Conventional techniques

1. Artisanal Fish Drying:

Artisanal processing is associated with small-scale fisheries, and leverages methods such as
sun drying, salting, fermenting, and smoking and frying, all of which enable fish to be
preserved in locations where ice and refrigeration are non-existent or too expensive. These
processes generally involve destroying spoilage bacteria and enzymes and creating conditions
which unsuitable for microbial growth and proliferation. Many methods rely on the removal
of moisture from the fish with or without some form of heat treatment, such as smoking or
frying.

Drying involves the evaporation of moisture from the surface of the fish and the migration of
moisture from inside the fish to the surface. Drying is affected by the movement of air over
the surface of the fish as well as the temperature and humidity of that air. Sun drying of fish,
with or without the addition of salt, is practiced in many tropical countries, and is a low cost
form of preservation.

Food loss and waste (FLW) associated with artisanal sun drying occurs because of poor
quality raw material (poor quality in poor quality out), poor handling practices and
inadequate drying techniques. Insufficient processing capacity, compounded by bad weather
conditions, trigger delays in processing, especially at times of excess supply. Poor weather
conditions, such as rain and cloud cover, make drying difficult and cause spoilage. It is not
unusual to find a situation whereby high catches coincide with periods of poor weather, hence
the problem of FLW is more significant and can be seasonal.

2. Artisanal Fish Product Storage:

Products of artisanal fish processing (dried, salted and dried, smoked) often undergo a period
of storage prior to being sold, distributed and consumed. Such storage typically takes place at
the processing location and/or at a market.

Product type, moisture content, design of storage facility, length of storage time, humidity,
temperature and hygiene and sanitation practices can influence the likelihood of food loss and
waste (FLW) during storage. Products can be stored for up to several months depending on
these variables, particularly the type of product and its moisture content.

Food loss and waste (FLW) occurs because of insect infestation (Dermestes spp, Necorbia
spp), attack by animal pests such as rats, mould growth, physical damage and chemical
changes brought about by oxidation lipids (fats). Insects and pests typically cause waste, as
well as quality loss. Oxidation of fat brings about colour change in dried products, which can
affect taste (rancidity) and the selling price of products value. Oxidation is also associated
with nutrient loss.
3. Artisanal Fish Salting:

Artisanal fish salting is a traditional method of processing used in many countries. It is often
used in combination with drying and smoking. It is a low cost form of fish preservation.
There are two common methods of salting: dry salting, whereby salt is applied directly onto
the fish surface; and, brining, whereby the fish are immersed in a salt/water solution. Both
marine and inland fish are salted. Fish are salted whole (if they are small), split or cut into
pieces prior to salting.

The salting process and product characteristics are affected by the type of salt used and the
duration of the process. Salted fish tend to be robust and can have a shelf life of 6 months,
depending on species and salt/moisture content.

Salt uptake is affected by:

Fat content

Thickness of fish

Freshness

Temperature

Food loss and waste (FLW) occurs because of poor raw material quality, handling and
infestation. For example, FLW can occur because of insect infestation (Dermestes spp,
Necorbia spp), attack by animal pests such as rats, mould growth, physical damage and
chemical changes brought about by oxidation lipids (fats). Insects and pests typically cause
waste, as well as quality loss. Oxidation of fat brings about colour change in dried products
which can affect taste (rancidity) and the selling price of products value. Oxidation is also
associated with nutrient loss.

FLW can also be caused by a condition known as “putty fish,” which is the result of both heat
and bacteria. Fish that get too warm become soft and tend to break open when they are
dressed/split. Later, during the splitting and washing, bacteria get into these cracks. When the
fish is salted, many of these cracks are pressed together leaving the bacteria inside the fish,
and the salt outside. If these bacteria grow fast enough, they may spoil the fish before the salt
strikes in to stop their growth. It takes from one to two full days in warm weather for the salt
to penetrate the thicker parts of the fish, and usually only large fish become puttied.

4. Artisanal Fish Smoking:

Artisanal fish smoking is a heat drying process. The heat is typically provided by an open
wood fire, over which the fish are placed. The use of fire imparts a smoke flavour and affects
the colour of the final products, which are usually light to dark brown. Various designs of
traditional smoking kiln are used to house the fire and contain the fish.

