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Applied Linguistics 2
Simplicity in Linguistic Complexity – 2nd edition (2023)

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The readings were selected and edited by Alahyan Khawla and Hannoune Soufiane.
Course Overview:
The "Simplicity in Linguistic Complexity: Applied Linguistics 2" book is designed by Alahyan
Khawla and Hannoune Soufiane for S6 linguistics students from the Faculty of Languages, Arts, and human
sciences at the University campus Ait Melloul – Ibn Zohr, Morocco. The book sources are drawn from Prof
Ait Hammou's and Prof Darhour's courses, as well as "Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching" by
J.C. Richard and T.S. Rodgers, 3rd edition, published by Cambridge University Press. For further guidance,
interested students may contact Prof Ait Hammou and Prof Darhour at y.aithammou@uiz.ac.ma and
h.darhour@uiz.ac.ma, respectively.
Recommended literature:
Richard, J.C., & Rodgers, T.S. (2014). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (3rd ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. J. (1998). English for specific purposes: Its definition, characteristics,
scope and purpose. English for Specific Purposes, 17(1), 5-16.
Tran, T. H. (2013). Second Language Assessment for Classroom Teachers. American Secondary Education,
41(1), 4-18.
Tilfarlioglu, F. Y. (2018). Testing and evaluation in ELT methodology. Journal of Education and Training
Studies, 6(11), 36-41.
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soufiane.hannoune12@gmail.com
Khawla.alahyan@gmail.com
The DOI of a book: 10.5281/zenodo.7844110

University of Ibn Zohr – Ait Melloul, Morocco Department of English Studies, Linguistics
Faculty of Languages, Arts, and human sciences Applied Linguistics 2 – semester 6
Contents page
Part 1: The Foundations of Language Teaching Methods: A Historical and Conceptual Overview ..............................8
1. Brief history of early developments in language teaching ...............................................................................8
1.1. The emergence of methods ......................................................................................................................8
1.2. The influence of Latin ...............................................................................................................................8
1.3. The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) ................................................................................................9
1.4. Language teaching innovations in the 19th century.................................................................................9
1.5. The reform movement ..............................................................................................................................9
2. The nature of approaches and methods in language teaching ......................................................................10
2.1. The Direct Method (DM) ........................................................................................................................10
2.2. Approaches and methods in teacher preparation programs .................................................................11
2.3. Approach and method ............................................................................................................................11
2.3.1. Approach.........................................................................................................................................11
2.3.1.1. Theory of language .....................................................................................................................11
2.3.1.1.1. The Cognitive model ............................................................................................................12
2.3.1.1.2. The Structural model ...........................................................................................................12
2.3.1.1.3. The Functional model ..........................................................................................................12
2.3.1.1.4. The Interactional model .......................................................................................................12
2.3.1.1.5. The Sociocultural model ......................................................................................................13
2.3.1.1.6. The Genre model .................................................................................................................13
2.3.1.1.7. The Lexical mode .................................................................................................................13
2.3.1.2. Theory of language learning .......................................................................................................13
2.3.1.2.1. Behaviorism .........................................................................................................................14
2.3.1.2.2. Cognitive-code learning .......................................................................................................14
2.3.1.2.3. The creative-construction hypothesis ..................................................................................14
2.3.1.2.4. Skill learning.........................................................................................................................14
2.3.1.2.5. Interactional theory .............................................................................................................14
2.3.1.2.6. Constructivism .....................................................................................................................15
2.3.1.2.7. Sociocultural learning theory (or social constructivism) .....................................................15
2.3.2. Design .............................................................................................................................................15
2.3.2.1. Objectives ...................................................................................................................................15
2.3.2.2. The syllabus.................................................................................................................................15
2.3.2.3. Types of learning and teaching activities ....................................................................................16
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2.3.2.4. Learner roles ...............................................................................................................................16

2.3.2.5. Teacher roles ...............................................................................................................................16
2.3.2.6. The role of instructional materials..............................................................................................16
2.3.3. Procedure........................................................................................................................................16
2.3.3.1.1. In situational language teaching ..........................................................................................17
2.3.3.2. In communicative language teaching .........................................................................................17
Part 2 : The teaching-methods eras ............................................................................................................................18
1. Pre-method......................................................................................................................................................19
2. Methods era ....................................................................................................................................................19
3. Post-method era ..............................................................................................................................................19
Part 3 : Language Teaching Methods: Applications ....................................................................................................21
1. The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) ....................................................................................................21
1.1. Background .............................................................................................................................................21
1.2. What is (GTM) ? ......................................................................................................................................21
1.3. Objectives ...............................................................................................................................................21
1.4. Techniques ..............................................................................................................................................21
1.5. Teacher roles ...........................................................................................................................................21
1.6. Learner roles ...........................................................................................................................................22
1.7. Advantages and disadvantages ...............................................................................................................22
1.8. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (GTM) ..................................................................22
2. The Direct Method (DM)................................................................................................................................23
2.1. Background .............................................................................................................................................23
2.2. What is (DM) ? ........................................................................................................................................23
2.3. Objectives ...............................................................................................................................................23
2.4. Techniques ..............................................................................................................................................23
2.5. Teacher roles ...........................................................................................................................................23
2.6. Learner roles ...........................................................................................................................................24
2.8. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (DM) ....................................................................24
3. The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching (OA/ SLT) ..............................................................25
3.1. Background .............................................................................................................................................25
3.2. What is (OA/ SLT) ? .................................................................................................................................25
3.3. Approach.................................................................................................................................................25
3.3.1. Theory of language .........................................................................................................................25
3.3.2. Theory of language learning ...........................................................................................................25
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3.4. Design .....................................................................................................................................................26

3.4.1. Objectives .......................................................................................................................................26
3.4.2. The syllabus ....................................................................................................................................26
3.4.3. Types of learning and teaching activities ........................................................................................26
3.4.4. Learner roles ...................................................................................................................................26
3.4.5. Teacher roles ...................................................................................................................................26
3.4.6. The role of instructional materials..................................................................................................26
3.5. Procedure................................................................................................................................................26
3.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (OA/ SLT) .............................................................27
4. The Audiolingual Method (ALM) ..................................................................................................................28
4.1. Background .............................................................................................................................................28
4.2. What is (ALM) ? ......................................................................................................................................28
4.3. Approach.................................................................................................................................................28
4.3.2. Theory of lnaguage learning ...........................................................................................................28
4.4. Design .....................................................................................................................................................28
4.4.1. Objectives .......................................................................................................................................28
4.4.2. The syllabus ....................................................................................................................................28
4.4.4. Learner roles ...................................................................................................................................29
4.4.5. Teacher roles ...................................................................................................................................29
4.5. Procedure................................................................................................................................................29
4.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (ALM) ..................................................................30
5. Total Physical Response (TPR) ......................................................................................................................31
5.1. Background .............................................................................................................................................31
5.2. What is (TPR) ? ........................................................................................................................................31
5.3. Approach.................................................................................................................................................31
5.4. Design .....................................................................................................................................................31
5.4.1. Objectives .......................................................................................................................................31
5.4.2. The syllabus ....................................................................................................................................31
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5.4.4. Learner roles ...................................................................................................................................32
5.4.5. Teacher roles ...................................................................................................................................32
5.5. Procedure................................................................................................................................................32
5.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (TPR) ....................................................................33
6. The Silent Way (SW) ......................................................................................................................................34
6.1. Background .............................................................................................................................................34
6.2. What is (SW) ?.........................................................................................................................................34
6.3. Approach.................................................................................................................................................34
6.4. Design .....................................................................................................................................................34
6.4.1. Objectives .......................................................................................................................................34
6.4.2. The syllabus ....................................................................................................................................35
6.4.4. Learner roles ...................................................................................................................................35
6.4.5. Teacher roles ...................................................................................................................................35
6.5. Procedure................................................................................................................................................36
6.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (SW) ....................................................................37
7. Communicaty Langauge Learning (CLL) ......................................................................................................38
7.1. Background .............................................................................................................................................38
7.2. What is (CLL) ? ........................................................................................................................................38
7.3. Approach.................................................................................................................................................38
7.4. Design .....................................................................................................................................................39
7.4.1. Objectives .......................................................................................................................................39
7.4.2. The syllabus ....................................................................................................................................39
7.4.4. Learner roles ...................................................................................................................................39
7.4.5. Teacher roles ...................................................................................................................................39
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7.5. Procedure................................................................................................................................................40
7.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (CLL) ....................................................................41
8. Suggestopedia .................................................................................................................................................42
8.1. Background .............................................................................................................................................42
8.2. What is (suggestopedia) ?.......................................................................................................................42
8.3. Approach.................................................................................................................................................42
8.4. Design .....................................................................................................................................................42
8.4.1. Objectives .......................................................................................................................................42
8.4.2. The syllabus ....................................................................................................................................42
8.4.4. Learner roles ...................................................................................................................................43
8.4.5. Teacher roles ...................................................................................................................................43
8.5. Procedure................................................................................................................................................43
8.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for Suggestopedia .....................................................45
9. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or (The communicative Approach) ...........................................46
9.1. Background .............................................................................................................................................46
9.2. What is (CLT) ? ........................................................................................................................................46
9.3. Approach.................................................................................................................................................46
9.4. Design .....................................................................................................................................................46
9.4.1. Objectives .......................................................................................................................................46
9.4.2. The syllabus ....................................................................................................................................47
9.4.4. Learner roles ...................................................................................................................................47
9.4.5. Teacher roles ...................................................................................................................................47
9.5. Procedure................................................................................................................................................48
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9.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (CLT) ....................................................................49

