September 2023: Editorials

GEOGRAPHY OPTIONAL
EDITORIALS
SEPTEMBER 2023
Shikha Vatsa
GEOGRAPHY & ENVIRONMENT
EDITORIAL OF THE DAY
Geography Optional with Shikha Vatsa
INDEX
Sr.
No. Topic Page
No.
1. Food Security 1-4
2. SF6 Emissions in India 5-10
3. Soil Quality 11-13
4. Amazon 14-16
5. Pond Ecosystem 17-20
6. Odisha CSA 21-24
7. Global Biofuel Alliance 25-27
8. Genre De Vie Gujarat 28-30
9. Critical Minerals ndia 31-33
10.
Global Warming & Increasing Frequency
of Cyclones 34-37
11. Marathwada 38-39
12. Megaherbivores 40-42
13. Bioinvasions 43-46
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INDORE BENGALURU

Food Security-Need for Addressing Food Losses
Ÿ Why In news: Need for tackling food loss and waste for climate and food security
Ÿ Food loss and waste is both an environmental and economic problem, accoun ng for
8%-10% of greenhouse gas emissions and a global economic loss of $1 trillion,
annually.
Ÿ A new study suggests that reducing food loss and waste could lead to overconsump on,
as food becomes more accessible and cheaper, resul ng in fewer environmental and
health benefits.
Ÿ Other experts state that an increase in food loss and waste leads to nutri on insecurity,
especially among women and marginalised communi es.
Ÿ Reducing food loss and waste could improve food security but it may not necessarily lead
to expected environmental benefits, according to researchers of a recent study published in
Nature Food. Bringing down losses, by improving efficiencies, would also bring down food
costs. Cheaper and more accessible food, in turn, could result in overconsump on,
overriding environmental benefits such as lowering carbon emissions, says the study.
Ÿ The study, highlights the complexi es of balancing food security with environmental
impacts, even as other experts note that the gains from lowering food loss and wastage
are more significant in certain parts of the world and for certain demographics.
Ÿ Globally, around 14 percent of food produced is lost between harvest and retail, while
an es mated 17 percent of the total global food produc on is wasted. Food loss or
wastage occurs either on the supply side, where it is damaged or spoiled before
reaching consumers, or on the demand side where food is spoiled or thrown away by
consumers or retailers. Food lost and wasted accounts for 38 percent of total energy
usage in the global food system, according to the United Nations.
Ÿ The study, led by researchers from the University of Colorado Boulder and the
University of California, Irvine in the United States, looks into the poten al rebound
effect of reducing food loss and waste. In economic terms, the rebound effect refers to
the improvements in efficiency that o en lead to cost reduc ons which then provide
opportuni es to buy more of the improved products or services.
Ÿ The researchers hypothesised that reducing food loss and wastage, by improving
efficiency, could make food cheaper, thereby making it more accessible to a larger
popula on. This could result in overconsump on which, in turn, could reduce the
expected environmental and health outcomes expected of reduced food loss and
wastage.
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Ÿ The study highlights how two objec ves of reducing food loss and waste –
environmental benefits and food security benefits – can be at odds with each other. The
models project that in a scenario of reducing food loss and waste by 100%, the
predicted environmental benefits (reduced carbon emissions, land use, water use)
decrease by 53-71%, influenced by the rebound effect where more food is available
and consumed.
Ÿ The mul -country data study also included some countries in South Asia where food
loss and waste as well as food security are significant issues.In certain regions of the
world, such as in sub-Saharan Africa, reducing food loss and waste give large food
security gains. There are various (nutri onally) poor foods which are readily available to
people in poorer countries which makes them obese and leads to lifestyle diseases.
Ÿ Reducing food loss and waste has significant environmental and economic wins. Food
loss and waste generate eight to ten percent of greenhouse gas emissions, annually,
from energy, fer lisers, land conversion and landfill waste associated with food that is
grown but ul mately not consumed. A 2019 World Resources Ins tute es mate
suggests that reducing food loss and waste by 25% globally would reduce the food
calorie gap by 12%, the land use gap by 27% and the greenhouse gas mi ga on gap by
15%.
Ÿ Not addressing food loss and waste leads to a global economic loss of around $1
trillion annually. This is a conserva ve es mate that does not take into account the
economic burden of labour days lost due to poor health among employees. In India, the
cost of lost produc vity, illness and death due to malnutri on is $10 to $28 billion.

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Ÿ Any increase in food loss and waste leads to food and nutri on insecurity, resul ng in
nutri onal deficiencies, more among women and marginalised communi es. In many
households in India, women eat last, a er ensuring everyone else is fed; they may forgo
meals if food is in short supply. Thus, a lack of access to nutri ous food, especially for the
poor and vulnerable, is further curtailed due to the losses. The food that is rescued
across the supply chain could be provided to people in need to curb hunger and improve
nutri onal security.
Ÿ Climate preparedness to avoid food loss
Ÿ Climate change related disasters are also emerging as a source of food loss and waste
which makes tackling it important not only from a climate mi ga on point of view, but
also for adapta on.
Ÿ The impact of climate change can exacerbate food losses if there is poor infrastructure
at the farmgate or across the food supply chain. For instance, risks due to extreme heat,
rains and flooding could lead to quality and quan ty losses. There is also the food lost
during transporta on to be accounted for in mes of disasters. It is important to focus
on making farming techniques as well as packaging be er since adverse weather
events have become the new normal around the world.

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Ÿ Reducing food loss and food waste is one of the top global climate change mi ga on
solu ons. The solu ons across the food supply chain could vary from addressing
behavioural aspects, bridging capacity gaps, planning for infrastructure and
innova ve solu ons (e.g., tech solu ons), and, most importantly, reducing the
supply-demand gaps which require mely data and policy incen ves.
Ÿ Encouraging countries and states to set up methods that can enable measurement of
food loss and waste through public-private partnerships, se ng explicit targets on its
reduc on, and inspiring ac on through incen ves can go a long way in reducing food
loss and waste and its impacts. Consumers are significant for reducing food waste; we
all as ci zens, can play a cri cal role, and every ac on counts.

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SF₆ Emissions in India
Ÿ Why In news: Need for monitoring SF6 emissions in India as use of sulphur
hexafluoride (SF₆) will grow exponen ally.
Ÿ Sulphur hexafluoride or SF₆ is the strongest known greenhouse gas with a global
warming poten al of 25200 and an atmospheric life me of 3,200 years.
Ÿ SF₆ is a stable colourless, odourless, synthe c fluorinated gas that makes effec ve
insula ng material for medium and high-voltage electrical installa ons. Around 80% of
the SF₆ used globally is in electricity transmission and distribu on. Medium- and high-
voltage electrical equipment contains SF₆ to insulate the live electrical parts and to
switch the flow of electrical current on and off.
Ÿ SF₆ is rapidly accumula ng in the atmosphere, driven by the demand for SF₆-insulated
switchgear in developing countries due to increased renewable energy installa ons.
Ÿ There is currently no regulatory framework to monitor, report and manage SF₆ in India
and the country needs to develop a framework for SF₆ monitoring, repor ng and
phaseout.

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Ÿ The use of sulphur hexafluoride (SF₆) will grow exponen ally as India expands its
installed renewable capacity. As the country con nues its journey towards the target
of 500 GW of non-fossil fuel sources by 2030, mixed sources of energy will use more
and more connec ons to the electricity grid and a rise in the number of gas-insulated
electrical switchgear (GIS) that are needed to prevent serious accidents.
Ÿ SF₆ is widely used across the power industry, from large power sta ons to wind
turbines and electrical substa ons. In electronics, SF₆ is used in semiconductor devices
found in computers, smartphones, consoles and ba eries for electric vehicles.
Ÿ SF₆ is also part of the “basket” of greenhouse gases under the UNFCCC and the Paris
Agreement. With the enhanced transparency framework (ETF) under Ar cle 13 of the
Paris Agreement, all par es are supposed to prepare and submit Na onal GHG (Green
House Gas) inventory report of GHG emissions.
Ÿ SF₆ rapidly accumula ng is rapidly accumula ng in the atmosphere, driven by the
demand for SF₆-insulated switchgear in developing countries. Common emission
sources of SF₆ include electrical transmission and distribu on equipment, manufacture
of electronics/semiconductors and the produc on of magnesium.
Ÿ Almost 89% of SF₆ emissions are in the area of grid infrastructure/ transmission
(switchgear and circuit breakers) while smaller amounts are used for magnesium,
aluminium and semiconductors. The es mated SF₆ – global poten al emissions
(CO2eq) is around 5 GT from historic installa on while each installed GW the current use
of SF₆ is 40-66 t or 1.1 to 1.5 MtCO2eq cumula ve emissions un l 2050.
Ÿ SF₆ emissions occur during all stages of the component lifecycle: manufacturing,
opera on, and decommissioning of equipment contribute the most to the emissions of
the opera onal phase. However, 93% of leakages were caused by leakages during
ordinary opera ons, while seven percent were caused in connec on with component
failure or breakdowns. High Voltage components are assembled on-site, which
increases the risks of leakage and emissions. Moreover, the older the equipment, the
higher the risk of leakages.