The smoking process and product characteristics are affected by the type of fuelwood used
and the duration of the smoking process. The dryness or moisture content of final products
 varies. Fish which has been smoked for a long duration (2 to 3 days) will have a low moisture
content of 10 to 15% and a potential shelf life of 6 to 9 months.

Artisanal fish smoking is practiced in many tropical countries, particularly in Africa, and is a
low cost form of preservation. Both marine and inland fish are smoked. Fish are either left
whole, split or cut into pieces prior to smoking.

Food loss and waste (FLW) occurs because of the use of poor quality raw material (poor
quality in poor quality out). Fresh fish which have suffered quality deterioration or partial
spoilage before being processed tend to give final products which break easily. Breakage is
exacerbated after processing by poor handling, packaging and transport. Fish burnt during
processing and fish falling into the fire (droppers) is another cause of FLW. Uneven smoking
can cause some product to be downgraded and sold for a lower price for example over
smoked products. FLW can increase if processing capacity is insufficient to cope with high
volume landings which lead to delays in smoking and quality deterioration of raw material.

Insect infestation (Dermestes spp, Necorbia spp), attack by animal pests and mould growth
cause loss and waste during storage as well as rejections in markets. Additionally, the high
temperatures the fish can be subjected to during smoking (up to 150°C) is linked to
nutritional loss, particularly the loss of protein due to the denaturation of amino acids such as
lysine.

Advanced techniques
1. Canning Fish and Fish Products:

Canning:

Canned fish are an important food source. Canned fish are rich in protein and many other
essential nutrients, and can be a good source of omega-3 fatty acids. Many different types of
sea creatures are canned, including fish, molluscs, and crustaceans. Canned fish are processed
and sealed in a hermetic container such as a can, and subjected to heat. Generally, the shelf
life of canned fish ranges from 1 to 5 years.

The canning process generates by-products such as head, bone, skin and viscera.
Traditionally, this is not wasted and it is processed to produce fish meal and fish oil. Tuna
canning also generates dark meat, which is often used for pet food.

Various factors can lead to the rejection of canned products and hence food loss and
waste (FLW):

 Processing of poor quality raw material

 Formation of struvite crystals (magnesium ammonium phosphate crystals)—Generally any
struvite crystal greater than 5 mm in length is declared unacceptable
 Black iron sulfide staining (smut)—Staining affecting greater than 5% of the sample unit is
generally unacceptable
 Undesirable parts—Any parts from which the heads, gills, shell, viscera, or cartilage have not
been removed and that exceed a prescribed amount
 Honeycombing (usually found in tuna)—flesh showing evidence of pitting, either on the
surface or between the layers of fish flesh.
 Breakdown of texture—softening or grittiness of the texture, or rubberiness and excessive
toughness.
 Presence of foreign matter
 Foreign, uncharacteristic, or off odours and colours

2. Cold Storage:

The use of "cold" handling and storage systems as an investment to prevent perishable food
loss and waste (FLW) is widely used in developed countries. It can be highly cost effective
compared to continually increasing production to meet increasing demands for these foods.

The primary segments of an integrated cold chain include:

Packing and cooling fresh food products

Food processing (i.e. freezing of certain processed foods

Cold storage (short or long term warehousing of chilled or frozen foods)

Distribution (cold transport and temporary warehousing under temperature controlled

conditions)

Marketing (refrigerated or freezer storage and displays at wholesale markets, retail markets
and food service operations).

Cold storage is used to store a variety of already frozen fish and fish products and is a key
component of wholesale, processed, export and retail value chain activities in many
countries.

Practical Storage Lives of Fish Products

Below is an overview of expected storage times for different products at typical cold store
temperatures.

Storage life in
Product
months
- 18°C - 24°C - 30°C
Fatty fish (glazed) 5 9 > 12
Lean fish (fillet) 9 12 24
Flatfish 10 18 > 24
Shrimp (cooked/peeled) 5 9 12

Quality Deterioration is the Main Cause of FLW

Quality deterioration of products during cold storage is the main cause of FLW. If quality
deterioration is severe, then products may be discarded, which constitutes a food waste.
Temperature change, biochemical changes, and dehydration during cold storage are the main
causes of quality deterioration. Temperature fluctuations during storage will cause frozen
products to melt or thaw slightly and then refreeze. This leads to the formation of large ice
crystals inside the fish, which can cause physical damage to fish muscle.