Part 4: Articles.............................................................................................................................................................50
1. English for Specific Purposes: Its Definition, Characteristics, Scope and Purpose .......................................50
1.1. Definition of ESP .....................................................................................................................................50
1.2. Types of ESP ............................................................................................................................................50
1.3. Historical Growth of ESP .........................................................................................................................50
1.4. Purpose of ESP Courses ..........................................................................................................................50
1.5. Characteristics of ESP Courses ................................................................................................................51
1.6. ESP Contents ...........................................................................................................................................51
1.7. English for Specific Purposes: Understanding the Differences between EAP and EOP ..........................52
2. Second Language Assessment for Classroom Teachers .................................................................................54
2.1. The Importance and Necessity of Assessment .......................................................................................54
2.2. Assessment Terminology ........................................................................................................................54
2.3. Categories of Evaluation and Assessments.............................................................................................55
2.3.1. Evaluation .......................................................................................................................................55
2.3.1. Assessment .....................................................................................................................................56
2.4. Principles of Second Language Assessment ...........................................................................................59
2.4.1. Validity ............................................................................................................................................59
2.4.2. Relaibility ........................................................................................................................................59
2.4.3. Practicality ......................................................................................................................................60
2.4.4. Authenticity (Equivalency) ..............................................................................................................61
2.4.5. Washback ........................................................................................................................................61
Part 5: Essays on Language Teaching History and Methods .......................................................................................63
1. Comparing the Grammar-Translation Method and the Direct Method in Language Teaching ......................63
2. Comparing Language Teaching Methodologies: Total Physical Response, The Silent Way, Community
Language Learning, and Suggestopedia .................................................................................................................64
Part 6 : Regular Spring Session Exams Correction – 2020-2021 and Mock-up Exam for 2022-2023..........................65
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Part 1: The Foundations of Language Teaching Methods: A Historical and Conceptual Overview
1. Brief history of early developments in language teaching
This chapter provides a historical overview of language teaching and the emergence of methods. It
explores the influence of Latin on language teaching, as well as the development of the Grammar-
Translation Method. Additionally, it examines language teaching innovations in the 19th century and the
Reform Movement that emerged during this time.
1.1. The emergence of methods
The emergence of methods in language teaching refers to the development and implementation of
various approaches to teaching a second or foreign language. It can be traced back to the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries, during which various approaches to language teaching were developed and
implemented in response to different linguistic theories, educational goals, and social contexts. This
historical overview highlights the evolution of language teaching from the Grammar-Translation method to
the more recent Communicative Language Teaching approach.
The "grammar-translation" method was prevalent in language teaching during the 19th century.
However, there were increasing demands for a more practical and communicative approach to language
teaching. Thus, different methods emerged such as the "direct method," which emphasized the importance
of oral communication, and the "audio-lingual method," which emphasized the development of habits
through extensive practice.
In the 1970s, a communicative approach to language teaching emerged, which stressed the
importance of using language for meaningful communication and the development of real-world
communicative competence. The emergence of various methods reflects the changes in teaching methods
as educators try to develop more effective and engaging approaches to teaching languages.
1.2. The influence of Latin
Language teaching has evolved throughout history to meet the changing goals of language learning.
During the Middle Ages, the primary focus was on Latin, which was considered crucial for intellectual
development in Western Europe for many centuries and served as the language of the educated and the elite.
However, in the Renaissance era, there was a shift towards oral proficiency, and speaking the language
became more important. Although Latin continued to be taught, the traditional grammar-translation method
used for Latin was later applied to other languages such as French and German.
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Latin had a profound influence on the development of other languages, as it was the language of
scholarship and science for many centuries. Its impact on language teaching methods was also significant.
The grammar-translation method used for teaching Latin was later applied to other languages, which had
far-reaching effects on the way we learn and teach languages today. Although Latin and Greek were once
considered essential for the study of the humanities, the demand for changes in language teaching methods
grew as society's needs changed. This led to a shift away from traditional languages towards teaching living
languages that are more relevant to modern society.
1.3. The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)
The grammar-translation method is an approach to language teaching that has its roots in the
teaching of Greek and Latin in the 19th century. It is one of the oldest language teaching methods, which
dominated language teaching in the 19th and early 20th centuries. This approach was influenced by the
classical education system, emphasizing the study of grammar rules and translation of literary texts from
the target language to the native language. The method relied heavily on memorization and repetition of
grammar rules, vocabulary lists, and dialogues. Oral communication was not given much importance in
this approach, and language learning was seen as an intellectual exercise rather than a communicative skill.
Despite criticisms that it produced students with limited speaking ability, the Grammar-Translation Method
continued to be used in language teaching until the 1950s and is still used in some parts of the world today.
1.4. Language teaching innovations in the 19th century
In the 19th century, language teaching saw innovation due to increased demand for oral proficiency,
dissatisfaction with traditional methods, and interest in child language learning. Language teaching
specialists like Marcel, Pendergast, and Gouin developed their own methods to teach modern languages.
Marcel emphasized meaning, proposed reading be taught first, and linked language teaching to a broader
education framework. Pendergast observed children's language learning and proposed a structural syllabus.
Gouin developed an approach based on using language to accomplish events with related actions. Despite
reflecting the changing times, their ideas lacked widespread acceptance and implementation.
1.5. The reform movement
The reform movement in language teaching, which took place in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, it was a collective effort by linguists and language teachers in Europe and America in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to improve the teaching of modern languages and to establish them
as serious academic disciplines. The Reformers criticized the Grammar-Translation Method for its lack of
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attention to spoken language, phonetics, and meaningful communication in favor of a more communicative
approach.
One of the key figures in this movement was Henry Sweet, who believed that language teaching
should be based on the study of speech sounds and their relationships. Sweet developed the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to help learners understand the sounds of the target language. Another important
figure in the reform movement was Wilhelm Viëtor, who argued that language teaching should focus on the
principles of imitation, repetition, and habit formation. Viëtor believed that learners should be exposed to
authentic language use and should practice using the language in context.
Overall, the reform movement was based on a set of principles and beliefs about language learning
and teaching that emphasized the importance of communication and the use of authentic language. This
approach marked a departure from the traditional grammar-translation method and paved the way for later
approaches to language teaching, such as the direct method, the Oral Approach, and the audio-lingual
method.
2. The nature of approaches and methods in language teaching
This chapter explores approaches and methods in language teaching, with a focus on the Direct
Method. It emphasizes the importance of teaching language through communication and immersion, and
the role of teacher preparation programs. The selection of an appropriate approach for specific contexts is
also discussed.
2.1. The Direct Method (DM)
The direct method is an influential language teaching approach that originated in France and
Germany around 1900. It was developed in response to the limitations of the grammar-translation method,
which failed to teach learners how to communicate in the target language effectively. The direct method is
grounded on the belief that language learning should be a natural and direct process, without relying on the
learners' native language or grammar rules.
This approach marked the beginning of the methodological era, which continued until the 1960s
and witnessed the emergence of alternative approaches and methods that challenged traditional language
teaching techniques. The direct method has played a pivotal role in the development of language teaching
methods by introducing innovative principles and techniques, such as exclusive use of the target language,
inductive grammar teaching, prioritizing speaking and listening skills, and integrating realia and visual aids
in the language classroom.
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2.2. Approaches and methods in teacher preparation programs
Approaches and methods in language teaching are not only relevant for classroom instruction, but
also for teacher preparation programs. Teacher preparation programs are where prospective teachers gain a
foundation of knowledge about pedagogy and subject matter, as well as early exposure to practical
classroom experience. According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), teacher preparation programs can be
influenced by different approaches and methods in language teaching, such as the oral approach, the
audiolingual method, communicative language teaching, task-based language teaching, and others. These
approaches and methods can shape the objectives, content, activities, and assessment of teacher preparation
programs, as well as the roles of teacher educators and teacher candidates. Moreover, teacher preparation
programs can also be evaluated based on different approaches and methods in language teaching, such as
competency-based language teaching, the lexical approach, multiple intelligences, and others. These
approaches and methods can provide criteria, evidence, and feedback for measuring the quality and
effectiveness of teacher preparation programs.
2.3. Approach and method
Approaches and methods are terms used to describe the principles and practices of language
teaching. According to Richards and Rodgers (2001), an approach is a set of beliefs and assumptions about
language, learning, and teaching, while a method is a specific procedure or technique for implementing an
approach. Different approaches and methods have emerged throughout the history of language teaching,
reflecting different theories, goals, and contexts. Approaches and methods can influence not only classroom
instruction, but also teacher preparation programs.
2.3.1. Approach
2.3.1.1. Theory of language
The theory of language is a branch of philosophy and linguistics that deals with the nature, origin,
