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Demystifying Mens Emotional Behavior New Direction
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In the last 20 years, men’s alleged difficulty the empirical evidence on sex differences in
in expressing emotions has been one of the most emotionality and concluded that men’s and
frequently discussed but controversial topics in women’s emotional behaviors are more similar
the study of masculinity. Emotional inexpres- than different. Moreover, when differences do
siveness has been described as a pervasive prob- emerge, they tend to be small, inconsistent, and
lem among men, particularly when compared limited to specific situational contexts.
with women (see, e.g., Balswick, 1988; Brooks, The above discussion on the assumed preva-
1998; Moore & Haverkamp, 1989; Pollack & lence of men’s emotional inexpressiveness
Levant, 1998; Scher, 1981). The prevailing ex- highlights the complexities involved in under-
planation for men’s emotional inexpressiveness standing men’s emotional behavior. The con-
has been the gender-role socialization paradigm ceptualization of this behavior may not be easily
(Balswick, 1988; Good & Sherrod, 2001; Meth reducible to a set of generalizations (e.g., that
& Passick, 1990; O’Neil, 1981). According to men are less expressive than women). In this
this perspective, boys and men internalize cul- article, a tripartite framework that focuses on
tural messages about what it means to be male. the causes, modes, and consequences of emo-
Included in these messages is the sentiment that tional expression and nonexpression is used.
being emotionally expressive is an indication of The central thesis in this article is that, like
femininity and weakness and should thus be other aspects of masculinity (Addis & Mahalik,
avoided or minimized (O’Neil, Good, & 2003), men’s emotional behavior is not a stable
Holmes, 1995). property but a multidimensional construct with
More recently, the view that men are emo- many causes, modes, and consequences. This
tionally inexpressive compared with women has review discusses the possible reasons why men
been challenged (Heesacker et al., 1999; do not express their emotions, the varied modes
Wester, Vogel, Pressly, & Heesacker, 2002). In through which men express their emotions, and
a seminal article, Wester et al. (2002) reviewed whether and when men’s emotional behavior is
considered healthy. In addition, as emotion and
emotion-related processes are important issues
in therapy (Greenberg, 2002; Wester et al.,
Y. Joel Wong and Aaron B. Rochlen, Department of 2002), attention is devoted to the review’s clin-
Educational Psychology, University of Texas at Austin.
We are grateful to Lee Land, Ryan McKelley, and Mar- ical implications. Finally, recommendations for
garet Whilde for providing thoughtful feedback on earlier future research are suggested.
versions of this article. Before continuing, it is important to clarify
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- the use of certain terms in this article. Kennedy-
dressed to Y. Joel Wong, Department of Educational Psy-
chology, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station
Moore and Watson’s (1999) definitions of emo-
D5800, Austin, TX 78712. E-mail: joelwong@mail tional behavior and emotional expression are
.utexas.edu adopted. Emotional behavior is defined as
62
DEMYSTIFYING MEN’S EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR 63
Tojek, & Macklem, 2002). Some men have ments). The discussion here is confined to
difficulty identifying and describing what they men’s verbal and nonverbal linguistic modes of
feel and are thus unable to express their expression. Physiological modes are of less in-
emotions. terest because evidence suggests that the ex-
Step 4: Evaluation of response as acceptable. pression of emotions through physiological
Once a person is able to identify his or her means (e.g., body movement) does not result in
emotions, the emotions are evaluated in light of health improvements; such gains appear to re-
the person’s beliefs and values to determine quire the translation of emotional experience
whether they are acceptable. Some men’s back- into language (Krantz & Pennebaker, 1997;
grounds or developmental histories have taught Pennebaker, 1997a).
them to evaluate certain emotions as negative. Three studies shed important light on the
For example, some men believe that it is unac- different modes men use to express emotion.