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Ÿ Linkage between renewable energy and SF₆ :
Ÿ Renewable energy installa ons are of main concern as they require more switchgear
in the electricity grid than fossil fuels. It takes more solar panels and wind turbines to
produce the same electrical output as a single thermal power sta on. So, as renewable
power genera on grows, the chances of increased emission from SF₆ also grow.
Ÿ Renewable technology also uses the SF₆ gas directly in the switchgear for wind turbines
to prevent overloads. This is apart from the SF₆ used in the substa ons associated with
the power transmission systems of wind farms.
Ÿ India is going to face a double whammy as it will be seeing maximum deployment of SF6
due to renewable expansion. It will be ironic as the world is moving away from SF₆ and
finding alterna ves, but we are pressed for me as maximum renewable installa on
will happen in the next 15-20 years.
Ÿ Status of SF₆ in India:
Ÿ SF₆ is mostly imported into India. There is a lack of publicly available data on total
produc on, use growth rates and emissions of SF₆ in India. According to MMR Pvt. Ltd.,
a market research company, the India SF₆ market will see impressive growth of market
size of 56.4 million US$ in 2020 to 88.80 million US$ in 2027 at a CAGR of 6.7%. As per
Volza's India Import data, India imported 600 shipments from China, Taiwan and the
United States and is the largest importer of SF₆ in the world.
Ÿ India, in its Third Biennial Update Report to The United Na ons Framework Conven on
on Climate Change, reported magnesium produc on as the single es mated source of
SF₆ for 2016, leaving aside all other sources such as leakages from electric switchgears,
transmission and equipment. According to the latest data from The World Bank, India
emi ed5772 thousand metric tons of Co2 equivalent in 2010 while NDC
communica on to UNFCCC reported just 100950 tonnes CO2 eq.

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SF₆ monitoring:
Ÿ Indian public sector companies have proac vely started monitoring data for SF₆
consump on, leakage and contribu on towards GHG emissions. NTPC Ltd, India's
largest integrated power generator reported a20250-tonne equivalent for emission
from losses of SF₆ from energy produc on in its sustainability data trend for 2023.
Ÿ Powergrid, being one of the largest transmission u li es in the world in its
sustainability report 2019-21 reported the installed Sf6 gas of 2540368 kilograms in
2020-21. The Percentage Leakage (%) increased from 0.16 to 0.19 from 2020 to 2021,
which translates to 11885089.61 tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
Ÿ In developed countries, SF₆ is regularly monitored to immediately detect any SF₆
leakages, on an almost real- me basis while India s ll needs to make a lot of progress in
SF₆ handling and monitoring.
Solar power plant in Telangana. As renewable power genera on grows, the chances of
increased emissions from SF₆ also grow.

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Ÿ Indian grid companies have an internal mechanism to report SF6 leakage. The
maximum threshold is 0.5 per cent per year, a guideline from the government. But this is
neither documented nor published by any T&D companies but they maintain data
internally.
Ÿ There is no cumula ve assessment of SF₆ leakage but companies inform that they
follow CIGRE Guidelines for Sf6 management which prohibits the release of SF₆ in the
environment. But beyond releasing in the environment, there is not much awareness
about other aspects to prevent, avoid or monitor leakage.The only way you can control
SF₆ is through con nuous online remote monitoring as this is an odourless gas.
Competent authori es need to come up with a regulatory framework for mandatory
con nuous online minoring of SF₆ gas as the transmission for new renewable capacity
will mostly happen at remote loca ons.
Ÿ Various countries have regulated or voluntary ini a ves to monitor, report and phase
out of SF₆. The U.S. Environmental Protec on Agency (EPA) made mandatory the
repor ng of large SF₆ emissions in 2009. This was followed by the California Air
Resources Board (CARB) and Massachuse s Department of Environment – two state
environmental agencies – strengthening their own SF₆ regula on. California has also
set a target of to stop buying any SF₆-insulated products by 2033. EU is strengthening F-
gas Regula on 2014 for the SF₆ phase-out based on the availability of alterna ve
technologies. In Europe, it is also mandatory to recycle, reclaim or destroy the SF₆ gas
contained in electrical equipment (Regula on(EU) No 517/2014)
Ÿ There are no SF₆ regula ons in Asia that focus directly on transmission and distribu on
operators. But Japan's switchgear OEMs and electric u li es created a voluntary ac on
plan in the late 1990s and reported a substan al reduc on in reduc on in SF₆. In 2015
South Korea implemented a GHG Emissions Trading Scheme, which includes SF₆. China
has also made moves away from SF₆. Using GIS, China is now considering new
regula ons or standards to further reduce SF₆ usage and emissions and created a
dedicated working group.

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Ÿ Alterna ves to SF₆:
Ÿ At the moment, there is a large base of switchgear containing SF₆ and therefore
technology for handling and monitoring this greenhouse gas becomes crucial. It would
take at least 20 years to move towards an SF₆-free world. While SF₆-free technology is
slowly making its presence felt in developed countries, it would take longer for it to be
imbibed in the developing world. SF₆ will be phased out in batches – star ng from
medium voltage (MV) and gradually moving towards higher voltages.
Ÿ Several alterna ves are being considered for SF₆. These include the use of clean air,
hydrogen, nitrogen, etc. But these are available mostly for medium voltage (MV)
switchgear. Flourine -free alterna ves for HV switching with circuit breaker func on
exist up to 145 kV based on natural origin gasses (N2, O2, CO2) and a GWP < 1. Several
companies are currently working to close the gaps for voltage above 145 kV.
HitachiEngery and GE unveiled the SF₆ free eco-efficient 420-kilovolt (kV) high voltage
(HV) circuit-breaker in 2022. Hitachi and GE are also working on how to replace SF6 in
exi ng switchgear with other gas.
Ÿ European na ons are expected to take the lead in banning the use of SF₆ in MV
applica ons. India therefore needs to develop a framework for SF₆ handling and
phaseout with the first step to start monitoring and repor ng SF₆ emissions.All
mi ga on ac on is coming from developed countries. Countries such as Germany will
go completely SF₆ free by 2030. Currently SF₆ free equipment is not mandated and the
Indian government is projec ng to introduce, by 2030 and beyond, for medium
voltage SF₆ switchgear.

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Soil Quality & Social Wellbeing
Ÿ Why In news: Why in news: A recent paper was published which focussed on quality
soil which is crucial for women and child health in India. This study found that soil
mineral availability had an impact on the health and nutri onal status of women and
children in India. This study evaluates the rela onship between health outcomes and
soil mineral availability in India, namely soil zinc availability and child stun ng or
women's height and soil iron availability on the haemoglobin levels in women and
children. The study links health data from nearly 0.3 million children and one million
adult women across India with over 27 million soil tests drawn from a na onwide soil
health program.
Ÿ Micronutrient deficiency is known to affect the health of over two billion people
globally and is known to impact learning, IQ, motor skills, and immune system
func ons and has a las ng effect on children through adulthood.
Ÿ For example, zinc deficiency has caused around 116,000 deaths in children under five
years globally in 2011 and 175 million more people may become zinc deficient by 2050
due to globally rising CO2 levels informs this paper tled ' Soil micronutrients linked to
human health in India' published in Nature, Scien fic Reports.
Ÿ A large number of people could face the risk of mineral deficiencies due to ea ng foods
based on cereals, legumes and vegetables grown on soils that are low in mineral
concentra ons. Many countries use for fica on i.e. enriching fer lisers or irriga on
water with trace minerals such as selenium, iodine, and zinc to raise crop mineral
concentra on and human mineral intake.
Ÿ There are no large-scale studies that examine the associa on between children's
nutri onal status or health outcomes and soil mineral availability in India, although
India has roughly one-third of the global popula on suffering from micronutrient
deficiency.
Ÿ The rate of child stun ng in India is about 35 percent and malnutri on is an important
risk factor for loss of Disability-Adjusted Life-Years in children causing an es mated 0.5
percent of all deaths in India. Almost 138 million people in the country live in rural areas,
many of them being farmers who own small amounts of land and rely on their own
produc on for food, par cularly for staple cereals. As high as 35 percent of soils in India
are deficient in zinc, and 11 percent in iron.