and use of language. Different ways of teaching languages are influenced by different views of language.
For example, some theories view language as a system of rules and structures, while others view language
as a means of communication and interaction. Some theories emphasize the innate and universal aspects of
language, while others emphasize the learned and variable aspects of language. Some examples of theories
of language are the generative grammar theory, the functional grammar theory, the communicative
competence theory, and the discourse theory.
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2.3.1.1.1. The Cognitive model
The cognitive model in the theory of language is a view that sees language as a mental phenomenon
that involves cognitive processes such as perception, memory, reasoning, and problem-solving. According
to this view, language learning is a conscious and rational activity that requires the use of learning strategies
and the development of mental representations. The cognitive model also emphasizes the role of input,
output, feedback, and interaction in language learning. Some examples of methods based on the cognitive
model are the audiolingual method, the cognitive code learning method, and the monitor model.
2.3.1.1.2. The Structural model
The structural model, also known as the grammar-translation method, focuses on the explicit
teaching of grammar rules and the translation of texts. This approach assumes that language learning is
primarily a matter of acquiring grammatical rules and vocabulary items. the structural model also focuses
on the form and function of language units, such as sounds, words, and sentences. Some examples of
methods based on the structural model are the oral approach, the situational language teaching method, and
the audio-lingual method.
2.3.1.1.3. The Functional model
The functional model sees language as a means of communication and emphasizes the importance
of teaching language in context. This approach emphasizes the use of language for meaningful
communication and focuses on the functions of language such as making requests, giving directions, and
expressing opinions.The functional model also focuses on the meaning and use of language units, such as
words, sentences, and texts. Some examples of methods based on the functional model are communicative
language teaching, task-based language teaching, and systemic functional linguistics.
2.3.1.1.4. The Interactional model
The interactional model stresses the importance of social interaction in language learning. This
approach assumes that learning occurs through social interaction and that language is primarily a tool for
social interaction.The interactional model also focuses on the pragmatic and sociolinguistic aspects of
language use, such as turn-taking, feedback, politeness, and register. Some examples of methods based on
the interactional model are communicative language teaching, cooperative language learning, and task-
based language teaching.
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2.3.1.1.5. The Sociocultural model
The sociocultural model emphasizes the role of culture in language learning. This approach assumes
that language is inseparable from culture and that learners must understand the cultural context in which
the language is used to communicate effectively.language learning is based on participating and
collaborating in meaningful and authentic social practices with other speakers. The sociocultural model
also focuses on the historical and contextual aspects of language use, such as culture, identity, ideology,
and power. Some examples of methods based on the sociocultural model are systemic functional linguistics,
genre-based pedagogy, and critical pedagogy.
2.3.1.1.6. The Genre model
The genre model focuses on the different genres or types of discourse that learners encounter in the
target language. genres are shaped by the contexts and purposes of communication, and they have
recognizable forms and conventions that guide the writer and the reader.This approach emphasizes the
importance of teaching learners how to recognize and produce different genres of discourse such as
narratives, descriptions, and argumentative texts,etc., and to produce them effectively in various situations.
2.3.1.1.7. The Lexical mode
The lexical model emphasizes the importance of teaching vocabulary and collocations in context.
This approach assumes that learners need to acquire a large and varied vocabulary in order to communicate
effectively in the target language. According to the lexical model, language is not composed of isolated
words and grammatical rules, but of fixed and semi-fixed expressions, collocations, and chunks that are
learned and used as single items. The Lexical model is influenced by linguistic research that shows how the
lexicon is organized and structured, and how it interacts with other aspects of language. The Lexical model
can be applied to language teaching by helping learners to notice, acquire, and use lexical phrases in various
contexts, such as reading, writing, speaking, and listening.
2.3.1.2. Theory of language learning
The theory of language learning is one of the components of an approach to language teaching.
Different approaches may have different theories of language learning, based on different perspectives and
research findings. For example, some approaches may emphasize the role of input, interaction, output,
feedback, motivation, affective factors, cognitive processes, social context, or individual differences in
language learning. The theory of language learning guides the design of methods and techniques for
language teaching.
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2.3.1.2.1. Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a psychological theory that explains language learning as a process of forming habits
through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It influenced the development of language teaching
methods in the 20th century, emphasizing oral drills, pattern practice, and error correction. However,
behaviorism has been criticized for not accounting for the creative and complex aspects of language use,
and for ignoring cognitive and affective factors in language learning, such as motivation and learning
strategies.
2.3.1.2.2. Cognitive-code learning
Cognitive-code learning is a theory of language learning that emphasizes the active engagement of
learners with the rules of a language as a code. It differs from behaviorist theories that emphasize habit
formation through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. Cognitive-code learning influenced some
language teaching methods that used inductive presentation of language structures, concept questions to
check understanding of rules, and PPP methodology (Presentation, Practice, and Production) to provide
learners with opportunities to apply rules in meaningful contexts.
2.3.1.2.3. The creative-construction hypothesis
The creative-construction hypothesis is a way that people learn a new language. They use their brain
to make guesses about how the language works based on what they hear and see. They change their guesses
as they get feedback and practice. This way of learning is like how babies learn their first language. It's
different from other ways of teaching a language because it doesn't focus on comparing the new language
to the learner's first language or repeating phrases over and over again. Dulay and Burt, who came up with
this idea, said that it's not hard for learners to stop thinking in their first language and learn the new language
well.
2.3.1.2.4. Skill learning
Skill learning theory suggests that language is a set of skills that can be learned through practice and
feedback, similar to motor or cognitive skills. Learners should engage in purposeful activities to use
language in realistic situations, and error correction and reinforcement play an important role in language
development.
2.3.1.2.5. Interactional theory
Interactional theory is a theory of language learning that views language as a social phenomenon
that emerges from interaction between people. It emphasizes the importance of social and cultural context,
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meaningful and authentic communication, feedback, scaffolding, negotiation of meaning, and collaborative
problem-solving in facilitating language development.
2.3.1.2.6. Constructivism
Constructivism is a theory of language learning that views language as a cognitive tool that learners
construct through their experiences and interactions. Learners are active and creative participants who
engage in exploratory and reflective activities that challenge their existing knowledge and beliefs. Learner
autonomy and collaboration are emphasized in facilitating language development.
2.3.1.2.7. Sociocultural learning theory (or social constructivism)
Sociocultural learning theory views language learning as a social and cultural phenomenon that
learners internalize through participation in social practices, with language learning being mediated by
cultural tools and artifacts. More knowledgeable others provide guidance and scaffolding, and the theory
emphasizes the zone of proximal development and appropriation in facilitating language development.
2.3.2. Design
Design is one of three levels used to describe and compare language teaching methods, alongside
approach and procedure. Design includes language teaching objectives, syllabus and activity types, and the
roles of teachers, learners, and instructional materials.
2.3.2.1. Objectives
Objectives are a component of language teaching design and refer to the general and specific
outcomes that teaching aims to achieve, such as linguistic competence or cultural awareness. They are
expressed in terms of knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that learners should possess by the end of the
learning experience. Objectives should align with the approach and procedure of language teaching and be
realistic, measurable, and achievable.
2.3.2.2. The syllabus
Syllabus is a component of language teaching design that refers to the content and organization of
instruction, including topics, themes, tasks, texts, and language items. It can be based on different criteria,
such as grammatical, functional, situational, topical, or task-based. Syllabus should reflect the objectives
and methodology of language teaching and be flexible, coherent, and relevant.
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2.3.2.3. Types of learning and teaching activities
Types of learning and teaching activities are important components of language teaching design.
These activities involve tasks and exercises for learners and techniques for teachers to facilitate language
learning. The types of activities used may vary based on the language teaching approach and method, such
as presentation, practice, production, discovery, interaction, or feedback. They should align with language
teaching objectives and syllabus, while also being engaging, effective, and appropriate.
2.3.2.4. Learner roles
Learner roles are a vital aspect of language teaching design and refer to the expectations and
responsibilities of learners in the language learning process. Learner roles may include being passive or
active, dependent or independent, receptive or productive, or individual or collaborative, and may vary
based on the language teaching approach and method. These roles should align with language teaching
objectives and the types of learning and teaching activities and be compatible, supportive, and empowering
for learners.
2.3.2.5. Teacher roles
Teacher roles are an important aspect of language teaching design and refer to the functions and
responsibilities of teachers in the language learning process. These roles may include being models,
instructors, facilitators, counselors, or managers and may vary based on the language teaching approach
and method. Teacher roles should align with language teaching objectives and the types of learning and
teaching activities and be compatible, supportive, and empowering for learners.
2.3.2.6. The role of instructional materials
The role of instructional materials is a crucial aspect of language teaching design, referring to the
function and purpose of instructional materials in the language learning process. Instructional materials
may serve as sources of input, models of output, stimuli for interaction, or tools for evaluation and may
vary based on the language teaching approach and method. The role of instructional materials should align
with language teaching objectives and the types of learning and teaching activities and be compatible,
supportive, and empowering for learners.
2.3.3. Procedure
Procedure is a level of analysis used to describe and compare different approaches and methods in
language teaching, along with approach and design. Procedure involves the implementation and realization
of language teaching in the classroom, including techniques, practices, and behaviors observed during
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instruction. It should be consistent with the approach and design of language teaching and should be
effective, appropriate, and engaging for learners.
2.3.3.1.1. In situational language teaching
Situational language teaching is a language teaching method that can be analyzed based on its
procedure, which includes presentation, repetition, substitution, question and answer, and transposition.
This method focuses on teaching grammar and vocabulary through relevant and meaningful situations. The
teacher presents a new language item within a context and drills the learners on it using various exercises.
Feedback and correction are also provided to the learners.
2.3.3.2. In communicative language teaching
Communicative language teaching is a method in language teaching that emphasizes language as a

