and repeated dose toxicity
The Risk Assessment Committee (RAC) of European Chemi-
cals Agency (ECHA) has classified UV-328 as a specific tar-
get organ toxicity-repeated exposure-sub-category 2 chemical
substance (RAC 2013). The basis of the classification was
testing the chemical for determining sub-acute (49-day) and
sub-chronic (90-day) toxicity in rats. UV-328 was reported
to be absorbed in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract rather than
accumulating in the liver. Hepatic necrosis and renal tubular
nephrosis in rats exposed to UV-328 was reported by Til et al.
(1968). Ema et al. (2008) reported a relative increase in liver
weight upon exposing male and female rats to a dosage of 2.5
mg/kg/day, 25 mg/kg/day, or 250 mg/kg/day concentration
of UV-328. An increase in serum albumin and alkaline phos-
phatase was observed in the male rats, whereas no significant
changes were observed in the females.
Exposure to BUVs showed strong anti-androgenic
enzyme activity towards human androgen receptors after
being activated by human CYP3A4 enzyme hydroxylation
in yeast (Zhuang et al. 2017) and anti-estrogenic effect in
adult fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) at a concen-
tration of 0.01–1.0 mg/L. Tangtian et al. (2012) reported an
increase in VTG mRNA which is a biomarker of estrogenic
activity and downregulation in the CYP1A1 gene in the liver
of marine medakas (Oryzias melastigma). Another study on
marine medakas (Oryzias melastigma) exposed to BUVs at
a concentration of 0.01 mg/L showed downregulation of the
CYP1A1 gene in gills, liver, and intestine. The study also
raised serious concerns regarding the toxicity of BUVs at
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
very low concentrations (0.01 mg/L) in the aquatic environ-
ment (Tangtian et al. 2012). Cytochrome P (CYP) family
enzymes serve as a primary defense against xenobiotic expo-
sure and are responsible for the breakdown of xenobiotic to
less reactive intermediates. Alteration in enzymatic activity
of the CYP family may induce biochemical changes in the
organism due to BUVs exposure.
Carcinogenicity, reproductivity, and genotoxicity
The estrogen receptor (ER) system plays a crucial role in
breast cancer (Feng et al. 2020). To study the disruptive
effects of contaminants, estrogen-related receptor (ERR)
pathways have piqued the research community’s interest
(Feng et al. 2020). Several pollutants have been known to
interact and disrupt the ERR pathways, such as PBDEs
(Cao et al. 2018a), bisphenol A (Okada et al. 2008), and
organophosphate flame retardants (Cao et al. 2018b). Previous
studies have demonstrated the estrogenic potential of BUVs
via interaction with ER (Feng et al. 2020). However, very low
or no effects were observed (Feng et al. 2020; Morohoshi et al.
2005; Seeland et al. 2012; Harris et al. 2007). For instance,
Feng et al. (2020) reported the partial induction of ER activity
after exposure to six BUVs with an ­EC20 of 2.1–20 μM.
However, no alterations in ER activity were observed
from recombinant yeast reporter gene assay conducted in two
different studies (Seeland et al. 2012; Harris et al. 2007). He
et al. (2022) recently studied the possible effect of BUVs on
humans via ERRα and ERRγ pathways. Both ERRα and ERRγ
are known to be orphan nuclear receptors and are potential
biomarkers and active target sites for the diagnosis and cure of
breast cancer (Bianco et al. 2012; Goher and Elgendy 2021).
ERRα and ERRγ have a critical role in regulating the redox
balance of breast cancer cells and cell metabolism (Vernier
et al. 2020). Among the targeted BUVs, UV-P showed strong
agonistic activities on ERRα and ERRγ pathways and could
potentially promote the proliferation of breast cancer cells at
human-relevant levels. However, the authors emphasized the
need for further investigation to study the interplay between
ERRα and ERRγ in mediating breast cancer. To the best of
our knowledge and based on a thorough literature review,
genotoxicity, reproductivity, and developmental toxicity of
BUVs have not been reported so far. More research is needed
in these areas to estimate the toxicity of BUVs to aquatic
organisms because they are more vulnerable and are primarily
exposed to BUVs in water bodies.
Ecotoxicity
Short- and long-term ecotoxicity tests have been carried out
on different organisms (planktons, fish, and crustaceans).
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
However, no substantial toxicity has been accounted so far
except that inhibition in growth rate in planktons Scened-
esmus subspicatus was reported after 72 h of exposure of
BUVs at a concentration of 0.1 mg/L (ECHA 2014). His-
topathological alteration in the liver was accounted upon
exposure to UV-320 in rats following the test protocol of
OECD TG 452 (Hirata-Koizumi et al. 2008). However, the
no observed effect concentration (NOEC) levels of UV-320
were 0.1 mg/kg/day and 2.5 mg/kg/day for male and female
rats, respectively.
However, these short-term observations do not provide
sufficient proof of toxicity to aquatic organisms. Long-term
exposure (> 96 h) to the two BUVs (UV-234 and UV-328)
on green algae (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii) increased lipid