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Figure 1. Soil and health data summary, mapping at a district level: The propor on of soil
samples deemed to be sa sfactory in (A) zinc availability and (B) iron availability,
according to government standards, and (C) the propor on of children determined to be
stunted based on WHO height-for-age z-score. Also mapping: (D) NFHS cluster loca ons.
Regions are outlined in white. Maps were created in RStudio version 2021.09.0.
Ÿ The study finds that:
Ÿ Soil mineral availability can have a causal impact on the nutri onal status of women and
children in India.
Ÿ There is a strong rela onship between soil zinc availability and nutri onal outcomes of
children and adult women in India. Districts with an increased propor on of
sa sfactory soil zinc samples have significantly lower rates of child stun ng and
underweight. Soil zinc availability is also associated with an increase in the height of
women.
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Ÿ Soil iron availability can affect hemoglobin levels among children and women. The
associa on between soil iron and hemoglobin can be very important from a public
health perspec ve as India has one of the highest prevalence of anemia among women
at around 53.1 percent and 58.5 percent among under five children.
Ÿ Low soil zinc availability is associated with childhood stun ng and the effect appears
to be strongest in wealthier households, perhaps reflec ng the fact that children from
poorer households face many more health constraints beyond zinc status that
contribute to their stun ng.
Ÿ The paper men ons that that soil mineral availability seems to impact human
nutri onal status and health in at least some areas of India. Thus, agronomic
for fica on may be a beneficial interven on under these circumstances.

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The Amazon Rainforest-Critical Hotspot
Why in news: Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest continues to plunge
• Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon continues to decline, according to data released by Brazil’s national
space research institute, INPE.
• INPE’s deforestation alert system indicates that forest clearing in Brazil’s portion of the Amazon in August
declined 66% compared to the same month last year.
• Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon has seen a decrease for five consecutive months.
• Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon — Earth’s largest rainforest — is on a continued downward trajectory,
according to data released today by Brazil’s national space research institute, INPE.INPE’s deforestation alert
system, known as DETER, indicates that forest clearing in Brazil’s section of the Amazon totaled 563 square
kilometres in August 2023. This is a 66% decline — equating to nearly 1,100 square kilometers — compared
to the same month the previous year.
• Deforestation detected by DETER for the first eight months of 2023 amounted to 3,712 square kilometers.
This is a 48% drop compared to the previous year and the lowest figure since 2018.
12-month-moving average deforestation alert data from Imazon’s SAD system and INPE’s DETER system. Imazon is a
Brazilian NGO that independently monitors deforestation.
Area of deforestation detected by INPE’s DETER system, Jan 1-Aug 31 since 2009 (sq km)
• Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon has seen a decrease for five consecutive months. Since the early
1970s, the Brazilian Amazon has lost just under 20% of its forest cover.
• Brazil houses more than 60 percent of the Amazon rainforest, the world’s largest tropical forest. Over the
past 30 years nearly one-fifth of the forest area have been cleared, largely for agriculture and cattle pasture.
Scientists estimate the forest may be home to one quarter of the world’s land-based plant and animal
species as well as the largest population of indigenous people still living in traditional ways. Some
researchers fear that continued clearing, together with increased incidence and severity of drought and
fire due to climate change, could result in a large scale die-off of the Amazon by the end of the century.
• Scientists express concern that the persistent deforestation, combined with forest degradation and the
impacts of climate change, may put large areas of the rainforest at risk of transitioning to a drier, savanna-
like ecosystem. Such a shift would have severe consequences for the region’s carbon storage, biodiversity,
rainfall patterns, and the well-being of local communities.
Pond Ecosystem & Circular Economy
Why in news: How to restore India's degraded pond ecosystem? In order to promote a regenerative system for
biodiversity protection, the relationship between the pond ecosystem and the circular economy was also evaluated.
Healthy pond ecosystems are critical for achieving several sustainable development goals (SDG) through
numerous ecosystem services -e.g., flood control, nutrient retention, and carbon sequestration. However, the
socio-economic and ecological value of ponds is often underestimated compared to the larger water bodies, as
per a paper.
Ponds are highly vulnerable to mounting land-use pressures (e.g., urban expansion, and agriculture intensification)
and environmental changes, leading to degradation and loss of the pond ecosystem. The narrow utilitarian use-
based conservation fails to recognize the multiple anthropogenic pressures and provides narrow solutions which
are inefficient to regenerate the degraded pond ecosystem.
In this paper titled ‘Current Status of Ponds in India: A Framework for Restoration, Policies and Circular
Economy’ the authors holistically examined the legal challenges (policies) and key anthropogenic and
environmental pressures responsible for pond degradation in India. The country is strongly dedicated to
attaining SDG and circular economy through aquatic ecosystem conservation and restoration. Considerable
efforts are required at the administration level to recognize the contribution of pond ecosystem services in
attaining global environmental goals and targets.
Worldwide restoration strategies were reviewed, and a framework for pond restoration and conservation was
proposed, which includes policies and incentives, technologies such as environmental-DNA (e-DNA), life cycle
assessment (LCA), and other ecohydrological measures. Nature-based solutions (NBS) offer a sustainable and
cost-effective approach to restoring the pond’s natural processes. Furthermore, linkage between the pond
ecosystem and the circular economy was assessed to encourage a regenerative system for biodiversity
conservation. This study informs the need for extensive actions and legislative reforms to restore and conserve
the pond ecosystems.
Recommendations
• A uniform waterbody classification system applicable to all the water bodies (including small ponds) is vital to
ensure better administration and monitoring in all the states. Also, a comprehensive national pond database
incorporating states and local bodies is required to facilitate objective policymaking and appropriate
intervention at different levels.
• Integrate pond conservation into sectoral development plans and sustainable development goals. A
coordinated inter-ministerial and inter-departmental approach can formulate a single comprehensive scheme to
conserve and restore the ponds at the local level (top-down approach).
• Appropriate demarcation of pond boundaries and its inclusion as a municipal asset under the land records by
states can be a vital step to put off pond encroachment. The No Net Loss (NNL) policy can be effectively used as
a regulatory instrument to mitigate (i.e., minimize the impact) and offset (i.e., compensate) the unavoidable
losses due to existing or proposed development activity (Sun et al. 2019).
• Government incentives to promote sustainable business models supporting pond restoration, conservation, and
local economy. The Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) and Collective Payment for Ecosystem Services
(CPES) can be used as effective conservation tools.
• Policies to adopt the 6R principle of circular economy in water and wastewater management which reduces the
source water pollution and generate opportunity for local livelihood through reuse, recycling, and resource
recovery.
Inclusion of local stakeholders in pond-related decision making, policy formulation, and action plans to establish a
linkage between the pond ecosystem and various stakeholders (bottom-up approach) ensuring long-term
conservation of ponds.
Circular economy through pond ecosystem for sustainable ecosystem services

• By closing the material and energy loop and maintaining the material at its highest utility and value at all times,
the circular economy strategy reduces resource input and waste . By facilitating a closed-loop system for energy
and material flow through sustainable resource and waste management, the 6R framework of circular economy
(i.e., reduce, reuse, recycle, reclaim, recover, and restore) lessens the demand on natural resources . To manage
natural resources more sustainably, a circular economy model that is restorative and regenerative is required.
• For the future provision of natural resources (such as water, food, and nutrients), energy (such as biomass,
biofuel), and ecosystem services, it is crucial to link circular economy and aquatic ecology. The upsurge in
economic development and consumerism exert pressure on the already limited natural resources leading to
resource depletion and ecosystem degradation. Unlike developed countries, India has a high resource
extraction rate of 1580 tonnes/acre and a low recycling rate of 20–25% (NITI-Aayog 2019).
• Consequently, many critical raw materials are imported into the country. The country’s dependency on imports
is 90% for phosphate as raw material or as finished fertilizer . The transition to a zero-carbon economy, clean
and green economy further exerts pressure on natural resources such as biofuels, and biodiesel through
increased demand .
• The rich biodiversity of ponds provides numerous natural resources. Increased demand for natural resources by
local industries, agriculture, and households increases the stress on the pond ecosystem. The simple living
behaviour and 6R framework of circular economy can reduce the demand for natural resources. The waste and
wastewater disposed of in ponds can be a potential source of energy through waste-to-energy initiatives
which reduce fossil fuel dependency and pollution to the aquatic ecosystem. As the recovery of secondary
materials requires less energy than the raw ones, the energy-saving opportunity is highly likely through circular
economy practices.
• Wastewater can also be a source of biofertilizers through nutrient recovery which reduces the dependency on
phosphorus imports. Under the circular economy scenario, the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers would
be 45% lower by 2030. Farm pond biomass valorisation and its use as an organic fertilizer in the United States
provided economic sustainability to farmers through phosphorus recycling (50%-70%) and reduced the
phosphorus treatment and energy cost.
• The application of organic fertilizers further enhances the carbon sequestration in the soil thus contributing
directly to crop productivity and climate change mitigation . Mixed land use patterns in India also provides an
opportunity for the reuse and recycling of resources fairly easily with limited infrastructural development .
• Restoration and management of the pond ecosystems further promote biodiversity richness, ecosystem health,
and livelihood through nature-based solutions .NBS can be better integrated with circular economy for
sustainable natural resource management and biodiversity conservation. Government policies encourage the
6R framework of circular economy in ecosystem-related action and management plans. The interaction between
the pond ecosystem, natural resources, and energy is illustrated in Fig. below.
Linkage between circular economy and pond ecosystem