means of communication and interaction. Its procedure includes warm-up, presentation, practice,
production, and evaluation. The teacher engages learners in a warm-up activity, presents a new language
item in a communicative context, provides opportunities for learners to practice and produce the item in
authentic communication activities, and evaluates learners' performance, providing feedback and correction
as needed.
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Part 2 : The teaching-methods eras
Lanuage teaching history can be divided

into three eras: pre-method, methods, and post-
method. The pre-method era focused on grammar
rules and translation exercises, with little attention
to communication skills. In the methods era,
various methods emerged to teach languages, each
with its own theory and approach. In the post-
method era, language teachers have become more
eclectic, drawing on various sources of knowledge
and experience, characterized by a shift from
methods to principles, from prescription to
description, from conformity to creativity.
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1. Pre-method
The pre-method era in language teaching refers to the period before the 19th century, when there
was no systematic or scientific approach to teaching languages.The main methods used were grammar
translation and classical method, which focused on teaching grammar rules and translating texts from and
into the target language Language teaching was mainly based on grammar rules and translation exercises,
with little attention to communication skills or learners’ needs. The main goal of language teaching was to
enable learners to read and write texts in the target language, not to speak or understand it. The main source
of language input was written texts, not spoken language. The main role of the teacher was to explain
grammar rules and correct errors, not to facilitate interaction or provide feedback. The main role of the
learner was to memorize rules and vocabulary, not to use language for meaningful purposes.
‘’Note : The classical method and the grammar translation method are two language teaching approaches
that are similar but not exactly the same. The classical method was used to teach classical languages like
Latin and Greek, while the grammar translation method was used to teach modern languages like French
and German. Both methods focused on grammar rules and vocabulary memorization but neglected oral
communication skills. The classical method emphasized reading and writing literary texts, while the
grammar translation method focused on translating sentences and texts.‘’
2. Methods era
The method era in language teaching refers to the period from the late 19th century to the late 20th
century, when various methods emerged that claimed to offer a scientific and systematic way of teaching
languages. Each method had its own theory of language and learning, goals, syllabus, teaching activities,
teacher and learner roles, and evaluation criteria. Some of the most influential methods in this era were
grammar translation, direct method, audiolingualism, communicative language teaching, and the natural
approach. The method era was characterized by a search for the best method that could guarantee effective
and efficient language learning.
3. Post-method era
The post-method era in language teaching refers to the period since the late 20th century, when
language teachers have become more aware of the limitations and problems of following a single method,
and have started to adopt a more eclectic and flexible approach that draws on various sources of knowledge
and experience. The post-method era is characterized by a shift from methods to principles, from
prescription to description, from conformity to creativity. Language teachers are encouraged to develop
their own context-sensitive and learner-centered pedagogy that suits their teaching situation and goals.
Some of the methods and approaches that teachers can use in this era are task-based language teaching,
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content-based instruction, cooperative learning, learner autonomy, and critical pedagogy. The post-method
era also stresses the importance of teacher education, teacher research, and teacher autonomy in language
teaching.
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Part 3 : Language Teaching Methods: Applications
1. The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

1.1. Background
The grammar-translation method is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of language
teaching. It originated from the classical method of teaching Latin and Greek, and was later applied to
modern languages like French and German. The grammar-translation method was dominant in language
teaching until the mid-20th century, when it was challenged by new methods that emphasized oral
communication skills.
1.2. What is (GTM) ?

The grammar-translation method is a method of teaching foreign languages that focuses on teaching
grammar rules and vocabulary, and then applying them by translating sentences or texts from the target
language to the native language, or vice versa. The main goal of this method is to enable learners to read
and write texts in the target language, especially literary texts.
1.3. Objectives
The objectives of the grammar-translation method are to help learners develop their reading and
writing skills, increase their vocabulary, and appreciate literary texts in the target language. The grammar-
translation method also aims to help learners understand the grammatical structure of their native language
better, and prepare them for further studies in linguistics or literature.
1.4. Techniques
The techniques of the grammar-translation method include reading comprehension questions,
vocabulary exercises, grammar exercises, and translation exercises. The teacher presents the grammar rules
first, and then gives examples and exercises for practice. The teacher explains grammar rules and corrects
errors. The learner memorizes rules and vocabulary, and practices translation exercises. The language input
comes from written texts, usually taken from literature or textbooks.
1.5. Teacher roles

The teacher roles in the grammar-translation method are to explain grammar rules and correct errors.
The teacher is viewed as the primary source of knowledge and holds authority in the classroom. He also
controls the pace and content of the lesson, and evaluates the learners’ performance based on their accuracy
and correctness.
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1.6. Learner roles

The learner’s roles are to learn rules and vocabulary, and do translation exercises. The learner does
not actively participate in the classroom. He does what the teacher tells him to do. The learner’s main job
is to use the rules and make correct translations.
1.7. Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages
✓ Develop reading and writing skills × Neglect oral communication skills

✓ Increase vocabulary × Ignore learners’ needs and interests
✓ Appreciate literary texts in target language × Make language learning boring and
✓ Understand grammatical structure of mechanical
native language better × Create a gap between classroom language
✓ Prepare for further studies in linguistics or and real-life language use
literature
1.8. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (GTM)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6nCxcfvZJw&feature=youtu.be
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2. The Direct Method (DM)

2.1. Background
The direct method of teaching was developed as a response to the grammar-translation method in
the late 19th and early 20th century. It was influenced by the reform movement in language teaching, which
advocated a more natural and communicative way of learning languages. The direct method was popular
in private language schools in Europe and America, but it faced many challenges in public education.
2.2. What is (DM) ?

The direct method is a method of teaching foreign languages that uses only the target language in
the classroom, and avoids using the native language or translation. The direct method aims to immerse the
learner in the target language, as if they were learning their first language. The direct method focuses on
teaching oral communication skills, using everyday language and situations.
2.3. Objectives
The objectives of the direct method are to help learners develop their oral communication skills,
understand and use the target language naturally, and think in the target language. The direct method also
aims to help learners acquire a good pronunciation, a rich vocabulary, and a correct grammar of the target
language.
2.4. Techniques
The techniques of the direct method include question and answer exercises, dialogues, role plays,
dictations, reading aloud, and oral compositions. The teacher uses visual aids, gestures, actions, and realia
to convey meaning and context. The teacher teaches grammar inductively, by giving examples and eliciting
rules from the learners. The teacher corrects errors by reformulating or repeating correctly.
2.5. Teacher roles

The teacher roles in the direct method are to provide comprehensible input and meaningful
interaction in the target language. The teacher is viewed as a model and a facilitator of communication in
the classroom. He guides and supports the learners’ learning process. The teacher evaluates the learners’
performance based on their fluency and comprehension.
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2.6. Learner roles

The learner roles in the direct method are to actively participate and communicate in the target
language. The learner is an explorer and a discoverer of language. He follows the teacher’s input and
feedback. The learner’s main task is to use the target language for real purposes.

✓ Develop oral communication skills × Difficult to implement in large classes or

✓ Understand and use target language with low proficiency learners
naturally × Ignores learners' native language and
✓ Think in target language culture
✓ Acquire good pronunciation, rich × Neglects reading and writing skills
vocabulary, and correct grammar
2.8. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (DM)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vhojdp0OlFU&feature=youtu.be
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3. The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching (OA/ SLT)

3.1. Background
The oral approach and situational language teaching (OA/SLT) are two terms that refer to the same
method, which was developed by British applied linguists from the 1930s to the 1960s. The method was a
reaction to the grammar translation method, which was dominant at the time and focused on teaching
written language through translation and analysis. The OA/SLT aimed to teach spoken language through
oral practice and situational contexts. The method was influenced by several factors, such as structural
linguistics, which analyzed language as a system of structures; behaviorism, which viewed language
learning as a process of habit formation; and British empiricism, which emphasized the role of experience
and observation in knowledge acquisition.
‘’Note: British empiricism is a term that refers to an approach to philosophy and science that emerged in
the 17th century in England. It is based on the idea that knowledge comes from sensory experience and
observation, rather than from innate ideas or rational deduction. Some of the main figures of British
empiricism are Francis Bacon, John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.’’
3.2. What is (OA/ SLT) ?

The OA/SLT is an approach that emphasizes the teaching of spoken language through oral drills,
pattern practice, and dialogues. It also uses situational contexts to present and practice language items. It
focuses on accuracy, fluency, and pronunciation.
3.3. Approach
3.3.1. Theory of language
The OA/SLT views language as a system of structures that can be described by phonological,
morphological, and syntactic rules. It also considers language as a means of communication that is
influenced by the situation and the function of the utterance.
3.3.2. Theory of language learning

The OA/SLT adopts a behaviorist view of language learning, which assumes that learners acquire
language through habit formation, imitation, reinforcement, and error correction. It also assumes that
learners need exposure to meaningful and authentic language input in realistic situations.
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3.4. Design
3.4.1. Objectives
The main objective of the OA/SLT is to enable learners to use the target language for everyday
communication. It also aims to develop learners’ oral skills, grammatical competence, and vocabulary
knowledge.
3.4.2. The syllabus

The OA/SLT follows a structural syllabus that is based on a selection and grading of linguistic items
according to their frequency, simplicity, and usefulness. The syllabus also takes into account the situational
factors that affect language use, such as topic, setting, role, and function.
3.4.3. Types of learning and teaching activities

The OA/SLT uses a variety of activities to teach and practice language items, such as substitution
drills, question-and-answer drills, repetition drills, dialogues, role plays, games, and simulations. The
activities are designed to provide controlled, guided, and free practice of oral skills.
3.4.4. Learner roles

The OA/SLT expects learners to be active participants in the learning process. They are required to
repeat, imitate, respond, and interact with the teacher and other learners. They are also encouraged to use
the target language in meaningful and communicative situations.
3.4.5. Teacher roles

The OA/SLT assigns the teacher the roles of a model, a director, a corrector, and a facilitator. The
teacher models the correct pronunciation and usage of language items, directs the learners’ attention and
practice, corrects their errors and mistakes, and facilitates their communication.
3.4.6. The role of instructional materials

The OA/SLT relies on various types of instructional materials to support the teaching and learning
process, such as textbooks, charts, pictures, flashcards, audio recordings, and visual aids. The materials are
used to present and illustrate language items, provide cues for drills and dialogues, and stimulate situational
contexts.
3.5. Procedure
The OA/SLT follows a typical procedure that consists of three stages: presentation, practice, and
production. In the presentation stage, the teacher introduces a new language item using a situational context
or a dialogue. In the practice stage, the teacher provides controlled and guided practice of the item using
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drills and exercises. In the production stage, the teacher encourages free and communicative practice of the
item using role plays or games.