ceptable to feel fearful and are thus less likely to Moore and Haverkamp (1989) conducted a
express feelings of fear. posttest-only psychoeducational intervention
Step 5: Perceived social context for expres- targeted at increasing men’s emotional expres-
sion. Finally, even if a person believes his or siveness. Men in the experimental group were
her feelings are acceptable, he or she might more expressive than those in the control group,
perceive the immediate social context as dis- as measured by their verbal responses to 10
couraging their expression. Some men, for in- videotaped stimulus vignettes. However, men in
stance, believe that it is inappropriate to express the experimental and control groups did not
vulnerable feelings to people they do not know differ in their self-reported levels of expression,
well or to persons of authority and thus suppress as measured by a written questionnaire that
the expression of their emotions. asked men the extent to which they express four
In recent years, scholars have argued that it is primary emotions. The authors attributed this
important for clinicians to attend closely to how finding to men’s overestimation of the degree to
gender-role socialization influences male psy- which they actually express feelings. An alter-
chotherapy clients’ emotional behavior (see, native interpretation is that men are generally
e.g., Brooks, 1998; Mahalik, 1999; Mahalik, more willing to report emotions nonverbally
Good, & Englar-Carlson, 2003). The process rather than verbally.
model of emotional expression and nonexpres- In another study, Robertson and his col-
sion represents a promising model for under- leagues (Robertson, Woodford, Lin, Danos, &
standing the diverse ways in which gender-role Hurst, 2001) found that men with greater gen-
socialization influences men’s emotional behav- der-role stress expressed more emotion using a
ior. Men are socialized to express emotion in structured paper-and-pencil measure of emo-
different ways. Some men repress their feelings tional expressiveness than did men with less
(disruption at Step 2), others cannot identify gender-role stress. The structured measure, the
what they feel (disruption at Step 3), still others Emotional Assessment Scale, asked participants
are uncomfortable with their negative feelings to describe the intensity of various emotions
(disruption at Step 4), or they perceive that they they experienced by drawing a slash on a
have limited social opportunities to express 100-mm line. In contrast, men with less gender-
their emotions (disruption at Step 5). It is also role stress were more emotionally expressive
possible that some men are emotionally inex- when asked to respond verbally to a video they
pressive for different reasons at different times. watched than men with greater gender-role
stress.
Modes of Emotional Expression Finally, in a recent study on men’s evalua-
tions of different modalities and approaches to
The modes through which men express their counseling (Rochlen, Land, & Wong, 2004),
emotions are also varied and worthy of consid- men reviewed face-to-face and online counsel-
eration. Emotions can be expressed verbally, ing vignettes. Men with high levels of restric-
nonverbally (e.g., in writing), linguistically (i.e., tive emotionality reported less favorable evalu-
using language), and through physiological ations of face-to-face counseling but roughly
means (e.g., facial expressions and body move- equal evaluations of online counseling, com-
DEMYSTIFYING MEN’S EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR 65
pared with men with low levels of restrictive phasized negative consequences (see e.g.,
emotionality. Although this study did not exam- Balswick, 1988; Brooks, 1998; Levant, 1998;
ine men’s emotional expression during therapy, O’ Neil, 1981; Robertson, 2001; Silverberg,
it does suggest that men with varying degrees of 1986). Traditional men’s difficulties with ex-
restrictive emotionality have differing levels of pressing emotions have been described as
responses to different modes of therapy. It is among the most notable of their problems
possible that the perceived anonymity of online (Brooks, 1998). A corollary view in the litera-
counseling would reduce some men’s fears of ture is that it is healthy for men to express
negative self-appraisal, which in turn may en- emotions and men should therefore be taught to
courage disinhibition during therapy (Cook & be more emotionally expressive (e.g., Levant,
Doyle, 2002). 1998; Moore & Havercamp, 1989; Robertson &
The above studies suggest that men might Freeman 1995).