• A restored, and well-managed pond/tanks directly or indirectly contribute to the three circular economy
principles, (a) Regenerating natural capital (i.e., biodiversity, water cycle, nutrient cycle, and water quality); (b)
Keep resources in use (i.e., enhance resource use efficiency of material and energy); and (c) Design out waste
externalities (i.e., reduce environmental impacts, waste reduction, and economic sustainability) .
Conclusions
Pond ecosystem underpins economic prosperity, social wellbeing, and environmental sustainability through a range
of ecosystem services predominantly to the agricultural developing economies. The negative repercussions of
uncontrolled developmental activities, land-use alterations, and constrained conservation policies threaten the
existence of a biodiverse pond ecosystem.
The study highlighted the major physical, chemical, and biological pressures along with the legal challenges which
are needed to be addressed systematically. The study revealed pond ecosystem lags behind other aquatic water
bodies in research and policy integration. A framework for pond restoration and conservation was presented
suggesting the policy reforms, technologies, and other locally accepted conservation measures to attain
sustainability through ponds.
The study further showcases a linkage between the pond ecosystem and the circular economy principles, promoting
a more regenerative system to lessen the burden on its natural resources and avoid biodiversity loss. The study
further highlights the need for better governance and institutional arrangements to encourage various
stakeholders for pond conservation and restoration thereby boosting the water security of the region which
supports the attainment of SDG 2030 targets.
Odisha- Climate Smart Agriculture
Why in news: Climate-smart approach aids Odisha lowland farmers against floods .Variety-based climate-smart
intervention helps smallholder farmers cope with floods in the lowlands of Odisha
• Natural calamities, primarily floods, of varying intensity adversely affect the standing crop leading to poor
harvests. Such untoward climatic shocks invariably hit almost all blocks of Puri District in Odisha.
• The variety-based climate-smart intervention proved to be a potential response in the flood-prone rice
areas.
• This can be replicated and scaled up in other blocks within the district as part of contingency plans for rice-
growing areas affected by floods in the state.
• Agriculture in Odisha added 20.6% to the Gross State Value in 2021-22 with the low-land coastal district of
Puri as one of the major contributors, according to the Odisha Economic Survey.
• Topographically, 58% of the 0.189 million hectares of cultivated land in this geography are classified as
shallow and deep lowlands, and the remaining is medium land.
• Rice, oilseeds, green and black grams, and vegetables (eggplant, potato, okra, cauliflower, and tomato)
are the major crops grown during the wet and dry seasons. With a high irrigation coverage of 70% (from
canals), the district has an impressive cropping intensity of 217%.
Rice is the primary crop grown in the wet season and is planted on approximately 94,000 hectares mostly in the
lowlands (88% of the total winter rice area). Despite the high irrigation coverage and the high proportion of fertile
alluvial soils in more than half of the area favourable for rice cultivation, production, and productivity are seriously
challenged by recurring floods (August to September), salinity (February to March), drought (mid-July), and
occasional cyclonic storms (September to November).These natural calamities, primarily floods, of varying intensity
adversely affect the standing crop leading to poor harvests. Such untoward climatic shocks invariably hit almost all
blocks of Puri.
The impact of the frequent flood crisis

The southwest monsoon in the district normally sets in around the third week of June and withdraws in the last
week of September. It brings an average of 1,061 mm of rainfall, which is 82% of the yearly precipitation. Based on
this climatic norm and meteorological forecast, farmers normally transplant rice towards the end of July to mid-
August.
Rainfall in Puri District in August 2022 (Odisha Rainfall Monitoring System

• In 2022, heavy monsoon rains in early and mid-August, caused by a weather system over the Bay of Bengal,
triggered several distributaries of the Mahanadi River to overflow and inundate vast tracts of newly transplanted
rice areas in the district. Nimapara was among the areas where farmers suffered significant crop losses
because of prolonged flooding.
• The Dhanua River that passes through Nimapada floods the villages of Kothakusang, Balange, and Bamanal for
15-25 days, depending upon soil topography and water drainage efficiency.
• The GIS Laboratory at the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) mapped the flooded tract in the district and
estimated the affected area. Pre- (06 August) and post- (18 August) flood sentinel-1 SAR images corroborated
the occurrence of high-intensity floods and detected a large impacted area.
• GIS-based estimation indicated that, in Nimapada alone, the flood affected 3,739 hectares of rice fields. Spatial
flood inundation maps generated for Nimapada showed large rice areas under water. An estimated 12,563 ha
rice area spread across blocks of Gop, Astaranga, Kaktapur, Nimapada, and Pipli were flooded for at least 10
days.
Recommended contingency plan for the flood crisis

• Plant flood-tolerant rice varieties: Farmers in the village planted high-yielding rice varieties including Swarna,
Sarala, CR dhan-1018, among others that are prone to submergence. Thus, flood-induced crop damage could
not be averted. Farmers in flood-prone lowland areas should plant long-duration (140-150 days) flood-tolerant
rice varieties. Two established flood-tolerant rice varieties, CR 1009-Sub1, and Swarna-Sub1, can offset the
impact of crop inundation and ensure a reasonable harvest.
Satellite image of the flooded rice areas in Puri District
❖ Replant flood-damaged fields: After the flood water recedes, farmers can replant their fields with rice seedlings
secured from other places to replace their damaged crops. However, not every farmer can afford and arrange
for seedlings given the short period. Oftentimes, seedlings in nearby areas are hardly available. Even if they are,
rice seedlings are often too old and no longer suitable for transplanting.
A variety-based climate-smart intervention
❖ With its considerable research base in Odisha, IRRI curated a technical fix to address the impact of the climatic
crisis. In association with Pragati Koraput, a non-government organization in Odisha, IRRI introduced variety-
based intervention in four flood-affected villages in Nimapada in the first week of September.
❖ The intervention included 55 affected farmers covering 25 hectares of rice areas identified using data, GIS-
enabled mapping, and field observations. Two early maturing varieties, CR dhan-101 and CR dhan-102, were
chosen based on their performance in earlier varietal evaluation programs conducted by the IRRI Seed System.
❖ These two varieties mature in 105-110 days, have an average yield of 4 tons/ha, and are moderately resistant
to major diseases and pests. Because the maturity of these varieties fits within the short time window
(September to December) for growing crops, these short-duration varieties could replace the yield of the late-
maturing varieties lost to flooding.
❖ The variety-based intervention proved to be a pertinent and potential response in flood-prone rice areas. This
can be replicated and scaled up in other blocks within the district and beyond. IRRI will share such evidence-
backed experience with district and state agriculture departments as it can be suitably included in a
contingency plan for flood-affected rice growing areas in the state.
Global Biofuel Alliance
Why in news: Driving change: India's Global Biofuel Alliance for a greener tomorrow. Accelerating biofuel
adoption worldwide
The Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA) is an initiative launched by India as the G20 Chair with the aim of
expediting the global uptake of biofuels through facilitating technological advancements, intensifying
utilization of sustainable biofuels, and shaping robust standard setting and certification through the
participation of a wide spectrum of stakeholders. The alliance will also act as a central repository of
knowledge and an expert hub.
• It was launched on September 9, 2023, on the sidelines of the G20 Summit in New Delhi, with the
leaders of Singapore, Bangladesh, Italy, the USA, Brazil, Argentina, Mauritius, and the UAE in attendance.
The GBA is a grouping of more than 30 countries and international institutions formed to facilitate the
adoption of biofuels in order to unlock bioenergy access in emerging economies.
• The GBA focuses on promoting sustainable biofuels, especially in the transportation sector, and aims
to enhance markets, support global biofuel trade, share policy insights, and provide technical
assistance to national biofuel programs worldwide. The GBA is committed to accelerating shipping
decarbonisation and is working towards setting standards for the same. India’s presidency has directed
The spotlight onto the Global South, where the world’s majority live, and has urged the GBA to focus on
R&D investment and technology transfer.
Distinction between biofuels and sustainable biofuels:
• The former is derived from crops grown specifically to produce biofuels such as sugarcane, corn, or
soybean, and the latter is from agricultural waste, used cooking oil and processed animal residues like
fats.
• The former is colloquially referred to as 1G ethanol, or first-generation biofuel, and the latter as 2G, that
is second-generation.
• This distinction has now come into sharp focus as climate change accelerates, with fears of threat to food
security and increased loss of forests and biodiversity due to greater land required for farming. Estimates
suggest that well over half of all vegetated land is under cultivation today, and that agriculture is one of
the world’s largest carbon emitters.
• With severe disruptions to global crude oil

supplies following the Ukraine war, several
countries have been scrambling to find
alternatives to the import dependence on petrol
and diesel. India, for instance, imports 87% of
its crude oil, and it is the main reserve currency
expenditure for the country.
• With transport accounting for about one-

