Novia Anggi Lestari

2310732031

Summarize the Topic of "Foreign Influences on Old English"

1. The Contact of English with Other Languages

English not only has its roots in the dialects that the Jutes, Saxons and Angles brought to
Britain, but was also influenced by Celtic, Roman and Scandinavian languages in the first 700
years of its existence. Contact with these languages led to vocabulary additions and changes in
English, which is the focus of the chapter.

2. The Celtic Influence.

Although the Anglo-Saxon conquest of the Celtic population in Britain led to bloody battles
and conflicts, not all Celts were completely destroyed. Instead, there was significant
assimilation and cultural mixing. Place names are evidence of battles between natives and
settlers, yet many Celts survived and integrated into the new culture, perhaps as slaves or
through marriage with Anglo-Saxons. This suggests that contact between these two groups
was long-standing and influenced each other for generations.

3. Celtic Place-Names and Other Loanwords

Evidence of the interaction between Celtic languages and Old English is mainly reflected in
the legacy of place names in England. For example, the Kingdom of Kent, Northumbrian,
Devonshire, Cornwall, and a host of other names show the impact of Celtic languages in the
formation of place names in the area. In addition, Celtic elements are also present in the naming
of rivers, hills and other natural features in Old England, signalling a cultural and linguistic link
between the Celts and Old English speakers of the time. The influence of Celtic languages on
Old English is very limited. Although some words are derived from Celtic sources, their influence
is almost negligible. Celtic words in Old English are thought to have come from everyday
interactions between Anglo-Saxons and the natives, as well as through the influence of Celtic
Christian missionaries. Despite efforts to spread Christian doctrine, Celtic words did not really
take root in the English language and only a few are still used in everyday life. As such, Celtic
influence is considered minimal in the development of Old English.

4. Three Latin Influences on Old English

The influence of the Celtic language on Old English was insignificant due to the irrelevant
cultural relationship between the Celts and Anglo-Saxons, as well as the minimal contribution
made by the Celts to Anglo-Saxon civilisation. In contrast, the influence of Latin was dominant
on the development of Old English due to its long-standing contact with Roman civilisation
through various sectors such as commercial, military, religious and intellectual. In addition, Latin
elements had been adopted by Germanic tribes before they arrived in Britain, as well as through
the spread of Christianity by Roman missionaries.

5. Chronological Criteria

To have a proper understanding of how English vocabulary evolved over time, it is

important to know when loan words came into use in the language. Although it is difficult to
date with certainty, the appearance of words in writings such as Beowulf or the poems of
Cynewulf can provide clues. However, the presence of words in such texts does not necessarily
reflect how common or recognised they were at that time. Therefore, it is necessary to consider
different types of evidence to gain a more complete understanding of the development of
English vocabulary. Analysing the phonetic changes and sound characteristics in borrowed
words provides strong evidence to establish when the words were borrowed. Factors such as i-
umlaut changes and palatal diphthongisation in Germanic languages provide clear clues to the
time of borrowing. In addition, the observation of sound changes in Vulgar Latin also helps to
establish when the words were borrowed into Old English.

6. Continental Borrowing (Latin Influence of the Zero Period)

The result of word exchange between Latin and Germanic languages influenced by early
relations between the Romans and Germanic tribes in Europe is believed to have brought about
sixty Latin words into English. This reflects the strong cultural influence and communication
between the two groups. The acceptance of Roman words by the Germanic tribes that came to
Britain confirms the close ties between the two cultures. The words received naturally reflected
interactions in various aspects of life, such as agriculture, trade, domestic life, food, building
arts and more. This shows that contact with more advanced civilisations brought new ideas and
significant influence on the evolution of the language and culture of the Germanic tribes in
Britain in that period.

7. Latin through Celtic Transmission (Latin Influence of the First Period)

Although there was interaction between Latin and Celtic with Old English through the
Roman occupation and Celtic influence, the impact of Latin on the development of Old English
was limited. Most of the Latin words that made their way into Old English were most likely
channelled through the Celtic languages. Although some Latin words survive in modern English,
Latin's influence on Old English is small compared to influences from other sources.

8. Latin Influence of the Second Period: The Christianizing of Britain

The main influence of Latin on Old English came from the conversion to Roman Christianity
in 597, which began a systematic attempt by Rome to Christianise Britain. Although Christianity
had been introduced earlier by Irish monks, the mission of St Augustine, encouraged by Pope
Gregory the Great, became the beginning of the strong influence of Latin in the linguistic and
cultural life of Old English. Overall, the process of spreading Christianity in England in the 6th
and 7th centuries through the efforts of missionaries such as Augustine and Aidan was
challenging due to resistance from the traditional customs and beliefs of the people. However,
through their perseverance, courage and commitment, as well as the support of several
Christian leaders and communities, significant changes took place in England, which eventually
resulted in the majority of the population embracing Christianity within a period of one hundred
years. This process also highlights the importance of tolerance and freedom in spreading
religion, as well as the ability of missionaries to understand and accommodate local cultures in
their endeavours.