✓ Provides systematic and intensive oral × Neglects the teaching of reading and
practice of language items writing skills
✓ Exposes learners to authentic and × Overemphasizes accuracy over fluency
meaningful language input × Ignores individual differences among
✓ Develops learners' communicative learners
competence × Relies on artificial and mechanical drills
✓ Caters to different learning styles × Does not account for learner errors as
✓ Easy to implement with minimal resource sources of learning
3.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (OA/ SLT)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RYNGMJfuYJI&feature=youtu.be
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4. The Audiolingual Method (ALM)

4.1. Background
The ALM was developed in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s as a response to the need for
rapid and effective oral proficiency in foreign languages for military purposes. It was influenced by
structural linguistics, which described language as a system of patterns; behaviorism, which viewed
language learning as a process of habit formation; and contrastive analysis, which compared the similarities
and differences between the native and target languages.
4.2. What is (ALM) ?

The ALM is a method that emphasizes the teaching of spoken language through oral drills, pattern
practice, and dialogues. It also uses contrastive analysis to identify and correct errors. It focuses on
accuracy, pronunciation, and grammar.
4.3. Approach
The ALM views language as a system of patterns that can be described by phonological,
morphological, and syntactic rules. It also considers language as a means of communication that is
influenced by the culture and context of the speakers.
4.3.2. Theory of lnaguage learning

The ALM adopts a behaviorist view of language learning, which assumes that learners acquire
language through habit formation, imitation, reinforcement, and error correction. It also assumes that
learners need exposure to native-like and error-free language input and output.
4.4. Design
4.4.1. Objectives
The main objective of the ALM is to enable learners to use the target language for oral
communication. It also aims to develop learners’ oral skills, grammatical competence, and cultural
awareness.
4.4.2. The syllabus

The ALM follows a structural syllabus that is based on a selection and grading of linguistic items
according to their frequency, simplicity, and contrast with the native language. The syllabus also takes into
account the communicative functions and situations that require the use of the target language.
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The ALM uses a variety of activities to teach and practice language items, such as repetition drills,
substitution drills, transformation drills, question-and-answer drills, dialogues, role plays, games, and
simulations. The activities are designed to provide controlled, guided, and free practice of oral skills.

The ALM expects learners to be active participants in the learning process. They are required to
repeat, imitate, respond, and interact with the teacher and other learners. They are also encouraged to use
the target language in meaningful and communicative situations.

The ALM assigns the teacher the roles of a model, a director, a corrector, and a facilitator. The
teacher models the correct pronunciation and usage of language items, directs the learners’ attention and
practice, corrects their errors and mistakes, and facilitates their communication.

The ALM relies on various types of instructional materials to support the teaching and learning
process, such as textbooks, charts, pictures, flashcards, audio recordings, visual aids. The materials are used
to present and illustrate language items, provide cues for drills and dialogues, and stimulate situational
contexts.
4.5. Procedure
The ALM follows a typical procedure that consists of three stages: presentation, practice, and
evaluation. In the presentation stage, the teacher introduces a new language item using a dialogue or a
situation. In the practice stage, the teacher provides controlled and guided practice of the item using drills
and exercises. In the evaluation stage, the teacher tests the learners’ mastery of the item using quizzes or
tests.
✓ Intensive oral practice × No focus on reading and writing

✓ Native-like language input × Prioritizes accuracy over fluency
✓ Develops communication skills × Fails to address individual differences
✓ Accommodates diverse learning styles × Over-reliance on mechanical drills
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4.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (ALM)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pz0TPDUz3FU&feature=youtu.be
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5. Total Physical Response (TPR)

5.1. Background
TPR was developed by James Asher in the 1970s as a result of his observations of child language
acquisition. He noticed that children learn their mother tongue by listening and responding physically to
their parents’ commands. He also noticed that children have a silent period before they start to speak. He
applied these principles to foreign language teaching and created TPR.
5.2. What is (TPR) ?

TPR is a method that emphasizes the teaching of listening comprehension through physical actions.
The teacher gives commands to the learners and they respond by performing the actions. The teacher also
models the actions and uses gestures and body language to facilitate comprehension. The method is based
on the idea that language learning is more effective when it involves both the mind and the body.
5.3. Approach
TPR views language as a means of communication that is influenced by the context and the culture
of the speakers. It also considers language as a complex skill that involves both verbal and non-verbal
elements. It focuses on teaching functional and everyday language that can be used in real situations.

TPR adopts a cognitive view of language learning, which assumes that learners acquire language
through meaningful input and output, rather than through memorization and repetition. It also assumes that
learners need exposure to comprehensible and authentic language input in stress-free and enjoyable
situations. It also assumes that learners have different learning styles and preferences.
5.4. Design
5.4.1. Objectives
The main objective of TPR is to develop learners’ listening comprehension skills and prepare them
for speaking. It also aims to develop learners’ vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. It also aims to
reduce learners’ anxiety and increase their motivation.
5.4.2. The syllabus
TPR follows a functional syllabus that is based on a selection of topics, situations, and functions
that are relevant and interesting for the learners. The syllabus also takes into account the learners’ needs,
interests, and goals.
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TPR uses a variety of activities to teach and practice language items, such as commands, directions,
instructions, descriptions, narratives, role plays, games, and simulations. The activities are designed to
provide comprehensible input and output, physical movement, interaction, and fun.

TPR expects learners to be active participants in the learning process. They are required to listen
attentively, respond physically, observe carefully, and interact with the teacher and other learners. They are
also encouraged to use the target language in meaningful and communicative situations.

TPR assigns the teacher the roles of a commander, a model, a facilitator, and an evaluator. The
teacher gives commands to the learners and models the actions, facilitates their comprehension and
participation, and evaluates their performance.

TPR relies on various types of instructional materials to support the teaching and learning process,
such as objects, pictures, flashcards, charts, maps, audio recordings, visual aids. The materials are used to
present and illustrate language items, provide cues for actions and interactions, and stimulate situational
contexts.
5.5. Procedure
TPR follows a typical procedure that consists of three stages: demonstration, action sequence, and
single-slot substitution. In the demonstration stage, the teacher introduces a new language item using an
object or a picture and models the action. In the action sequence stage, the teacher gives a series of
commands using the item and asks the learners to perform them individually or in groups. In the single-slot
substitution stage, the teacher varies one element of the command (such as noun or verb) and asks the
learners to perform different actions accordingly.
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✓ Natural and meaningful input/output × Risk of becoming repetitive

✓ Enhances listening comprehension × Unsuitable for advanced or adult learners
✓ Prepares for speaking × Incomplete language coverage
✓ Accommodates diverse learning styles × Insufficient speaking opportunities
✓ Reduces anxiety and motivates learners × Ignores individual differences among
✓ Fun and engaging learners
× High preparation and resource
requirements.
5.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (TPR)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bkMQXFOqyQA&feature=youtu.be
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6. The Silent Way (SW)

6.1. Background
The SW was developed by Caleb Gattegno in the 1970s as a result of his experience in teaching
mathematics and literacy. He noticed that learners learn better when they are actively involved in the
learning process and when they are responsible for their own learning. He applied these principles to
language teaching and created SW.
6.2. What is (SW) ?

The SW is a method that emphasizes the teaching of language through problem-solving and
discovery. The teacher is silent most of the time and only provides minimal guidance and feedback to the
learners. The learners are encouraged to speak as much as possible and to cooperate with each other. The
method is based on the idea that learning is a creative and autonomous process.
6.3. Approach
The SW views language as a system of rules that can be discovered by the learners through
observation and experimentation. It also considers language as a means of communication that is influenced
by the context and the purpose of the speaker. It focuses on teaching functional and meaningful language
that can be used in real situations.

The SW adopts a cognitive view of language learning, which assumes that learners acquire language
learners need exposure to comprehensible and authentic language input and output in challenging and
supportive situations. It also assumes that learners have different learning styles and preferences.
6.4. Design
6.4.1. Objectives
The main objective of the SW is to develop learners’ communicative competence and autonomy. It
also aims to develop learners’ vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and culture. It also aims to foster
learners’ curiosity and creativity.
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6.4.2. The syllabus

The SW follows a functional syllabus that is based on a selection of topics, situations, and functions

The SW uses a variety of activities to teach and practice language items, such as charts, cuisenaire
rods, gestures, pictures, games, puzzles, stories, dialogues, role plays, simulations. The activities are
designed to provide comprehensible input and output, problem-solving, discovery, interaction, and fun. For
example, the teacher can use rods to represent objects or people and ask the learners to describe them or act
out a scene with them.
‘’Note: Cuisenaire rods are teaching tools that consist of wooden or plastic rods of different colors and
lengths. They were invented by Georges Cuisenaire, a Belgian primary school teacher, in the 1920s. They
are used to teach mathematics and language by representing objects, people, places, actions, relationships,
sounds, stress patterns, word order, etc. They can be physical, digital, or drawn on papers, but they should
have the same features and functions. They are used to present and practice language items using
commands, questions, stories, dialogues, etc. They are also used to stimulate situational contexts and
problem-solving activities.’’