Fish proteins become permanently changed during freezing and cold storage and the speed at
which denaturation, or breakdown of protein, occurs depends largely upon temperature.
Ensuring that cold storage is at as low a temperature as possible/practical slows the rate of
quality deterioration due to protein denaturation. Fatty fish may become unpleasantly altered
during cold storage due to oxidation of fats, but they can be protected to some extent either
by glazing or by packaging in plastic bags sealed under vacuum. These oxidation changes
take place more rapidly at higher temperatures and when the product is exposed to air.
Storage at a low temperature is an effective means of slowing the rate of spoilage.

The quality of fish is often judged by appearance, and color changes which are not otherwise
significant can result in fish being downgraded. The changes in the fish flesh which bring
about these color changes are also retarded at lower cold store temperatures.

Dehydration Concerns

Dehydration is a major concern. When fish get badly dehydrated in cold storage, the surface
becomes dry, opaque and spongy. Visible effects of severe dehydration on the surface of the
fish are known by the term "freezer burn" which usually only appears after periods of cold
storage. Frozen fish may dry slowly in cold storage even under good operating conditions.
This is undesirable for reasons other than the obvious one that the product will lose weight.
Drying also accelerates denaturation of the protein and oxidation of the fat in the fish. Even
totally impervious wrappers used to protect the product do not give full protection if the cold
store operating conditions are favorable for desiccation within the pack. In-pack desiccation
prevails when there is some free space within the wrapper/packaging and the temperature of
the store fluctuates. When this occurs, there will be times when the wrapper/packaging is
colder than the fish and moisture will then leave the product and appear as frost on the inner
surface of the wrapper/packaging. The total weight of the product and package will not
change but if the in-pack dehydration is severe, the fish will have the quality defects of
excessive drying.

3. Freezing:

Freezing preserves the storage life of foods by making them more inert and slowing down the
detrimental reactions that promote food spoilage and limit quality shelf life. Freezing is one
of the most important processing and preservation methods for fish. The main freezing
methods used are blast freezing, plate freezing, immersion or spray freezing.

Advantages of freezing include:

flesh is changed very little and there is minimal loss of quality

fish can be stored for many months - for times when catches are scarce
large quantities of fish can be stored (assuming the cold storage capacity is available)

good quality fish can be transported under refrigerated conditions over long distances (e.g.
export to areas where fresh fish are unavailable; fish caught in remote waters can be
consumed at home)

Disadvantages of freezing include:

quality changes can occur if fish is not stored properly

can be expensive due to the power or fuel needed to operate the freezer

customers often have less regard for frozen fish

until it has thawed, it may be difficult to identify whether the fish has been abused

Various factors can lead to food loss and waste (FLW):

Processing of poor quality raw material

Slow freezing process

Wrong storage temperature

Temperature fluctuations

Unfrozen water

Freezing damage

Vapor migration

Exposure of frozen product to air

4. Processing Plants:

Fish processing plants convert fresh or frozen fish into various types of product. Processing
plants can be labour intensive and or highly automated. They are used to process single or
multi-species on low or large volumes depending on the capacity of the facility and
availability of raw material. Both capture fisheries and aquaculture provide fish that is factory
processed. Factory processing produces a variety of different products such as chilled, frozen,
smoked, dried and surimi. Typical operations inside a factory include stunning, grading,
slime removal, de-heading, washing, scaling, gutting, cutting of fins, filleting, de-boning,
meat bone separation, packaging and labelling. Waste is often generated during some of these
operations. This waste is sometimes classed as by-products or co-products.

Fish processing facilities generate a significant amount of fish by-products (co-products) that
could be an important source of energy, food, fertilizer or industrial feedstock.

The discards from the processing plants can be used to produce fish protein concentrate, fish
oils and enzymes (such as pepsin and chymotrypsin), and other value-added products. The
fish oil is used for products such as margarine, omega-3 fatty acids and biodiesel. The fish
protein concentrate is used as human food and animal feed. Fish protein is also rich in amino
acids which are highly suitable for human consumption.

Key causes of food loss and waste associated with processing plants include:

quality deterioration

product damage, including damage to packaging

product outside specification or poor quality

waste from processing operations

In the UK alone over 133,000 tonnes of fish waste, including by-products, is generated by the
processing sector in total per year. This amounts to 12.7% of total inputs by weight.