quarter of global carbon emissions, there have
been renewed attempts to accelerate the
decarbonising of this sector, with several
countries announcing battery production and
electric vehicle (EV) policies and legacy
automakers entering the now thriving EV
sector. But some modes of transport like
aviation, shipping and long-haul trucking will
find it harder to reduce carbon emissions than
say, self-driven cars or motorbikes. 2G ethanol could be a valuable substitute.
• The three founding members of the GBA produce 85% of global biofuels and consume about 81%
of it. In line with the renewed push to enhance biofuel use and production, the U.S. announced its
latest amended “Renewable Fuel Standard” to substantially increase the production of biofuels and
substitute about 1,40,000 barrels per day of crude oil imports by 2025.
• Similarly, India had announced the setting up of 12 new refineries as early as 2018 with the aim to
meet 20% ethanol blending by 2025. This becomes even more significant following India’s
announcement to become net zero (removing as much carbon from the atmosphere as human
activity emits) by 2070.
The IEA predicts that about two-thirds of the global biofuel demand will come from three emerging
economies – India, Brazil and Indonesia, and that they have “ample domestic feedstocks, additional
production capacity, relatively low production costs and a package of policies they can leverage to
increase demand.
Climate Change & Impact on Genre de Vie-Gujarat
Why in news: Changes in local climate impact Kachchh’s traditional crafts and craftspeople.
Tuna, located in Kachchh district, Gujarat, is famous for traditional crafts like pottery.
• Erratic rainfall, more heatwaves, cyclones and a gradual shift in seasons are affecting the craftspeople and
artisans of Kachchh, who mostly depend on natural resources and predictable weather for their art and
livelihood.
• Reports by India Meteorological Department and other agencies say that Kachchh has been witnessing
more intense rainfall, heatwaves and cyclonic activity over the past few years.
• Disappearing local species of plants used for natural dyes, growth of invasive plant species, increasing
salinity of potter’s earth are some ways in which the changing weather patterns and the consequent
environmental impacts are leading to economic loss in the district.
❖ In the village Tuna that lies by the sea in Kachchh, Gujarat, is a region well-known for its variety of crafts, most of
which are dependent on natural resources, climatic changes such as erratic rainfall, heatwaves and increasing
cyclonic activity are affecting Kachchh’s artisans in myriad ways. For some, like the potters of Tuna, these
challenges have made their craft unsustainable.
❖ These erratic rains have also made the soil, that the potters get from the sea bed, more saline. The consistency is
different too, making it more difficult to mould. Additionally, it makes the pot-making process where the kiln is
fired and the pots baked, more challenging. Erratic rainfall, more heatwaves, cyclones and a gradual shift in
seasons are affecting other craftspeople and artisans too.
❖ Weavers in Bhujodi, located about 50 kilometres from Tuna and six kilometres from Bhuj are attributing the
changing climate for lower wool quality. Bhujodi is also known as the weavers’ village and its woolen shawls,
stoles and rugs have both domestic and international buyers. Delayed onset of winters is affecting the quality of
the wool. In the same vein, unexpected dry spells are also affecting the fodder quality for the sheep and other
animals. This is perhaps making the wool coarser.
❖ Kachchh has been facing the brunt of climatic changes, which have become more visible over the last few
years. According to a research paper by the India Meteorological Department and Kamaljit Ray of Ministry of
Earth Sciences, the average seasonal rainfall over Kachchh in the previous three decades (between 1984
and 2013) has increased from 378 mm to 674 mm.
❖ Experts also say that the increase in cyclonic activity over the Arabian Sea at the beginning and end of the
monsoon season has impacted the rain days in Kachchh. Another report by the Gujarat Institute of Disaster
Management said that the frequency and intensity of cyclonic activity over the Arabian Sea has increased
between 2001 and 2019, this is happening because of an increasing sea surface temperature.
❖ There has been an increasing trend in the number of intense cyclones over the Arabian Sea since 1990. This,
and the increase in the heavy rainfall days, is because of rise in sea surface temperature. It could also be the
reason behind the increase in heatwaves. According to the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority,
the intensity and frequency of heatwaves in the state in the last decade has increased as a result of “rapid
climate change, urbanisation and rapid industrialisation.”
Local plant species becoming rarer
❖ The effect of such changes in climate is possibly why certain local species of plants that once thrived in the
semi-arid landscape of Kachchh and were a major raw material source for artisans, have now either
diminished or almost disappeared.
❖ Leaves and bark of baawad or desi babul (Acacia nilotica) were once used extensively to get the black
colour dye for Rabari skirts,” the report said, referring to the richly embroidered skirts worn by women of
the nomadic Rabari community. “With time this species is difficult to find, replaced by gando
bawal (Prosopis juliflora).”
❖ P. juliflora is an invasive species of plant. Invasive alien species are one of the main causes of biodiversity
loss and species extinction, according to IUCN and the proliferation of invasive species is often exacerbated
by climate change.
❖ The report also mentioned that Indigofera tinctoria which was once the main dye used on yarn for indigo
colour, is now becoming increasingly rare in Kachchh. Earlier the ber tree from which lac would be obtained
to get the natural red dye, was easily found. Now it’s no longer so.
❖ Such changes in climate are affecting craftspeople in block printing and batik printing too. Unseasonal and
erratic rains affects the planning and production process of those in block printing and batik printing. In
Ajrakh block printing, for instance, sun-drying of the cloth is a crucial part of the 16-stage process using
natural dyes. This is why work takes a break during the monsoons — typically about four months. Erratic
rainfall has however been punctuating their production unexpectedly.
❖ For some, like the potters of Tuna, climatic changes adding to the challenges they were already facing, has
become overwhelming. Earlier there were 70 potter families in our village. Now there are just about 40.
Many kaarigars (artisans) left this traditional work this year. Increasing expenses on fuel to ferry raw
material home and to take the pots to the market as well as lowering prices of the pots themselves —
from Rs. 70 to Rs. 50 — is a major challenge for continuing in this line of work.
Be it the forces of the market when handcrafted products are pitted against cheaper, factory-made replicas, or the
force of climate change, Kachchh’s crafts and craftspeople know that the only way to survive and carry forward their
tradition is to abide by the law of nature: adapt to the change, or perish(Darwinism).
Critical Mineral’s - India
Why in news: India steps up plans to explore critical minerals crucial to its clean energy transition
• Currently, India relies entirely on imports for lithium, nickel, cobalt and copper, minerals essential to
achieve its clean energy transition in power, transport and other sectors.
• After its first ever policy on critical minerals in June this year, the Indian government recently cleared key
legislations to allow private players to explore and mine these minerals in order to increase supply and
reduce import dependency.
• Two months after the Indian government identified 30 critical minerals, it has proposed to amend the key mining
legislation, Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2023, allowing private players to
explore and mine critical minerals. These were earlier reserved for government entities only.
• In June, the central government identified 30 critical minerals, including lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, tin and
copper. Securing these minerals is key to India’s clean energy transition in power, transport and other sectors
which will help meet its global mandate to lower carbon emission.
• The government’s recent action suggests that it is focused on developing a smooth supply of critical minerals
and reducing the current import dependency.
• Currently, India mines some of the required minerals used in clean energy technologies such as iron ore,
chromium, bauxite, aluminium, zinc, lead, manganese etc. However, it lacks the supply of crucial minerals,
which are now identified as critical in its latest policy. The accessibility to these minerals is vital to build large
scale production of clean energy technologies such as solar panels, wind turbines, utility scale battery storages
and electric vehicle batteries.
• According to the International Energy Agency (IEA) report, manufacturing batteries requires high usage of
copper, nickel, lithium, cobalt and rare earth elements (REE), while usage of other minerals such as zinc,
chromium and aluminium is very low.
• As India has set a target of achieving half of the energy needs through the renewable sector by 2030, the
requirement of battery storage, to be used as back up intermittently to stabilise the grid, has gained huge
importance.
• However, at present, India relies entirely on imports for lithium, nickel and cobalt, and the import for copper is
as high as 93%. These four minerals are most critical to achieve the set target.
• According to critical mineral policy, at least one third of 30 minerals are such which are 100% import-driven
right now. It also includes tantalum, germanium, strontium, rhenium and tellurium that are used in
manufacturing solar PV modules and other clean energy technologies.
Reducing import of critical minerals