The SW expects learners to be active participants in the learning process. They are required to listen
attentively, speak frequently, observe carefully, experiment creatively, cooperate with each other, and
evaluate themselves. They are also encouraged to use the target language in meaningful and communicative
situations.

The SW assigns the teacher the roles of a silent observer, a guide, a facilitator, and an evaluator. The
teacher observes the learners’ performance silently and only intervenes when necessary; guides the learners’
attention and practice using charts, rods, gestures; facilitates their comprehension and participation;
evaluates their progress.

The SW relies on various types of instructional materials to support the teaching and learning
process, such as charts, cuisonaire rods, gestures, pictures, games, puzzles, stories, dialogues. The materials
are used to present and illustrate language items; provide cues for actions and interactions; stimulate
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situational contexts. For example, the teacher can use a chart with different colors and lengths of rods to
teach vocabulary or grammar.
6.5. Procedure
The SW follows a typical procedure that consists of three stages: presentation, practice, and
production. In the presentation stage, the teacher introduces a new language item using a chart or a rod or
a gesture. For example, the teacher can use a rod to point to a part of the body or an object in the room. In
the practice stage, the teacher provides guided practice of the item using charts or rods or gestures or
pictures. For example, the teacher can use rods to give commands such as “Put the red rod on the table” or
“Give me the green rod”. In the production stage, the teacher encourages free practice of the item using
games or puzzles or stories or dialogues. For example, the teacher can use rods to create a story and ask the
learners to retell it or continue it.

✓ Provides natural and meaningful input and × May not suit all learners or teachers
output × May not cover all aspects of language
✓ Develops learners’ communicative × May not provide enough feedback or
competence and autonomy correction
✓ Caters to different learning styles × May require a lot of preparation and
✓ Fosters learners’ curiosity and creativity resources
✓ Reduces learners’ anxiety and increases
their motivation
✓ Fun and engaging
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6.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (SW)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xqLzbLCpack&feature=youtu.be
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7. Communicaty Langauge Learning (CLL)

7.1. Background
CLL was developed in the 1970s and 1980s as a reaction to the structural and behavioral methods
that dominated language teaching at the time. It was influenced by the theories of communicative
competence, which emphasized the functional and social aspects of language use; and by the principles of
humanistic education, which emphasized the affective and personal aspects of learning. It was also
influenced by the research on second language acquisition, which showed that learners need exposure to
meaningful and authentic language input and output.
7.2. What is (CLL) ?

CLL is an approach that emphasizes the teaching of language through communication and
interaction. The teacher facilitates the learners’ communication by providing them with tasks, topics, and
materials that are relevant and interesting for them. The learners use the language to express their needs,
feelings, opinions, and experiences. The teacher also provides feedback and correction when necessary. The
approach is based on the idea that learning language is a social and creative process.
7.3. Approach
CLL views language as a system of rules that can be discovered by the learners through
communication and interaction. It also considers language as a means of communication that is influenced
by the context and the purpose of the speaker. It focuses on teaching functional and meaningful language
that can be used in real situations.

CLL adopts an interactive view of language learning, which assumes that learners acquire language
learners need exposure to comprehensible and authentic language input and output in challenging and
supportive situations. It also assumes that learners have different learning styles and preferences.
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7.4. Design
7.4.1. Objectives
CLL focuses on helping learners improve their communicative competence and autonomy, as well
as their vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and culture. It also strives to boost learners’ motivation and
confidence.
7.4.2. The syllabus

CLL follows a functional syllabus that is based on a selection of topics, situations, and functions

CLL uses a variety of activities to teach and practice language items, such as tasks, projects,
simulations, role plays, games, discussions, debates, presentations. The activities are designed to provide
comprehensible input and output, communication, interaction, and fun.

CLL expects learners to be active participants in the learning process. They are required to listen
attentively, speak frequently, observe carefully, experiment creatively, cooperate with each other, and
evaluate themselves. They are also encouraged to use the target language in meaningful and communicative
situations.

CLL assigns the teacher the roles of a facilitator, a counselor, a monitor, a feedback provider, and
an evaluator. The teacher facilitates the learners’ communication by providing them with tasks, topics, and
materials; counsels them on their learning process; monitors their performance; provides feedback and
correction; evaluates their progress.

CLL relies on various types of instructional materials to support the teaching and learning process,
such as texts, pictures, audio recordings, video recordings, newspapers, magazines. The materials are used
to present and illustrate language items; provide cues for tasks and interactions; stimulate situational
contexts.
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7.5. Procedure
CLL follows a typical procedure that consists of three stages: pre-communication, communication,
and post-communication. In the pre-communication stage, the teacher introduces a topic or a task and
activates the learners’ background knowledge. In the communication stage, the teacher provides the learners
with materials or instructions for the task and asks them to perform it individually or in groups. In the post-
communication stage, the teacher provides feedback and correction on the learners’ performance.

✓ Provides natural and meaningful input and × May not suit all learners or teachers
output × May not cover all aspects of language
✓ Develops learners' communicative × May not provide enough feedback or
competence and autonomy correction
✓ Caters to different learning styles × May require a lot of preparation and
✓ Fosters learners' motivation and resources
confidence
✓ Fun and engaging
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7.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (CLL)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tx_we_P3Pic&feature=youtu.be
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8. Suggestopedia
8.1. Background
Suggestopedia is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychiatrist Georgi Lozanov in the
1970s. It is based on the idea that positive suggestions can enhance learning and overcome psychological
barriers. Suggestopedia was one of the first methods to use music, relaxation, and drama in language
teaching.
8.2. What is (suggestopedia) ?

Suggestopedia is a method that aims to create a relaxed and supportive learning environment where
learners can acquire a foreign language effortlessly and spontaneously. Suggestopedia uses various
techniques to activate the learners’ subconscious potential, such as music, art, games, role-play, and stories.
8.3. Approach
This method views language as a means of communication and expression, not as a system of rules.
Language is seen as a whole, not as separate components. It emphasizes the importance of listening and
speaking skills, as well as vocabulary and grammar. It also recognizes the role of culture and emotion in
language learning.

This method is based on the assumption that learners have a huge reserve capacity for learning that
can be tapped by positive suggestions. It believes that learners can learn faster and better if they are free
from anxiety, fear, and boredom. It also claims that learners can retain more information if they are exposed
to it in a multisensory way.
8.4. Design
8.4.1. Objectives
The main objective of suggestopedia is to develop learners’ communicative competence and
confidence in using the target language. It also aims to develop learners’ personality, creativity, and
intuition.
8.4.2. The syllabus

The syllabus of suggestopedia is based on the functional-notional approach, which focuses on the
communicative functions and notions of language. The syllabus is organized into units that cover different
topics and situations. Each unit consists of three phases: presentation, elaboration, and production.
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The learning and teaching activities of suggestopedia are varied and interactive. They include
listening to dialogues accompanied by music, reading texts with pictures, playing games, singing songs,
acting out roles, telling stories, and having conversations.

The learners in suggestopedia are expected to be active participants in the learning process. They
are encouraged to use their imagination, emotions, and senses to engage with the language material. They
are also advised to trust the teacher and the method, and to avoid negative thoughts or doubts.

The teacher in suggestopedia is seen as a facilitator, a guide, and a partner. The teacher creates a
positive and comfortable atmosphere for learning, provides clear and comprehensible input, gives positive
feedback and encouragement, and adapts the method to the learners’ needs and preferences.

The instructional materials in suggestopedia are designed to support the learning objectives and
activities. They include dialogues with translations, texts with illustrations, music CDs or tapes, posters,
cards, props, costumes, etc. The materials are chosen to be interesting, authentic, and relevant to the
learners.
8.5. Procedure
Procedure: A typical suggestopedia lesson follows these steps:
Pre-session: The teacher introduces the topic and objectives of the unit, explains the method and
procedures, and creates rapport with the learners.
Session 1: The teacher plays a dialogue recorded with music while the learners listen attentively
without taking notes. The teacher then reads the dialogue aloud with expression while the learners follow
along with their texts. The teacher then asks some comprehension questions and elicits some responses
from the learners.
Session 2: The teacher plays another dialogue recorded with music while the learners listen
relaxedly without looking at their texts. The teacher then reads the dialogue aloud with expression while
the learners look at their texts. The teacher then asks some comprehension questions and elicits some
responses from the learners.
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Session 3: The teacher plays some classical music while the learners read silently their texts with
pictures. The teacher then asks some comprehension questions and elicits some responses from the learners.
Session 4: The teacher leads some activities to practice and reinforce the language material, such
as games, songs, role-plays, stories, etc.
Post-session: The teacher reviews the main points of the unit, gives positive feedback and praise to
the learners, and assigns some homework or self-study tasks for further practice.