vary in their levels of emotional expressiveness, An impressive body of research on the neg-
depending on the mode of expression available ative outcomes associated with male emotional
to them. This possibility implies that attending inexpressiveness has emerged, primarily using
more closely to the role of the contextual factors the restrictive emotionality dimension of the
surrounding emotional expression might help Gender Role Conflict Scale developed by
account for the frequent observation that men O’Neil, Helms, Gable, Davis, and Wrightsman
have difficulties expressing emotions in therapy (1986). Male restrictive emotionality has been
(see, e.g., Brooks, 1998, Robertson, 2001; found to be related to low self-esteem
Scher, 1981; Silverberg, 1986). Traditional (Cournoyer, 1994), difficulties with relationship
counseling typically involves verbal face-to- intimacy (Sharpe & Heppner, 1991), marital
face contact. However, men who adhere to tra- dissatisfaction (Sharpe, 1993), anxiety (Cour-
ditional gender-role norms tend to be less will- noyer, 1994), depression (Sharpe & Heppner,
ing to disclose their emotions verbally (Robert- 1991), a negative view of help seeking (Robert-
son et al., 2001) and might have less favorable son & Fitzgerald, 1992), attaching more stigma
evaluations of face-to-face counseling com- to career counseling (Rochlen & O’Brien,
pared with online counseling (Rochlen et al., 2002), and an increased similarity in personality
2004). Nevertheless, the above studies suggest style to chemical abusers (Blazina & Watkins,
that outside the context of traditional counsel- 1996).
ing, there appears to be considerable within- Although evidence is growing on the delete-
group and across-situation variability in men’s rious outcomes related to male restrictive emo-
willingness to express their feelings. tionality, three issues are in need of further
research attention. First, important questions
Consequences of Men’s Emotional have been raised about whether inexpressive-
Behavior ness, in and of itself, is problematic for men or
whether other factors are negotiating the influ-
The issue of whether and how men’s emo- ence on psychological and physiological out-
tional behaviors influence their psychological comes. In a study examining the relationships
and physical health is complex, with many un- among masculine gender role, personality, and
answered questions. The discussion in this sec- counseling-related variables (Tokar, Fischer,
tion begins with a review of the literature on the Schaub, & Moradi, 2000), personality variables
health consequences of men’s emotional behav- were found to mediate the relationship between
iors, followed by a survey of relevant theories restrictive emotionality and eight out of nine
and empirical evidence from the science of counseling-related variables. The authors con-
emotion. cluded that most of the links between gender-
role conflict and counseling-related variables
Literature on Male Emotional are best conceptualized as indirect and occur-
Inexpressiveness ring through personality.
Second, the overwhelming majority of re-
In the last 20 years, the literature on male search in this area has emerged from using the
emotional inexpressiveness has primarily em- Restrictive Emotionality Scale, a subscale of the
66 WONG AND ROCHLEN
Gender Role Conflict Scale (O’Neil et al., dence of the positive outcomes related to the
1986). Restrictive emotionality focuses on the expression of emotions have been strongly
negative consequences of socialized gender demonstrated by a series of studies indicating
roles on an individual or on others (O’Neil et that writing about one’s feelings related to pain-
al., 1995). Mahalik and his colleagues (Ma- ful events has psychological and physiological
halik, Locke, et al., 2003) have commented that benefits (see Pennebaker, 1997b, for a review).
the Gender Role Conflict Scale emphasizes pa- These outcomes include positive influences on
thology related to masculinity rather than con- immune function, long-term improvements in
formity to gender-role norms per se. Hence, it is distress, and even improvement in students’ ac-
not surprising that restrictive emotionality has ademic performance.