peroxidation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation,
respectively. A twofold to sixfold increase in glutathione
peroxidase (GPx) activity in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
implies that a combination of two BUVs accounted for
synergistic effects in the algae, implying an antioxidant
defense mechanism (Giraudo et al. 2017). Long-term expo-
sure of UV-328 on carp (Oncorhynchus mykiss) resulted in
the downregulation of gene and induced ribosomal protein
transcription after 28 days of exposure (Giraudo et al. 2020).
Fent et al. (2014) used sub-lethal molecular endpoints in
zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos. The authors reported both
induction and downregulation of phase I (AHR1, ARNT2,
and cyp1a1) and phase II (glutathione S-transferase)
enzymes involved in catering oxidative stress. Activation of
glutathione S-transferase (GST) in fish shows that BUVs can
induce oxidative stress in aquatic organisms.
BUVs are considered to be toxic for aquatic organisms,
including humans and wildlife, at human-relevant levels.
Findings suggest that exposure to BUVs can cause sig-
nificant alteration in liver and kidney (SC 2021; Environ-
ment Canada 2013a, b). BUVs can disrupt the ER pathway,
leading to cell proliferation by binding on active sites of
enzymes due to structural similarity. Bioaccumulation of
BUVs in several aquatic species has been reported in the
previous section, and the more important step is determining
the adverse effects in different organisms. There is currently
no or very little information on the acute toxicity of BUVs
in aquatic species. BUVs can enter soil via the application
of wastewater biosolids used for soil enrichment and have
potential exposure for soil-dwelling microbes (Lai et al.
2014a, b). Toxicity studies for soil microbes are thus desir-
able. Although attempts have been made by researchers on
toxicity assessment of BUVs in the aquatic environment,
more research is required to arrive a concrete conclusion.
Long‑range transport (LRT) of BUVs
Some of the most important factors for LRT of contaminants
include (i) persistence in air and water; (ii) semi-volatile
nature, which allows them to be partitioned and travel with
aerosols and deposition; and (iii) the ability to bioaccumulate
in organisms and biomagnify in the food chain. BUVs are
not expected to undergo long-range environmental transport
because of low vapor pressure, low Henry’s law constant,
and short half-life in the air. On the other hand, higher logKOW
and logKOC values of some BUVs (UV-328, UV-327) indicate
strong partition to sediments and organic matter, including
its sorption on aerosols and suspended matter in water. Once
adsorbed to aerosols, BUVs can travel long distances, set-
tle, and subsequently accumulate in soil, vegetation, and
water bodies. Overall persistence (Pov) and characteristic
travel distance (CTD) of UV-328 were estimated using the
OECD decision-making tool (Scheringer et al. 2009). Pov of
UV-328 was estimated to be 196 days while the CTD was
2800 km with a transfer efficiency of 12.4%, which meets
the threshold criteria for POPs by the SC (Rorije et al. 2011;
SC 2021). Figure 10 shows the Pov and CTD of UV-328
compared to other classical POPs. The atmospheric transport
of classical POPs with aerosol particles is well described in
scientific literatures. Similar is the case with BUVs that can
undergo intramolecular rearrangement and become charged
under certain environmental conditions, especially in oceans
(Fluegge et al. 2007; Werner 1979). This charged molecule
has a high affinity for adsorption on suspended matter, favor-
ing long-range transport via ocean currents.
BUVs are not monitored in remote areas by global and
regional monitoring programs, and the available data is
scarce. A recent study by International Pollutants Elimi-
nation Network (IPEN) in 2020 supported the ubiquitous
presence of three BUVs (UV-326, UV-327, and UV-328)
with marine litter and plastic fragments in remote locations
(Takada and Bell 2021). Subsequent findings by Tanaka
et al. (2019, 2020) reported the presence of BUVs in plastic
fragments ingested by sea birds and their occurrence in the
uropygial glands, commonly known as the preen glands of
sea birds in remote islands. UV-328 was detected in several
Swedish background sites, in Lake Superior and the Great
Lakes in the USA, Canada with concentrations up to 13.0
ng/g in eggs of herring gulls (Lu et al. 2018), and the Nor-
wegian Arctic environment (Schlabach et al. 2018). Lu et al.
(2019) reported the presence of BUVs in the liver of fulmars
(a sea bird) collected from the Prince Leopold Island in the
Canadian Arctic. The concentration of BUVs was higher
in birds than in fish which was attributed with their posi-
tion in the food chain. In the aquatic ecosystem, BUVs can
be transported to long distances in plastic resin pellets and
pieces, resulting in their identification in plastics on remote
islands. It is unclear that BUVs undergo long-range trans-
port in the gaseous phase; however, research findings do
indicate a relevant environmental transport of BUVs (SC
2021). The presence of BUVs in some of the pristine envi-
ronments, including remote locations, provides evidence of
13