✓ Accelerates learning process up to 10 × Difficult to implement in some contexts

times compared to other methods due to lack of resources, facilities, or
✓ Enhances learners' memory, retention, and trained teachers
recall of language material × Challenging to adapt to different levels,
✓ Reduces learners' anxiety, stress, and ages, or needs of learners
inhibition; increases motivation, × Criticized for being too vague,
confidence, and enjoyment unscientific, or unrealistic in its claims and
✓ Develops learners' personality, creativity, assumptions
intuition, and communicative competence × Seen as too teacher-centered, authoritarian,
or manipulative by some learners or
educators
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8.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for Suggestopedia

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3rkrvRlty5M&feature=youtu.be
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9. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or (The communicative Approach)

9.1. Background
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is a teaching method that emerged in the late 1960s in
the British language teaching tradition. It was influenced by the developments in linguistics, psychology,
and education that challenged the previous methods based on structuralism and behaviorism. CLT aimed to
develop learners’ communicative competence, which is the ability to use language appropriately and
effectively in various contexts.
9.2. What is (CLT) ?

CLT is a method that focuses on the functional and interactive aspects of language, rather than the
formal and structural ones. CLT emphasizes the meaning and purpose of communication, rather than the
accuracy and correctness of forms. CLT also encourages learners to use authentic and natural language,
rather than artificial and contrived examples.
9.3. Approach
CLT views language as a system of communication that consists of various components, such as
grammar, vocabulary, phonology, pragmatics, discourse, etc. Language is also seen as a social phenomenon
that varies according to the situation, the participants, and the purpose of communication. Language is not
only a set of rules, but also a set of choices and strategies that speakers use to convey their intentions and
meanings.

CLT is based on the assumption that learners learn a language best when they use it for meaningful
and authentic communication. CLT believes that learners need to be exposed to rich and varied input, to
interact with others in the target language, to negotiate meaning and feedback, and to produce output that
reflects their communicative goals. CLT also recognizes that learners have different needs, preferences,
styles, and strategies that affect their learning process.
9.4. Design
9.4.1. Objectives
The main objective of CLT is to develop learners’ communicative competence in all its dimensions:
linguistic, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, strategic, etc. It also aims to develop learners’ fluency, accuracy, and
complexity in using the target language. It also strives to foster learners’ motivation, confidence, and
autonomy.
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9.4.2. The syllabus

The syllabus of CLT is based on the communicative functions and notions of language, rather than
the grammatical structures or forms. The syllabus is organized into units or modules that cover different
topics and themes that are relevant and interesting to the learners. Each unit consists of several tasks or
activities that require learners to use language for real-life purposes.

The learning and teaching activities of CLT are varied and interactive. They include tasks such as
information gap, problem solving, role play, simulation, project work, etc. They also include activities such
as games, songs, stories, discussions, etc. The activities are designed to promote learner involvement,
cooperation, negotiation, and feedback in using the target language for communicative purposes.

The learners in CLT are expected to be active participants in the learning process. They are
encouraged to use the target language for authentic and meaningful communication, rather than for practice
or drill. They are also advised to take responsibility for their own learning, to monitor their progress, and
to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses. They are also expected to cooperate with their peers, to share
information and opinions, and to give and receive feedback.

The teacher in CLT is seen as a facilitator, a guide, and a negotiator. The teacher creates a positive
and supportive atmosphere for learning, provides rich and comprehensible input, designs and organizes
communicative tasks and activities, and monitors and evaluates learners’ performance. The teacher also
acts as a resource, a counselor, and a co-communicator. The teacher encourages learners to use the target
language, to express their ideas and opinions, and to interact with each other.

The instructional materials in CLT are designed to support the communicative objectives and
activities of the method. They include texts, audio, video, pictures, charts, graphs, etc. that provide authentic
and meaningful language input and output. They also include tasks, exercises, games, etc. that stimulate
learners’ interaction and production. The materials are chosen to be relevant, interesting, and appropriate to
the learners’ level, needs, and interests.
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9.5. Procedure
A typical CLT lesson follows these steps:
Pre-task: The teacher introduces the topic and objectives of the lesson, activates learners’ prior
knowledge and interest, and presents the main task or activity that learners will perform.
Task: The teacher provides learners with the necessary input and materials, and sets up the
conditions and instructions for the task. The learners work individually, in pairs, or in groups to complete
the task using the target language. The teacher monitors and assists learners as needed, but does not interfere
with their communication.
Post-task: The teacher asks learners to report or present their task outcomes, gives feedback and
correction, and leads a discussion or reflection on the task process and language use. The teacher may also
provide some follow-up activities to consolidate or extend the learning.

✓ Enhances learners’ communicative × Difficult to implement in some contexts

competence and confidence due to lack of resources, facilities, or
✓ Fosters a student-centered approach trained teachers
✓ Increases learners’ engagement, × Challenging to assess learners’ progress
motivation, and enjoyment and performance objectively
✓ Promotes lesson variability and creativity × Criticized for being too vague, flexible, or
✓ Develops all core language skills in an inconsistent in its principles and practices
integrated way × Seen as too demanding, stressful, or
chaotic by some learners or educators who
prefer more structure, guidance, or
accuracy
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9.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (CLT)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LF7zsz8fi64&feature=youtu.be
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Part 4: Articles
1. English for Specific Purposes: Its Definition, Characteristics, Scope and Purpose
1.1. Definition of ESP
ESP stands for English for Specific Purposes, which is a branch of English language teaching that
focuses on the specific needs and goals of particular learners or groups of learners. ESP courses are designed
to teach the language skills, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse patterns that are relevant and appropriate
for a specific domain or profession.
1.2. Types of ESP

There are two main types of ESP: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for
Occupational Purposes (EOP). EAP courses aim to prepare learners for academic study or research in
English-medium institutions or programs. EOP courses aim to prepare learners for work or professional
communication in English-speaking contexts or situations. EOP can be further divided into two sub-types:
English for Professional Purposes (EPP) and English for Vocational Purposes (EVP). EPP courses are
designed for learners who need English for their current or future careers in specific professions, such as
business, medicine, law, aviation, etc. EVP courses are designed for learners who need English for their
current or future jobs in specific vocations, such as tourism, hospitality, nursing, mechanics, etc.
1.3. Historical Growth of ESP

ESP emerged as a distinct field of language teaching in the 1960s and 1970s, in response to the
growing demand for English language skills in various fields of science, technology, trade, and diplomacy.
ESP was influenced by developments in linguistics, such as the notion of register and genre analysis, as
well as by the needs analysis approach to curriculum design. ESP has since expanded and diversified into
various sub-fields and branches, such as English for Business Purposes, English for Medical Purposes,
English for Legal Purposes, etc.
1.4. Purpose of ESP Courses

The main purpose of ESP courses is to enable learners to use English effectively and appropriately
in their specific domains or professions. ESP courses aim to develop learners’ communicative competence,
which includes linguistic, pragmatic, sociolinguistic, strategic, and discourse competence. ESP courses also
aim to raise learners’ awareness of the cultural and social aspects of communication in their target contexts.
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1.5. Characteristics of ESP Courses

ESP courses have some common characteristics that distinguish them from general English courses.
These include: being based on a needs analysis that identifies the learners’ current and target language
needs; being learner-centered and goal-oriented; being focused on the language skills and functions that are
relevant and useful for the learners’ specific purposes; being informed by the underlying methodology and
activities of the discipline or profession that they serve; being flexible and adaptable to changing needs and
situations.
1.6. ESP Contents

The contents of ESP courses vary depending on the specific purposes and contexts of the learners.
However, some typical contents include: specialized vocabulary and terminology related to the domain or
profession; grammar structures and patterns that are common or specific to the domain or profession;
register and style features that are appropriate for the domain or profession; discourse and genre
conventions that are typical or expected in the domain or profession; language skills (listening, speaking,
reading, writing) that are required or desired in the domain or profession; cultural and pragmatic aspects of
communication in the domain or profession.
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1.7. English for Specific Purposes: Understanding the Differences between EAP and EOP
Have you ever wondered why some people learn English for different purposes than others? Why
do some people need English for academic study or research, while others need English for work or
professional communication? The answer lies in the concept of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). ESP
is a branch of English language teaching that focuses on the specific needs and goals of particular learners
or groups of learners. ESP courses are designed to teach the language skills, vocabulary, grammar, and
discourse patterns that are relevant and appropriate for a specific domain or profession. There are two main
types of ESP: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). This
essay will discuss the characteristics and examples of each type of ESP and how they differ from each other.
The first type of ESP is English for Academic Purposes (EAP). This type of ESP focuses on teaching
English language skills and strategies that are necessary or useful for academic study or research in English-
medium institutions or programs. The aim of EAP is to help learners develop their academic literacy, which
includes the ability to read, write, listen, speak, and think critically in academic contexts. Another aim of
EAP is to help learners understand and use the conventions and expectations of academic discourse, such
as citation, referencing, plagiarism, argumentation, etc. Depending on the level and discipline of the
learners, EAP may be general or specific. Some examples of EAP are Academic Writing, Academic
Reading, Academic Listening, and Academic Speaking.
The second type of ESP is English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). This type of ESP focuses on
teaching English language skills and functions that are required or desired in work or professional
communication in English-speaking contexts or situations. The aim of EOP is to help learners develop their
occupational competence, which includes the ability to perform specific tasks and roles in their domain or
profession. Another aim of EOP is to help learners understand and use the register and style features that
are appropriate for their domain or profession. Depending on the level and sector of the learners, EOP may
be general or specific. Some examples of EOP are Business English, Medical English, Legal English, and
Aviation English.
EOP can be further divided into two sub-types: English for Professional Purposes (EPP) and English
for Vocational Purposes (EVP). EPP courses are designed for learners who need English for their current
or future careers in specific professions, such as business, medicine, law, aviation, etc. EVP courses are
designed for learners who need English for their current or future jobs in specific vocations, such as tourism,
hospitality, nursing, mechanics, etc.
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The main difference between EAP and EOP is that EAP focuses on academic study or research,
while EOP focuses on work or professional communication. EAP courses aim to help learners develop their
academic literacy, while EOP courses aim to help learners develop their occupational competence. EAP
courses are informed by the underlying methodology and activities of the academic discipline that they
serve, while EOP courses are informed by the underlying methodology and activities of the domain or
profession that they serve.
In conclusion, ESP is a branch of English language teaching that focuses on the specific needs and
goals of particular learners or groups of learners. There are two main types of ESP: EAP and EOP. Each
type of ESP has its own characteristics and examples that distinguish it from the other types.
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2. Second Language Assessment for Classroom Teachers