been found to be associated with negative out- The benefits of talking, as opposed to writing,
comes. The research on restrictive emotionality about one’s emotions appear to be more situ-
provides strong evidence of possible dangers ationally determined (Bonanno, 2001). Much of
associated with male emotional inexpressive- the research on this subject has focused on
ness, but it might not demonstrate conclusively disclosure in psychotherapy. The resulting evi-
that adherence to gender-role norms for men’s dence has been mixed. For example, in a review
emotional behavior in and of itself leads to of the research on disclosure, Stiles (1995)
negative outcomes. found that although therapists rated high levels
Third, there is insufficient theorizing and re- of client disclosure as evidence of good thera-
search on whether and how emotional inexpres- peutic process, disclosure was positively corre-
siveness is adaptive for men (Heesacker & Pri- lated with absolute levels of distress and psy-
chard, 1992; Mahalik, Good, & Englar-Carlson, chopathology at the beginning and end of treat-
2003; Wester et al., 2002). In addition, little is ment. In their review of the literature, Kennedy-
known about whether and how nonconformity Moore and Watson (1999, 2001) concluded that
to masculine gender-role norms (e.g., being the expression of emotions may be helpful or
emotionally expressive) might lead to social harmful, depending on a variety of factors. For
stress (Mahalik, Locke, et al., 2003). The ques- example, expressing emotions can reduce dis-
tion of whether it is beneficial to express or not tress if the expresser’s feelings are validated by
express one’s emotions remains mired in con- a confidant. However, expressing distressful
troversy, as the following section demonstrates emotions to a confidant might also threaten the
(Bonanno, 2001). expresser’s self-esteem by causing him or her to
feel vulnerable (Kennedy-Moore & Watson,
Theories and Empirical Evidence From 2001).
the Science of Emotion Consequences of emotional inexpressiveness.
Research on the negative consequences of emo-
It is proposed that theories and empirical tional inexpressiveness has focused on the hy-
findings from the science of emotion have the pothesis that people who inhibit their emotions
potential to contribute to the development of a are more prone to disease than those who are
more nuanced explanation of men’s emotional emotionally expressive. The suppression of
behavior than currently exists in the literature. emotions, for example, has been found to be
Evidence on the consequences of emotional ex- associated with the onset and progression of
pressiveness and inexpressiveness from the sci- cancer (see Consedine, Magai, & Bonanno,
ence of emotion is reviewed, and an examina- 2002, for a review). It has been suggested that
tion of approaches scholars have used to predict emotional inexpressiveness creates an internal
the consequences of emotional behavior fol- stress response, which leads to the selective
lows. Finally, suggestions are offered for how inhibition of components of the immune system
these perspectives can be integrated with cur- (Consedine et al., 2002). Nevertheless, in a re-
rent explanations of male emotional behavior. cent meta-analysis of the effects of emotional
Consequences of emotional expressiveness. behavior in patient samples, no relationship be-
The empirical evidence suggests that emotional tween either emotional expression or nonex-
expression and nonexpression can potentially pression and disease status was found, although
have positive and negative consequences. Evi- there was a weak association between increases
DEMYSTIFYING MEN’S EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR 67
on gender role stereotypes.” Men with gender- Changing the accepted mode of expression in
role conflict as manifested in high levels of counseling could be helpful for some men. Rob-
restrictive emotionality might be understood as ertson and his colleagues (Robertson et al.,
experiencing conflicts in their emotion-related 2001) recommended that getting male clients
values: They wish to be more expressive but are with high levels of gender-role stress to report
threatened by perceived social disapproval. It feelings in a structured way (e.g., charting the
can be argued that this conflict between desire intensity of their emotion on a visual scale) is
and perceived social expectations appears to be likely to be more effective than asking, “How
particularly problematic. do you feel?” because the former is more com-
patible with a traditional male emphasis on task
Clinical Implications completion and structured activity.