9. Effects of Christianity on English Civilization

The spread of Christianity in England initially focused on the building of churches and the
establishment of monasteries, with the use of Latin in religious ceremonies and ecclesiastical
learning. Schools were established in monasteries and churches to spread religious and other
knowledge. Figures such as Theodore of Tarsus, Hadrian, Aldhelm, and Bede were instrumental
in educating and disseminating such knowledge. The impact extended not only to religion, but
also to English culture, literature, art and economy, and exerted a significant influence in Europe,
which is still reflected in the Old English vocabulary and intellectual heritage.

10. The Earlier Influence of Christianity on the Vocabulary

Over the course of more than five centuries from the introduction of Christianity in 597 to
the end of the Old English period, Latin words began to permeate the English language. This
was mainly due to the first wave of Christian missionaries in the seventh century, which was
reflected in the construction of churches and monasteries. Increased religious activity was also
responsible for the rapid absorption of Latin words into the vocabulary. These religious
developments gave birth to new concepts that were sometimes difficult to express with limited
language resources. The process of vocabulary enrichment was not instantaneous; some words
entered quickly, while others appeared more slowly towards the end of the period. There are two
main groups of Latin borrowings in this second period, each with distinctive features. The
influence of Christianity on Old English was profound, especially in the addition of many words
related to the church, religious ceremonies and daily life. This reflects the cultural and social
changes taking place in Britannia at the time, as well as the important role the church played in
shaping the structure of language and public life in the period.

11. The Benedictine Reform

The church in England experienced a significant decline in the 8th-10th centuries, mainly due to
Danish invasions and internal problems within the church itself. This resulted in a decline in
morals and education, with many monasteries and churches falling into ruins and education
going into decline. However, reforms began to take place in the second half of the 10th century,
led by figures such as King Alfred and three prominent religious leaders: Dunstan, Athelwold,
and Oswald. They began a revival of true monasticism in England, supported by King Edgar, and
restored the observance of the Benedictine Rule as the basis of true monastic life. The church
reformation in England led by Athelwold brought about major changes in the structure of the
church, inspired by the monasteries of reformed Europe. The replacement of secular clergy with
monks, the improvement of education in monasteries, and the construction of schools brought
monasteries back to being literary centres, promoting knowledge in English and Latin and
preserving Old English manuscripts.

12. Influence of the Benedictine Reform on English

The influence of Latin on English was influenced by the wealth of the church and education.
Recent literary activity resulted in the importation of Latin that differed from earlier Christian
borrowings, emphasising more scientific ideas. Although many Latin words made their way into
English, most are no longer in widespread use. Latin borrowings in the Christian period came
mainly from books, with some words possibly used earlier but not clearly documented in
English history.

13. The Application of Native Words to New Concepts

The impact of Christianity on the lives and minds of the English of the period is reflected in
the use of vocabulary, both borrowed from Latin and altered from old English. Despite the
borrowing of Latin words, many Christian concepts were expressed through original Anglo-
Saxon words with minor modifications. This shows that the influence of Christianity not only
included the addition of new words, but also stimulated creativity in the use of native language
resources.

14. The Extent of the Influence

English shows the influence of foreign languages, especially Latin, through the use of
loanwords. Although many Latin words have been adopted and absorbed completely, some still
retain their foreign identity. This process of integration reflects the evolution of an English
language that is increasingly accepting foreign elements as an important part of its vocabulary.

15. The Scandinavian Influence: The Viking Age

During the Viking Age, which lasted from the mid-8th century to the early 11th century,
Scandinavian influences on Old English occurred due to a series of raids, settlements and
conquests by Vikings in the regions around the North Sea and Baltic, including England. As a
result, the influence of Scandinavian language and culture influenced the development of Old
English.

16. The Scandinavian Invasions of England

The Scandinavian incursion into England developed in three clearly distinguishable phases. In
the first phase, around 787 to 850, there were small looting attacks on towns and monasteries
along the English coast by Scandinavian groups. Then, in the second stage, around 850 to 878,
large Danish forces began to attack in a more organised manner, capturing important cities
such as Canterbury, London and York and threatening Wessex. The third stage began after the
victory of Alfred the Great of Wessex in 878. The Treaty of Wedmore, signed between Alfred and
Guthrum, established the Danelaw as a region in England subject to Danish law. This treaty also
marked the acceptance of Christianity by the Danes, paving the way for the integration of the
two groups. In the third phase of the Scandinavian invasion (878-1042), England experienced a
period of complex politics and assimilation. Although the Treaty of Wedmore did not completely
end the conflict, the leadership of Edward the Elder and his grandson Athelstan managed to
contain the Danes with a series of counterattacks, including victory at the Battle of Brunanburh
in 937. However, new invasions occurred, such as the Viking attack on the south-east coast of
England in 991. As a result of political intrigue, Svein of Denmark succeeded to the English
throne in 1014, followed by his son Cnut, who ruled England for the next 25 years.