❖ India is trying to reduce import and achieve self-sufficiency in critical mineral supply for its economic, as well
as climate change compulsions. “However, a lot will depend on how fast it builds up the supply chain for
these minerals whether through investing in its own domestic production or through strategic global trade
partnerships.”
❖ World over, the demand for these minerals have shot up as countries have begun investing in clean
technologies. “There are also geo-political issues at play and this makes the scenario quite challenging for
India. ”The world may see a new model of colonialism emerge if countries with large reserves of critical and
rare earth minerals do not consider them as a global responsibility to share it with others.
❖ The government not only has to secure the supply of these critical minerals and scale up production of clean
energy technologies, but also strategise to make it affordable for the public at large.
❖ “For instance, 45% of the manufacturing cost of Electric Vehicles is of its batteries. Chances of people
buying EVs increase if these are available at affordable prices. This can be done if India overcomes supply
side challenges and price volatility of these critical minerals.
❖ According to the critical mineral policy, the Indian government will provide the necessary support, and
coordinate with other ministries and departments in framing policies and incentive schemes, required for
creating a complete value chain of critical minerals in the country. The government may also collaborate
with international agencies for the strategic acquisition of foreign assets on critical minerals.
❖ The policy also favoured the creation of the National Institute of Centre of Excellence on critical minerals to
identify more efficient ways for discovering next generation critical mineral deposits and deepening the local
exploration of critical minerals. According to the official communication, India’s main exploration agency,
Geological Survey of India (GSI) will undertake 122 exploration projects in the current fiscal year.
Earlier this year, the Geological Survey of India (GSI) conducted an inferred level exploration in Jammu &
Kashmir, where a lithium deposit was identified and will be the target for further exploration. Processing and
refining the critical minerals is equally essential for India. “South Korea is a very interesting model, which
invested heavily in the processing and refining industry and lowered the manufacturing cost.”
Global Warming & Increasing Frequency of Cyclones
Why in news: Why are intense storms and erratic rainfall events becoming more frequent?
The Indo-Pacific Warm Pool has been warming and expanding over the past century, while its warmest part has
almost doubled in size. Graphic from NOAA Climate.gov. Data from Roxy et al 2019.
• The Northern Indian Ocean has been experiencing an increasing trend of severe cyclones and extreme rainfall
with significant impacts on its densely populated coasts and elsewhere.
• Ocean warming, cyclones and extreme and erratic rainfall are connected to events and processes at different
timescales, near and as far as the Pacific and the poles.
• Some of these phenomena involve natural climate variability, but others are intensified due to climate change.
❖ Global warming has led to oceans also warming over the past century – more in some locations and less in
others. Between 1901 and 2020, sea surface temperatures (SST) rose at an average rate of 0.14 degrees
Fahrenheit (equivalent to a rate of 0.08 degrees Celsius) per decade, remaining consistently higher during the
past 30 years than at any other time, since observations became available from 1880. As the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) sixth assessment report notes “it is virtually certain that the global upper ocean
(0-700 m) and very likely that the global intermediate ocean (700-2000 m) warmed substantially from 1971 to
the present.”
❖ The Indian Ocean however, has warmed faster than the global average. Climate models show a non-uniform
warming trend, with hotspots in the Arabian Sea and the southeastern Indian Ocean. This process has
implications for sea level rise, storm patterns and rainfall events, especially in the coastal areas as
(IPCC) studies show.
❖ The Northern Indian Ocean (NIO) specifically, has been experiencing an increasing trend of severe cyclones and
extreme rainfall with significant impacts on its densely populated coasts and elsewhere. Ocean warming,
cyclones and extreme and erratic weather are connected to events and processes at different timescales, near
and as far as the Pacific and the poles. Some of these phenomena involve natural climate variability, but others
are due to climate change. These events and processes have serious implications on human security, livelihoods
and development.
❖ Newer analyses show an increasing trend of extremely severe cyclones (ESCS, maximum winds above
168 kmph) and call for better policies and planning for defending coastal flood risk and associated impacts.
❖ What is Tropical Warm Pool? How does it influence the climate?
❖ The Indo-Pacific Warm Pool (or Tropical Warm Pool) is a region located in the eastern Indian Ocean, where the
sea surface temperature (SST) remains above 28 degrees Celsius throughout the year. The warm pool has been
warming and expanding over the past century, while its warmest part has almost doubled in size. This warm pool
is the largest expanse of warm SST with high rainfall, that significantly influences global atmospheric circulation
and the water cycle. When compared to the warm pool area, the western Indian Ocean is cooler.
❖ The Indo-Pacific Warm Pool has also experienced the world’s highest rates of sea-level rise in recent decades
with impacts on islands here. As the IPCC notes, “Thermal expansion explained 50% of sea level rise during
1971–2018, while ice loss from glaciers contributed 22%, ice sheets 20% and changes in land-water storage
8%.” This expanding warm pool affects the global climate system by enhancing tropical convection (the
transport of heat and moisture).
❖ What is the Madden Julian Oscillation

❖ Meanwhile, as the tropical warm pool expands, it also affects Madden Julian Oscillation, a massive disturbance
involving clouds, rainfall, winds, and pressure that influences rain patterns across the world.
❖ If El Niño (the event that involves warming of the ocean surface temperatures in the central and eastern
tropical Pacific Ocean) is a static system, the Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO) is a moving system. It traverses
the tropics eastward for thousands of kilometres before returning to its initial starting point in 30 to 60 days.
Once this atmospheric disturbance sets in, its features last several seasons over the Pacific Ocean basin, raising
and lowering convection over specific regions. This oscillation, eastward and back, leads to severe rainfall and
storms.
❖ Apart from the Arctic amplification (rapid Arctic warming) and sea ice melting playing important roles
in influencing monsoon in several ways, including through ENSO and Hadley Circulation, MJO is also a key
influence that triggers extreme rainfall within seasons over tropical regions. It is also the key trigger for tropical
cyclone formation in the northern Indian Ocean. Over 80 percent tropical cyclones over this ocean part during
1979-2008 occurred during the active phase of the MJO. Higher SST in the Central Pacific ENSO events, as
opposed to eastern Pacific El Nino events, can also lead to more tropical cyclones, as scientists note.
Impact of atmospheric circulation on rainfall
❖ Another key mechanism of the ocean’s impact on global weather is through air circulation. Air warmed by the
sun swells up and rises, letting colder, denser air sink in. Air from the warm tropics air rises and moves out
poleward and cooler air from mid-latitudes moves in, forming a circulation called the Hadley cell.
❖ The Earth’s rotation drives winds east to west along the equator. One such movement over the Pacific involves
the Walker cell. It forms as high pressure off the coast of South America and pushes air over the Pacific
westward to Indonesia, where it rises and circles back to the east to finish the loop. Rising air in the west and
sinking air in the east keep the loop closed. This movement drives westerly trade winds. As the warm air rises
and cools, it sheds the moisture as rain over the western Pacific.
❖ In natural cycles (without the impacts of climate change), the Walker circulation and trade winds can gain or lose
strength. However, trade winds weaken during a phase called El Niño and gain strength during La Niña.
❖ Walker Circulation (December-February) anomaly during an El Niño event, overlaid on map of average sea
surface temperature anomalies. Anomalous ocean warming in the central and eastern Pacific (orange) help to
shift a rising branch of the Walker Circulation to east of 180°, while sinking branches shift to over the
southeast Asia and northern South America. Graphic from NOAA Climate.gov. Drawing by Fiona Martin.
❖ El Niño significantly influencing global weather patterns. During an El Niño event, warmer water extends out to
the east, warming the air, and causing it to rise and form lower pressure. In turn, there is less rising motion, and
therefore higher pressure near Indonesia, as a result of relatively cooler waters and overlying air. The
recurring climate pattern involving La Niña, El Niño and the neutral phases is referred to as El Niño Southern
Oscillation (ENSO).
❖ The Pacific basin covers a third of the planet. Therefore, the wind and humidity changes associated with El Niño
get transmitted around the world, disrupting circulation patterns. Such weather changes occurring in widely
separated regions of the globe are called teleconnections.
❖ El Niño is often associated with a weaker Indian summer monsoon, and La Niña a stronger monsoon. This
year, scientists have associated El Niño with a weak monsoon involving long breaks and an outlook for a
possible drought. Analysing the rather long monsoon break from 6 – 19 August, National Centre for Earth
Science Studies monsoon expert Madhavan Nair Rajeevan posted on the X platform (formerly known as Twitter),
“Convection over India was suppressed by heavy sinking motion. On the other hand, over the central Pacific
enhanced convection occurred due to ascending air. This resembles the classical impact of an El Niño.”
Subsidence denotes the downward movement of air as it cools down and becomes denser.
Arabian Sea becoming a hotspot for intense storms