In addition, the review of the literature on
The foregoing discussion suggests several consequences of men’s emotional behavior sug-
important clinical implications. In addressing gests that clinicians who use their male clients’
male clients’ emotional inexpressiveness, coun- degree of emotional expressiveness or inexpres-
selors and therapists need to be aware of the siveness as a heuristic for judging their psycho-
diversity of possible causes of inexpressiveness logical health could be relying on an overly
and tailor their clinical interventions to fit the simplistic epistemology. Instead, they should
specific nature of their clients’ nonexpression. consider paying more attention to their male
In this respect, the process model of emotional clients’ emotion-related values and how these
expression and nonexpression (Kennedy-Moore values influence their psychological function-
& Watson, 1999) could serve as a useful guide. ing. For example, counselors and therapists
For example, men who frequently repress their could help male clients resolve conflicts among
feelings or who cannot identify what they feel their emotion-related values or mismatches be-
(disruptions at Steps 2 and 3, respectively) tween their values and those of significant oth-
might benefit from exercises that help them ers. Furthermore, counselors and therapists
identify and label their emotions (Levant, should consider the possibility that their male
1998). In contrast, inexpressive men who eval- clients’ inexpressiveness is a strength that can
uate their emotions negatively (disruption at be used to help them deal with their problems
Step 4) might profit from cognitive therapy to (Heesacker & Prichard, 1992)—for example,
challenge negative beliefs about expressing remaining calm and problem-focused in times
their feelings (Mahalik, 1999) or psychoeduca- of crisis (Mahalik, Good, & Englar-Carlson,
tion on the adaptive value of emotions (Robert- 2003).
son & Freeman, 1995). Some men might be Last, instead of viewing emotional expres-
reluctant to express feelings because they be- sion as the panacea for inexpressive men, coun-
lieve women are more emotional than men and selors and therapists should broaden their scope
that to be emotionally expressive is to be like a of interventions to help their male clients de-
woman (Robertson & Freeman, 1995). Explain- velop flexible patterns of emotional behavior
ing to these men that research has demonstrated that can be adapted to their own emotion-related
that sex differences in emotionality are small, values as well as those of important persons in
inconsistent, or limited to specific situational their lives. Because emotional expression might
contexts (Wester et al., 2002) might help liber- not be inherently better than emotional nonex-
ate them from this fear. pression, the goal should be to help male clients
Clinicians may also benefit from reconsider- learn when, how, and to whom they should
ing the modes of emotional expression they express or not express their emotions (Green-
consider healthy and appropriate for men berg, 2002; Kennedy-Moore & Watson, 2001).
(Wester et al., 2002). Heesacker and Prichard
(1992), for example, criticized the tendency Recommendations for Research
among counselors and therapists to focus on the
verbal expression of emotions, which, they as- In view of the earlier discussion on the causes
sert, emphasizes a feminine approach to of emotional inexpressiveness, researchers
emotions. studying male emotional inexpressiveness are
DEMYSTIFYING MEN’S EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR 69
encouraged to broaden the scope and method- pathological measures of emotional inexpres-
ology of their research agendas to include the siveness (Mahalik, Locke, et al., 2003). Re-
diverse causes of men’s inexpressiveness. Re- cently, Mahalik and his colleagues (Mahalik,
searchers could analyze which disruption in Locke, et al., 2003) developed the Conformity
Kennedy-Moore and Watson’s (1999) process to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI), which
model is the best predictor of the Restrictive measures adherence to masculine gender norms.
Emotionality Scale (O’Neil et al., 1986), the It allows for the examination of both the costs
most widely used measure of male emotional and benefits related to conformity and noncon-
inexpressiveness. At present, there is no single formity to masculine gender-role norms. One of
instrument that can assess all five disruptions in the subscales of the CMNI, the Emotional Con-
the process model. However, there are existing trol subscale, measures a form of male emo-
instruments that can measure individual disrup- tional inexpressiveness. Although research on
tions. For example, physiological responses the CMNI is just beginning, it represents a
(Step 1) can be assessed using the Focused promising model to research positive and
Technology F1000 Instrumentation System negative consequences of men’s emotional
(BioMedical Instruments, Inc., Warren, MI; see behavior.