17. The Settlement of the Danes in England

The event in question is the Scandinavian arrival and occupation of England in the Middle
Ages. Although their initial aim was plunder, many chose to settle and become permanent
settlers. This is evident from the large number of places in England that have Scandinavian
names, with the majority of settlers coming from Denmark, although there were also large
settlements from Norway, especially in the north-west region. The impact of their presence is
not only seen in place names, but also in the structure of manorial organisations, local
government, legal procedures and aspects of everyday culture. As a result, the Scandinavian
influence on the English language is significant.

18. The Amalgamation of the Two Peoples

Relations between Anglo-Saxons and Danes were not always hostile, especially in the tenth
century. Despite attacks and the burning of towns, many Scandinavians settled peacefully in
England and gradually assimilated into the English culture and way of life. This assimilation
process was aided by the natural adaptability of the Scandinavians and the willingness of the
English kings to devise a modus vivendi that allowed coexistence between the mixed
populations in the district. The important communities established by the Scandinavian settlers
became centres of their influence in England, but in the end, they were absorbed into the mass
of the English population as a whole.

19. The Relation of the Two Languages

The relationship between Danish and Norse in areas inhabited by Danes is a complex issue
of inference. Despite disagreements in contemporary views, there is strong evidence of
interaction between the two languages, supported by the many Scandinavian elements present
in English. Mixed marriages and similarities between the languages also play a role in increasing
the level of bilingualism in the community.
20. The Tests of Borrowed Words

When determining whether a Modern English word is native or borrowed from a

Scandinavian language, careful analysis is required. While it is often tricky to make a decision,
there are some factors that can help, such as differences in sound development between Old
English and Scandinavian, and sometimes the meaning of the word can provide clues. The final
selection should thoroughly consider all the factors involved.

21. Scandinavian Place-Names

Evidence of extensive Scandinavian settlement in the UK is that there are many place and
personal names derived from Danish and other Scandinavian languages. This suggests that
Danes settled in England in large numbers, especially in the Danelaw regions of Yorkshire,
Lincolnshire and Cumbria. Personal names ending in -son also show a strong Scandinavian
cultural influence. With over 1,400 Scandinavian place names identified, this confirms the
extensive and influential settlement of Scandinavian people in Britain at the time.

22. The Earliest Borrowing

The influence of Scandinavia on Old English is particularly evident in words related to

sailing, war, law and social structure. Although the number of directly adopted words is
relatively small, this influence enriches and forms an important aspect of the evolution of the
English language, reflecting how the relationship between the Scandinavian colonisers and the
Anglo-Saxon people influenced vocabulary and language form.

23. Scandinavian Loanwords and Their Character

The influence of Danish on English not only includes nouns, adjectives and verbs, but also
reflects everyday life and mundane activities. This influence occurs due to the daily interaction
between the Danish and English people, without bringing about any major changes in their
culture or civilisation. Therefore, the words borrowed from Danish reflect the familiar and simple
nature of everyday life.

24. The Relation of Borrowed and Native Words

The Scandinavian influence on English created transformations in vocabulary due to the

intermingling of the two languages. Some words from Scandinavian languages replaced native
English words, while others remained together or underwent changes in meaning. This process
reflects the close relationship between the two languages over the centuries.

25. Form Words

The relationship between English and Scandinavian languages is very close, especially in
the use of words and language structures. Evidence of this connection is seen in the use of
words such as pronouns, prepositions, adverbs, and even parts of speech, which originated
from Scandinavian languages and have been absorbed into English. This shows that the
influence of Scandinavian languages has had a major impact on the evolution of the English
language.

26. Scandinavian Influence outside the Standard Speech

Scandinavian influence in English literature and variety is not just limited to words that have
been adopted into the standard language. There are many words and ideas from Old Norse that
are still visible in older works and various modern dialects, suggesting that the influence is more
profound than one might initially think.

27. Effect on Grammar and Syntax

The Scandinavian influence on English not only affects vocabulary, but also extends to
aspects of grammar, syntax and inflection. Although inflectional transfer between languages is
rare, the Scandinavian influence is still visible in some specialised inflectional elements, such as
verb endings and participles. In the Danelaw area, cultural exchange between the Danes and the
English gradually resulted in the loss of inflection, which in turn simplified English grammar. In
addition, it is possible that Scandinavian influences also affected syntax and idiomatic
expressions in English, especially in communities directly affected by Scandinavian culture.

28. Period and Extent of the Influence

Overall, the Scandinavian influence on Standard English is significant, especially in the

number of loanwords which stands at around 900. Although many of these words refer to
everyday concepts and objects, the Scandinavian influence is also felt in everyday speech,
especially in the northern and eastern regions of England. The most significant period of
Scandinavian influence occurred in the tenth and eleventh centuries during the interaction
between Denmark and England. Although many Scandinavian loanwords first appear in written
records in the thirteenth century, this may be due to the scarcity of earlier literary texts,
particularly in the Danelaw region. This confirms that Scandinavian influence was one of the
main contributors to the development of the English language.