❖ Global warming leads to an increase in SST and changes in atmospheric conditions, and an increase in the
Potential Intensity, or the modelled maximum speed limit, of tropical cyclones. Globally, severe-category storms
have been increasing. In the Northern Indian Ocean, such storms have been increasing in recent decades, most
of them forming in May. Summer monsoon winds of June-September influence NIO circulation, and that leads
to peaking of sea surface temperature and Potential Intensity during April-May and later after the monsoon.
Projected changes in SST and a significant weakening of the wind speed difference between the upper and lower
troposphere appear to be responsible for the increase in ESCSs. Scientists conclude that global warming has
increased the probability of post-monsoon ESCSs over the Arabian Sea.
❖ Besides, summer monsoon circulation has been weakening. The intensity of the cyclone does not only depend
on sea surface temperature, but more importantly the volume of warm water in the ocean, scientists note.
Cyclones gain more intensity due to ocean heat content from the surface down to the depth of the 26℃
isotherm (line linking points of the same temperature), as recent studies show.
❖ There are different storm categories based on the intensity of maximum sustained wind speeds. Recent
extremely severe cyclones in the NIO during the month of May include Mocha (2023), Tauktae (2021), Amphan
(2020), Fani (2019), and Mekunu (2018). Of these, Tauktae and Mekunu formed over the Arabian Sea.
❖ The Arabian Sea, located in the generally cooler western part of the NIO, has been so far considered
cyclonically less active with close to two storms in a year or 2% of global storm frequency during 1979–2015.
However, it is now emerging as a hotspot in the changing climate in the background of the warming of the
Western Indian Ocean.
❖ Post-monsoon events are gaining intensity of late, with the first post-monsoon ESCS in 2014, as recent
studies show. Cyclone Nilofar in October 2014 was followed by two back-to-back ESCSs, Chapla and Megh in
2015. ESCS Maha coexisted briefly with the Super Cyclonic Storm (above 222 km per hour) Kyar in the 2019 post-
monsoon season, in an unprecedented event. In 2023, Mocha was closely followed by another extremely severe
cyclone, Biparjoy, in June.
There have been unusual storm tracks and rapid intensification of cyclones. The case of the very severe cyclone
Ockhi (2017) is an example. On its unusually long 2,500 km track, it rapidly gained strength close to Sri Lanka and
South India. Madden–Julian Oscillation and warm oceanic conditions provided favourable conditions for
Ockhi.Along the densely populated Indian Ocean coasts increasing intense storms, and other phenomena such as
sea level rise and extreme rain pose great challenges in terms of human and habitat safety. Scientists have therefore
called for more effective forecasts, dissemination, and disaster preparedness
Marathwada- Projections of Drought
Why in news: Reservoir levels dip as drought looms large in Maharashtra's Marathwada region According to IMD, out
of the total 36 districts of Maharashtra, 13 received less than average rainfall.
Maharashtra can be divided in to three divisions according to Physiography viz. Coastal Strip (Kokan) Mountainous
Hilly Region (Western Ghat Sahyadri Ranges) Maharashtra Plateau (Deccan Plateau) Vidarbha Region (Eastern).
• Geography of Marathawada
• Marathwada region consist of eight Districts Aurangabad, Beed, Hingoli, Jalna, Latur, Nanded,
Osmanabad, Parbhani, etc. The total area of the region is about 6459000 Ha. The average annual rainfall
over the Marathwada region is about 882mm. Almost three fourth of Marathwada region is covered with
agricultural land.
• It Is mainly Composed of basalt black rock. The southern plateau of Marathwada averages 381 mtr. Above
sea level is a high.
• The rivers Godavari, Purna and Manjra are large and Important in this region. The silt in the Godavari Basin
Several Meters Deep. Apart from the above three major rivers, there are many other rivers and tributaries in
the Region.
• It seems that human beings have been attracted to Marathwada since the Stone Age due to this natural
fertility. Places like Paithan, Bhokardhan, Devgiri, and Ter in Marathwada were on trade routes in ancient
Times.
• The threat of drought is looming over the Marathwada region of Maharashtra. As per data from the state
water resource department, only 33% of live water storage is ready in all 920 small-big dams of the region
against 96% storage last year.
• The Jayakwadi dam, one of the biggest in Marathwada that supplies drinking and irrigation water to large
parts of the region, has only 33% of live water storage against 96% last year. Another dam, Manjara in
the region, has only 11% storage against 50% last year.
Marathwada- Projections of Drought
• As per the Meteorological Department of India, out of the total 36 districts of Maharashtra, 13
received less than average rainfall. These districts are Ahmednagar, Aurangabad, Jalna, Beed, Dharashiv,
Solapur, Sangali, Satara, Parbhani, Hingoli, Wasim, Akola, and Amarwati. Six of these districts are from
the Marathwada region, making them drought-prone.
• As per the state water resource department report, all 2,994 dams of the state have got only 69%
livestock of water this year against 88% last year. The Marathwada region’s total 920 dams have got the
lowest 32% live water storage against 81%.
• The state agriculture department in its report stated that out of the 36 districts, the crop production is
estimated to be down by 50% in the 16 districts this season. These districts are Nasik, Dhule, Jalgaon,
Pune, Ahmednagar, Solapur, Satara, Aurangabad, Jalna, Beed, Latur, Parbhani, Osmanabad, Buldhana,
Akola, and Wasim.
Due to the scarcity of rainfall, the crop growth is stunted, which has a direct impact on the production of
crops. The revenue department’s mid-season assessment stated there would be a 50% reduction in
production this year. Besides, the remaining crops are under threat of diseases that will impact the
production, as per the report said.
Every year, during the sugarcane harvest season, thousands of workers from Maharashtra’s drought prone
region, migrate within the state to work as sugarcane cutters. They work for low wages and in poor working
conditions. The workers, who own small parcels of land in their own villages, say that if they had better water
management facilities in their villages, they would not migrate to other parts to work as sugarcane cutters. Even
as water problems continue in drought prone districts such as Beed, sugar factories here are applying for ethanol
production licenses. Growing sugarcane and making ethanol out of the crop are both water-intensive
processes.
Biodiversity Conservation- Role of Megaherbivores
Why in news: Megaherbivores could be a potential solution to manage invasive plants, finds study
❖ Around 65 per cent of India’s natural areas are suitable for invasion by alien plant species, according to the
National Tiger Conservation Authority.
❖ A new study suggests that megaherbivores weighing over 1,000 kilograms, can help improve biotic resistance
and mitigate alien invasions in ‘midproductive’ ecosystems, like floodplains.
❖ The study looked at 12 tropical and subtropical ecoregions in India and divided them into four categories:
Evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (considered ‘productive’ ecosystems), floodplains and deciduous
forests (moderately productive), dry savannas (dry and less-productive systems) and those that are severely
invaded by alien species.
❖ The researchers then observed the relationships between megaherbivores, native plants and invasives across
these landscapes. They tested whether ecosystems with higher megaherbivore abundance were richer in
native plants and less invaded, and if the relationships between megaherbivore occurrence and native versus
alien plant patterns “were influenced by the type of ecosystem, the level of protection and various other
ecological factors.”
It also sought to test whether the general influence of megaherbivores on plant richness and cover varied
across the ecosystem productivity and whether the traits of invasive plants themselves affected the
relationship between megaherbivores and plants.
• This year’s tiger census report, published by the National Tiger Conservation Authority, carried a worrying
statistic – 22 per cent of India’s natural areas were found to be invaded by high-concern alien invasive plants,
and another 65 per cent was found to be suitable for invasion in the future.
• Alien plant invasions are a chronic problem, not only in India but across the world. Alien invasive
plants reproduce rapidly and outcompete native species, causing biodiversity loss and altering ecosystem
functioning. Once invasive species are embedded within a system, removing them is challenging and expensive.
The NTCA’s report estimates removing alien invasive plants of high concern will cost at least Rs one trillion.
• A common way invasive plant species like Lantana camara are dealt with, especially in protected areas, is by
uprooting and burning them – a human-intensive process that is both time-consuming, expensive, and difficult
to scale in areas overrun by the species. Other methods involve biological control – using insects and other
organisms to “control” invasive populations, and chemical control with the use of herbicides.
• A new study by Indian and Danish researchers suggests that large herbivores weighing over 1,000 kilograms,
such as elephants, rhinos, wild water buffaloes, and gaurs, can offer a solution in the management of alien
invasive plants in certain contexts. Megaherbivores have historically shaped vegetation patterns, and they’re
uniquely positioned to do this because they’re not regulated by predation.The paper observed interactions
between native and invasive plants with megaherbivores across 12 ecoregions in the country, placing camera
traps in 26,838 places.
• The study found that across all ecosystems, areas with megaherbivores had on average 13 per cent higher
native plant cover and 17 per cent lower invasive cover compared to areas without them. But these results
aren’t uniform, and the complex interactions between large herbivores and plants call for greater scrutiny
before a solution can be proposed, experts say.
Megaherbivores like elephants can help manage alien plant invasions in certain ecosystems, a new study finds.
The study found that across all ecosystems, areas with megaherbivores had on average 13 per cent higher native
plant cover and 17 per cent lower invasive cover compared to areas without them.
Findings of the report
• Large herbivores can influence plant growth in an ecosystem through various behaviours, including uprooting
and trampling on plants and consuming them in large quantities. Unlike their smaller counterparts, large
herbivores are more likely to be tolerant of alien species in their diets because of the sheer amount they need to
consume, the study says.
• Their consumption and trampling habits can spur feedback loops depending on the level of invasion already
occurring in an ecosystem, the study suggests. Large herbivores may not be able to effectively control alien
invasions in systems where native plant dominance is already diminished, since such settings don’t offer the kind
of nutritional diversity needed to support their diets. This, the study says, can trigger an “alien plant release
feedback,” where the declining forage resources could further reduce the ecological carrying capacity of
herbivores, and promote invasive alien plant growth.
• On the other hand, large herbivores can also reduce alien plant invasions because of their eating habits,
particularly in systems with native plant dominance. “Abundant and diverse native plants could in turn
promote megaherbivore populations, thereby establishing an ‘alien plant control feedback,” says the study.
Experts say more detailed studies are needed to assess which invasive species megaherbivores feed on, to
learn more about the kind of control they exert over an ecosystem.
• It was found that human disturbances are the most defining trait for the presence and prevalence of invasives.
Areas with competition from native plant species with a high density of natives had fewer invasives, like in wet
evergreen and rainforests. “Across all these landscapes and conditions, our study found that megaherbivores
seemed to have the biggest impact in moderately productive ecosystems, like savannahs and floodplains.”
• In the Brahmaputra floodplains, the study found that average native plant cover was on average 37 per cent
higher, even reaching up to 63 per cent in the presence of megaherbivores, while invasive cover was 52 per
cent lower, dropping up to 31 per cent. This “indicates that herbivory may have a large-scale, key role in these
systems,” says the study.
• A 2021 study by ATREE researchers found that, contrary to mitigating invasive alien plants, elephants were one
of the key mammals responsible for the spread of Senna spectabilis, an invasive tree found abundantly in
Wayanad, Kerala.“We did not observe elephants eating the Senna or Lantana plants (which forms dense thickets
), but elephants did eat the fruits of Senna which helped in seed dispersal and subsequently their spread,”.
“The Senna fruit wasn’t the main part of the elephants’ diets, rather it was something they ate because it was
present in the areas they roamed.”
• Meanwhile, the Indo-Danish study found that in areas where the presence of thicket-forming alien invasive
plants like Lantana exceeded 40 per cent, “the general megaherbivore effect was less than expected from our
model.” Such plants have characteristics which “can resist herbivory through physical hindrance, growing tall
and escaping herbivory or by being unpalatable, together diminishing the impact of megaherbivores and
resulting in alien plant release feedback,” the study says.
• Whether mega herbivores feed on alien invasive plants depends on the species itself, and whether they are
causing a problem in a certain ecosystem or not. There are some 40 invasive alien plants identified in Kerala,
but it is species like Lantana, Senna and Prosopis julifora that are creating a problem because no herbivore will
eat them and they are not controlled.
• A 2016 study from the Brahmaputra floodplains found that excluding grazing and herbivory resulted in higher
growth of woody invasives and promoted heterogeneity among grass species. It found that the combination of
rotational grazing by medium and large herbivores and removal and burning of invasives worked best for their
management.
• This is one of the few studies that isolated the control megaherbivores have over invasive plants. More studies
like this are needed across India so we can learn more about the extent to which they can act as a control over
particular ecosystems, and with which invasive plant species.The Indo-Danish study makes a case for protecting
unfragmented habitats and “reinstating herbivory to historically high levels” in mid-productive ecosystems,
where the impacts of megaherbivores are likely to be highest.
The study’s findings could have global relevance too. Similar studies in Africa have found that wild herbivores can
help improve biotic resistance to invasions. Three long-term studies in Kenya tested the effects of wild herbivores
on the density of exotic invasive cacti and found that they were significantly lower in plots accessed by
megaherbivores, compared to those that weren’t.In the Indian context, finding more evidence is necessary to learn
more about the role megaherbivores can play. “One possible next step could be to see if fencing areas and excluding
herbivores supports these observations. If megaherbivores are feeding on invasive plants, it would also be useful to
name the species that they are consuming.
Bioinvasions- Threat to Ecosystems
Why in news: Why in news:Bioinvasions are a global threat to ecosystems, says IPBES report.
❖ Over 3,500 harmful invasive alien species have been introduced into regions and biomes around the world by
human activities, says an assessment report.
❖ The global economic cost of invasive alien species, that negatively impact nature and people, exceeded $423
billion annually in 2019. Costs have at least quadrupled every decade since 1970.
❖ About 60% of species extinctions are attributable to invasive alien species either solely, or in combination with
other drivers.
❖ About 90% of documented global extinctions of native species, attributed mainly to invasive alien species, have
occurred on islands, especially remote islands.
❖ The spread of invasive species is one of the five major threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services.
These animals, plants, fungi and microorganisms, that establish themselves in an environment outside their
natural habitat where they can have negative impacts on native biodiversity, usually do not receive as much
attention as the other threats of climate change, pollution, sea and land-use change.
❖ A new report by the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), highlighting
the global threat posed by invasive alien species, reveals that multiple anthropogenic activities have introduced
more than 37,000 alien species to regions and biomes around the world, with the number rising at 200 new alien
species every year. Among the established alien species, more than 3,500 are harmful invasive alien species
(IAS) with negative impacts on nature and people. More than 2300 invasive alien species are found on lands of
indigenous peoples across all regions of earth. About 60% of species extinctions are attributable to invasive alien
species either solely, or in combination with other drivers.
❖ The assessment follows a decision at a previous IPBES plenary about the need for a global assessment on
invasive alien species. Prepared by representatives of the 143 member states of IPBES, an independent body
focussed on sustainable management biodiversity, the first comprehensive global report on invasive alien
species and their control says the global economic cost of invasive alien species exceeded $423 billion annually
in 2019, with costs having at least quadrupled every decade since 1970.
Eichhornia crassipes, commonly known as common water hyacinth, is an invasive species commonly found in
water bodies in India.
❖ A conservative estimate from India suggests that over the last 60 years, invasive species have cost the Indian
economy $127 billion. A pan-India monitoring of invasive plants for the last 16 years suggests that one-time
control of invasive plants across India would necessitate $13.5 billion, with uncertain outcomes.
Impact on island nations, indigenous communities