Robertson et al., 2001, for an example of a More research should also be conducted on
study that used this instrument), whereas the the mediating and moderating factors linking
evaluation of one’s emotions (Step 3) can be emotional behavior to physiological and psy-
measured using the Attitudes Towards Emo- chological outcomes. In respect of possible me-
tional Expression Scale (Joseph, Williams, Ir- diators, it is surmised that one’s conflict over
wing, & Cammock, 1994). emotional expression will mediate the relation-
With respect to men’s preferred modes of ship between men’s restrictive emotionality and
emotional expression, an untapped area of study counseling-related variables. In addition, cur-
is how different types of men might benefit rent theories and models of masculinity ideolo-
from the writing interventions associated with gies are based on research conducted primarily
the research of Pennebaker and his colleagues with White men of Western European ancestry
(see Pennebaker, 1997b, for a review). There is in the United States (Good & Sherrod, 2001).
evidence suggesting that men and individuals Hence, in considering possible moderators, re-
high on the trait of alexithymia appear to benefit searchers could explore whether and how race-
more from writing than women (Smyth, 1998) related variables might alter the relationship
and individuals low on alexithymia (Solano, between men’s emotional behavior and psycho-
Donati, Pecci, Persichetti, & Colaci, 2003). It is logical outcomes.
not difficult to speculate that writing interven-
tions would be especially helpful for men who Summary and Conclusion
have difficulties expressing emotions. Research
should also be conducted to examine the extent In this article, it has been argued that male
to which men with varying levels of adherence emotional behavior is not a unidimensional trait
to traditional male role norms would be willing but a multifaceted construct with many causes,
to express their emotions across differing mo- modes, and consequences. Male emotional in-
dalities of counseling (e.g., face-to-face, e-mail, expressiveness should be understood in light of
and audio counseling). its many possible causes, including a high
With regard to research on the consequences threshold for emotional activation, lack of
of men’s emotional behavior, Kelly and Hall awareness of emotion, inability to identify feel-
(1992) lamented that the literature on counsel- ings, negative evaluations of one’s emotions,
ing men has adopted a pathological model to and perceived lack of social opportunity to ex-
explain emotional inexpressiveness rather than press feelings. An examination of men’s emo-
a positive developmental approach that focuses tional behavior must also consider the diverse
on promoting and affirming men’s strengths. modes through which men express emotion.
Consistent with this critique, more research Some men are more likely to disclose feelings
should be conducted on the adaptive values of through nonverbal rather than verbal modes of
men’s emotional inexpressiveness using non- expression. Finally, the link between men’s
70 WONG AND ROCHLEN
emotional behavior and their physiological and health relationship: A review and research agenda.
psychological health is complex. Men’s emo- Review of General Psychology, 6, 204 –228.
tional behavior might not be a good predictor of Cook, J. E., & Doyle, C. (2002). Working alliance in
their health outcomes. Instead, researchers and online therapy as compared to face-to-face ther-
clinicians should attend to how difficulties re- apy: Preliminary results. Cyber Psychology and
Behavior, 5(2), 95–105.
lated to men’s emotion-related values affect
Cournoyer, R. J. (1994). A developmental study of
their lives and acknowledge the adaptive value gender role conflict in men and its changing rela-
of certain facets of men’s emotional behavior. tionship to psychological well-being. Dissertation
The above review underscores the need for Abstracts International, 54(12), 6476.
researchers and clinicians to be grounded in the Davidson, B., Balswick, J., & Halverson, C. (1983).
science of emotion (Heesacker et al., 1999; Affective self-disclosure and marital adjustment:
Wester et al., 2002). Researchers can borrow A test of equity theory. Journal of Marriage and
from the rich tapestry of emotion research and Family, 45, 93–102.
theory to construct more sophisticated concep- Fischer, A. R., & Good, G. E. (1997). Men and
tualizations of men’s emotional behavior. Sim- psychotherapy: An investigation of alexithymia,
ilarly, clinicians with a strong background in the intimacy, and masculine gender roles. Psychother-
science of emotion would benefit from becom- apy, 34, 160 –170.
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lems and effective treatment. In G. R. Brooks &
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G. E. Good (Eds.), The new handbook of psycho-
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