Fig. 10  Plot comparing benzo-
triazole (UV-328) in red dot to
other listed POP chemicals for
overall environmental persis-
tence (PoV) and characteristic
travel distance (CTD)
its long-range environmental transport. In the absence of
concrete research findings on weather BUVs undergo long-
range transport, estimated data from the OECD tool vali-
dates the long-range transport of BUVs.
Regulatory concerns associated with BUVs
Chemical management is always acknowledged as a
transboundary issue in international agreements. BUVs
distribution has also been predicted and compared to known
POPs on a global scale and is considered as an additive of
global concern (SC 2021, 2022). BUVs such as UV-P, UV-320,
UV-326, UV-327, UV-350, and metabolite M1 are structurally
related that have been risk assessed by several environmental
agencies. These BUVs are considered as chemicals of concern
to regulators (SC 2021). The main reason behind this is that the
phenolic structure of the molecule shares similarity with the
necessary structure for binding at the estrogen receptor, thus
disrupting the endocrine activity (Zhuang et al. 2017). Table 1
summarizes the regulations associated with BUVs in different
countries. OECD classified four phenolic UV absorbers (UV-
P, UV-234, UV-328, and UV-329) as high production volume
(HPV) in 2015 and continued funding for future research work
under the Cooperative Chemical Assessment Program (CoCAP)
(OECD 2015).
Furthermore, Japan funded the evaluation of three
compounds from this group (UV-326, UV-327, and UV-350)
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
in 2015, with UV-328 being identified as a possible candidate
for further research (OECD 2015). Member State Committee
of ECHA has identified UV-328 as a substance of very high
concern (SVHC) and added UV-328 to “Annex XIV” of the
Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of
Chemicals (REACH) regulation with a sunset date of 27
November 2023 (ECHA 2019). Any use of UV-328 in the
entire European nation will require formal authorization
by ECHA. In February 2020, other BUVs having similar
structure to UV-328, viz. UV-350, UV-327, and UV-320,
were added to the REACH authorization list upon meeting
the PBT criteria. Under the SVHC, four new chemicals (UV-
P, UV-234, UV-326, and UV-329) are being investigated as
subjects for informal risk assessment and risk management
(ECHA 2016a, b). Consequent to the listing of UV-328 as
Stockholm Convention POPs in May 2023, it is mandatory
for countries to carryout environmental monitoring and
assessment, develop inventories, and eliminate/minimize
production. Several developed countries have already
categorized and listed BUVs in different categories according
to their national chemical and waste management regulations.
Asian countries, especially China, are on the top in production
and usage of BUVs (cf. section 2). To date, apart from Japan,
none of the Asian countries has classified or regulated the
production and usage of BUVs. This could be attributed to
economic interest, especially in developing countries besides
lack of awareness and monitoring data.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research