❖ Despite increasing awareness, most countries lack a national legislation or regulations directed specifically
towards the prevention and control of invasive alien species with nearly half of all countries not investing
enough in their management. For a country that boasts of multiple biodiversity hotspots and endemism, it is
vital for India to have dedicated policies, an integrated governance system and a strong biosecurity system in
place, according to experts.
❖ The negative impacts of bioinvasions are far-reaching, affecting the economy, food security, water security and
human health. The report suggests that more than 90% of the economic costs assessed are related to impacts
on nature’s contributions to people and the quality of life. Indigenous people are disproportionately affected
by this since they are more directly dependent on nature and natural resources given the impacts of invasive
species on native species and natural ecosystems.
❖ Moreover, Lantana’s dense understory has replaced the open grassy understory of the forest exposing the
forest dependent communities to the hazard of increased encounters with large animals like elephants. Some
invasive alien species like Lantana also disrupt the traditional and cultural way of living of indigenous peoples, for
instance, by blocking easy access to their sacred sites.
An invasive plant, Lantana camera, spread over a vast landscape in the buffer zone of the Kanha protected area.
❖ At the same time, certain established invasive alien species have become a valued part of the socio-ecological
system of indigenous peoples and local communities that management of it is a socio-economic issue faced by
managers. A good example is Prosopis juliflora, an invasive alien tree. Charcoal made from the tree is a source
of income for local communities and hence attempts at managing the species have been problematic.
❖ India has made progress in the identification and detection of invasive alien plants with Lantana, thanks to its
proliferation and large-scale negative impacts, including economic loss, leading the country’s efforts in
mitigation strategies. The same cannot be said about identifying invasive alien invertebrates, fungi and other
microorganisms and marine organisms which is an impediment in designing biosecurity systems.
❖ The report also highlights that 90% of documented global extinctions attributed mainly to invasive alien
species have occurred on islands, especially remote islands with high levels of endemism, largely attributable
to chance colonisations and diversification over millennia.
❖ Globalisation and tourism are integrated into island economies, making it difficult to prevent invasion. The
smaller size of islands, the smaller population of individual species as well as their isolation create evolutionary
distinctness, species impoverishment and taxonomic disharmony which make islands more vulnerable to
bioinvasions. While it is not yet known which regions in India are the most susceptible to invasion, Sankaran
said that since the invasive alien plants in India have their origin in tropical America, a humid tropical climate
is conducive for enhanced invasion by alien plants in India.
❖ We are increasingly witnessing what is globally called the “invasional meltdown hypothesis” where various
invader-invader interactions facilitate further invasion-An invasive alien species can positively interact with
other invasive alien species facilitating their spread or promote the establishment of other invasive alien
species by modifying the ecosystem. The biological control to manage one established invasive alien species
can lead to the establishment of another or certain carrier species can facilitate the transportation of alien
species to new regions.
A study done in dry forests of Kanha Tiger Reserve found that Lantana camera reduced the growth and diversity of
native nutritious plants. This space left behind by them is utilised by alien and native weedy species, which
cumulatively further depletes the native plant diversity which has a significant impact on native herbivores and
subsequently, the native carnivores.
Apart from an exclusive national policy framework to deal with invasive alien species and a single nodal agency and
an integrated governance system to implement the prescribed regulations there is a need to update the biosecurity
regulations and infrastructure, streamline the quarantine controls and surveillance systems, strengthen domestic
quarantine regulations and amp up our capacity to deal with modern tools and techniques in managing biological
invasions, among other measures to be taken. There is also need to make the public aware of the negative impacts
of invasive alien species and engage all stakeholders including indigenous peoples and local communities in its
management among some effective management measures to adopt.
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