Table 1  Regulations and categorization of BUVs in different countries

Country/union Chemical name/BUVs Classification/categorization Reference

Canada UV-234, UV-326, UV-328, UV-329, Bioaccumulative (B) and inherently Environment Canada (2013a)
and UV-350 toxic to the environment, but not
persistent (P)
UV-327 Categorized as persistent (P), but not Environment Canada (2013b)
bioaccumulative (B)
UV-P and UV-320 Not persistent (P) and not bioaccumu-
lative (B)
UV-320, UV-327, UV-328, and Substances of very high concern ECHA (2016a)
UV-350 (SVHC) under the Registration,
Evaluation, Authorization, and
Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)
European Union (EU) UV-320 and UV-328 Specific target organ toxicity-repeated ECHA (2016b)
exposure-sub-category 2 (STOT
RE2), persistent, bioaccumulative,
and toxic (PBT) substances
UV-P, UV-234, UV-326, and UV-329 Put on substances of very high con- ECHA (2016c)
cern (SVHC) roadmap for consider-
ation as persistent, bioaccumulative,
and toxic (PBT)
United States of America (USA) UV-P, UV-234, UV-328, and UV-329 Low to high bioaccumulation poten- US EPA (2009)
tial and high persistence
Japan UV-320 Chemical Substances Control Law NITE (2016)
(CSCL) Class I-Specified Substance
(Act on the Evaluation of Chemical
Substances and Regulation of Their
Manufacture); substances that are
persistent and extremely bioaccumu-
lative, offering a long-term toxicity
risk to humans or top predator
animals
UV-327 and UV-350 Chemical substances monitoring METI (2010)
under the CSCL, persistent and
bioaccumulative, with long-term
effects in humans and top predator
animals unknown
United Nations Environment UV-328 Annex D of the convention after meet- Stockholm Convention (SC)
Programme (UNEP) ing persistency, bioaccumulation, on POPs (2021)
and toxicity (PBT) and long-range
environmental transport criteria

Conclusion human milk and adipose tissues indicates its bioaccumulative

The present review summarizes the current progress of the
study of BUVs contamination in different environmental
matrices and can be a good read for regulatory agencies
and policymakers. BUVs have been classified as HPV and
SVHC by several regulatory bodies and recently listed in
“Annex A” of the Stockholm convention POPs with some
specific exemptions (SC 2023). Although the demand and
supply of BUVs are high, data on production and usage are
not clear, especially in developing countries (Zion Market
Research 2019). Persistency of BUVs is expected as they
are recalcitrant to degradation. The presence of BUVs in
potential (Lee et al. 2015). Absorption of BUVs in the
GI tract, followed by the transformation in the liver, and
excretion, resulting in hepatic and renal toxicity, have been
demonstrated via modeling studies (SC 2021). Genotoxic,
reproductive, and carcinogenic effects of BUVs should
be focused on as research gaps. Constant circulation of
plastic waste, which acts as a primary source of transport of
phenolic BUVs in water bodies, exacerbates their long-range
environmental transport (Tanaka et al. 2019, 2020). While
considerable knowledge exists on the occurrence, sources,
and concentrations of BUVs, information about the toxicity
and fate of these compounds in the environment is lacking.

13

Hence, we recommend a few research gaps that need to be
addressed for the sound management of BUVs:
1. Advanced water recycling plants comprising ultrafiltra-
tion, reverse osmosis (RO), and ultraviolet disinfection
units are needed to efficiently remove BUVs during
wastewater treatment (Ruan et al. 2012; Zhao et al. 2017).
2. Human risk assessment studies are needed to deter-
mine exposure routes and levels of BUVs, especially
in developing countries lacking sustainable methods for
handling and managing plastic waste (Lee et al. 2015;
Montesdeoca-Esponda et al. 2021).
3. Advanced oxidation process has emerged as a possible
degradation pathway for removal of BUVs; options of
other oxidants can be explored (Kiejza et al. 2023).
4. Studies in the microcosm and mesocosm can be con-
ducted to examine the involvement of microorganisms
in the biological degradation of BUVs (Xue et al. 2022).
5. Research on BUVs should be prioritized, and steps
should be taken to minimize their environmental release
as it is binding on parties to Stockholm Convention on
POPs (SC 2021). Regulatory agencies should consider
including the entire class of BUVs due to their similar
PBT properties rather than phasing out or restricting a
single chemical such as UV-328 (Khare et al. 2023).
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen-
tary material available at https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/s​ 11356-0​ 23-3​ 0567-9.
Acknowledgements All the authors acknowledge Director, CSIR-
NEERI, for granting permission to publish the paper. The authors thank
the anonymous reviewers for their critical comments which helped to
improve the manuscript.
Author contribution Conceptualization, data collection, and original
drafting were done by A. K. Diagrammatic representation was done
by P. J. Revision and editing were done by A. R. K. and A. N. V. All
authors read, and approved the final manuscript.
Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support
were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Partial finan-
cial support was received from the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR) to the first author in terms of monthly fellowship
(31/0016(11375)/2021-EMR-I).
Data availability All the data referred in this paper have been extracted
from peer-reviewed journals available in public domain.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable.
Consent for publication Not applicable.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
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