2.1. The Importance and Necessity of Assessment
Assessment is an integral part of second language teaching and learning. It provides feedback to
teachers and learners about the progress and achievement of learning goals. It also helps to identify strengths
and weaknesses, diagnose problems, and inform decisions about instruction and curriculum. According to
Tran (2013), assessment can serve different purposes, such as placement, diagnosis, formative, summative,
and alternative assessment. Tilfarlioglu (2018) argues that assessment should be valid, reliable, practical,
and authentic to measure the language proficiency and performance of learners. Therefore, assessment is
essential for improving the quality and effectiveness of second language education.
2.2. Assessment Terminology

Assessment terminology refers to the concepts and terms used to describe and analyze the process
of assessment. Some examples of these terms include:
• Evaluation: Evaluation is a systematic process of assessing quality, effectiveness, or value

using criteria to determine if goals were achieved.
• Assessment: Assessment refers to the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting

information about performance or outcomes. For example, assessing students' speaking
skills using a rubric, recording device, and peer feedback.
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• Measurement: Measerement refers to the process of assigning numbers or symbols to

characteristics based on specific rules. An example of this would be measuring students'
vocabulary size using a word frequency list and a scoring system.
• Test: Test refers to a method of measuring ability, knowledge, or performance in a specific

domain. An example of this would be testing students' grammar knowledge using a multiple-
choice test.
2.3. Categories of Evaluation and Assessments

2.3.1. Evaluation
Evaluation is a broad term that refers to the process of determining the value or worth of something.
In applied linguistics, evaluation can refer to the overall process of assessing language programs or
language teaching methods. It can also refer to the process of assessing a person's language ability in a more
general sense. For example: A language school may conduct an evaluation of its language program to
determine whether it is effective in helping students learn the language.
This table provides an overview of different categories of evaluation, their purposes, and some
examples of how they are applied.
Evaluation Categories Evaluation Goals Evaluation Examples
Used to monitor and improve the A formative evaluation involves

quality and effectiveness of a classroom observation, feedback
Formative evaluation course or program during its sessions, questionnaires, and
implementation. interviews.
Used to explore and understand An illuminative evaluation employs

Illuminative evaluation the context, process, and impact ethnographic methods, such as case
of a course or program from studies, document analysis, and
multiple perspectives. participant observation.
Used to measure and judge the A summative evaluation uses

Summative evaluation outcomes and value of a course or standardized tests, surveys,
program at the end. portfolios, and cost-benefit analysis.
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2.3.1. Assessment
Assessment refers to the process of collecting data and information about someone's language ability
or proficiency. This data can be used to make judgments about the person's language ability and to make
decisions about what language instruction or support they may need. For example: A teacher may assess a
student's language ability by giving them a reading comprehension test or by observing their oral
communication in the classroom.
Assessment Categories Assessment Types Assessments Examples
Formal: Planned and systematic A formal test that is designed,

assessment that follows certain administered, and scored by
standards and criteria. professionals.
Intention: The reason or goal for
conducting an assessment.
Informal: Spontaneous and An informal check that is done
flexible assessment that is based by the teacher during a
on observation and interaction. classroom activity.
Formative: Used to monitor and A formative assessment that

improve learners’ progress and to involves quizzes, homework,
adjust instruction accordingly portfolios, self-assessment, and
during a course or program. peer-assessment.
Purpose: The function or use of
the assessment results.
Summative: Used to measure A summative assessment that
and judge learners’ achievement includes a final exam, a project, a
and to evaluate the effectiveness presentation, and a survey.
of a course or program at the
end.
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Norm-referenced: Used to A norm-referenced test that

compare and rank learners’ reports learners’ percentile ranks
performance relative to a norm or standard scores.
group or a distribution of scores.
Interpretation: The meaning or
value of the assessment scores or
feedback. Criterion-referenced: Used to A criterion-referenced test that
describe and grade learners’ reports learners’ mastery levels
performance according to a set of or proficiency bands.
criteria or standards.
Classroom-based: Used to A classroom-based test that is

assess learners within the administered by the teacher as
classroom context by the teacher. part of the curriculum.
Administration: The method or
procedure of conducting an
assessment. Large-scale: Used to assess a A large-scale test that is
large number of learners across administered nationally or
different contexts and settings. internationally.
Oral: Used to assess learners’ An oral test that consists of an

speaking and listening skills. interview, a presentation, or a
conversation.
Mode: The type or format of the
assessment tasks or items.
Written: Used to assess learners’ A written test that consists of a
reading and writing skills. reading comprehension, an essay,
or a summary.
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’’Note 1: Formative assessment and summative assessment are two types of assessments that serve different
purposes in the learning process.
Formative assessment is an ongoing process that occurs during the learning process. It is designed to
provide feedback to both the teacher and the student on how well they are understanding and retaining the
material. The purpose of formative assessment is to identify areas where students are struggling and provide
them with additional support, guidance, and feedback to help them improve their learning. Formative
assessments can be informal, such as a class discussion or a short quiz, or more formal, such as a midterm
exam.
Summative assessment, on the other hand, occurs at the end of a learning period or unit. It is designed to
evaluate student learning and mastery of the material taught. Summative assessments are typically used to
assign grades and provide an overall evaluation of a student's performance. Examples of summative
assessments include final exams, end-of-term projects, or standardized tests.
In summary, the main difference between formative and summative assessments is that formative
assessments are ongoing and designed to provide feedback during the learning process, while summative
assessments occur at the end of a learning period and are used to evaluate student learning and assign
grades. ’’
’’Note 2 : Traditional test-based assessment and task-based assessment are two common methods used to
evaluate a learner's knowledge and skills in a particular subject or area. In traditional test-based
assessment, learners are typically given a written or oral examination that measures their ability to recall
and apply information in a specific subject. This type of assessment is often used in academic settings and
relies heavily on memorization and recall of information.
Task-based assessment focuses on learners' ability to complete real-world tasks that are relevant to their
learning objectives. This type of assessment encourages learners to apply what they have learned in
meaningful ways and to develop problem-solving skills. Task-based assessment is commonly used in
vocational and professional settings and provides a more realistic evaluation of learners' abilities. Both
assessment methods have their strengths and limitations, and the choice of which to use depends on the
learning objectives and the context in which the assessment is being conducted.’’
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2.4. Principles of Second Language Assessment

Principles of second language assessment: the qualities and characteristics that make an assessment
effective and appropriate: Examples of principles:
2.4.1. Validity
One of the most important criteria for evaluating language tests. It refers to the extent to which a
test measures what it is intended to measure. There are different types of validity that can be considered in
language testing, such as:
• Content validity: The degree to which the test content reflects the objectives and syllabus
of the language course.
• Construct validity: The degree to which the test measures the underlying theoretical
construct or ability that it claims to measure
• Criterion validity: The degree to which the test scores correlate with other external
measures of the same construct or ability.
• Face validity: The degree to which the test appears to be valid and relevant to the test takers
and other stakeholders.
• Consequential validity: The degree to which the test has positive or negative consequences
for the test takers, teachers, and society.
• Criterion-related validity or (predictive validity): The degree to which the test scores
correlate with other external measures of the same construct or ability.
• Concurrent validity: The degree to which the test scores correlate with other measures of
the same construct or ability that are administered at the same time.
• Real-world: The degree of similarity between a language test and the real-life situations and
tasks in the target language use domain, affecting the validity, usefulness, motivation, and
anxiety of language testing.
2.4.2. Relaibility
The extent to which an assessment yields consistent results across different conditions. For example:
A reliable test should produce similar scores for the same learners when it is administered by different
raters, at different times, or with different forms. Types of reliability:
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• Student-related reliability: The consistency of learners’ performance across different tasks

or items. For example: A test with high student-related reliability should have items that are
equally difficult and representative of the domain.
• Rater reliability: The consistency of raters’ judgments across different learners or tasks.
For example: A test with high rater reliability should have clear and objective scoring criteria
and trained and calibrated raters.
• Test-administration reliability: The consistency of test conditions across different

administrations. For example: A test with high test-administration reliability should have
standardized procedures and instructions for administering the test.
• Test-retest reliability: The consistency of test scores across repeated administrations of the
same test. For example: A test with high test-retest reliability should have stable scores for
the same learners when they take the test again after a short period of time.
• Alternate or parallel form reliability: The consistency of test scores across different
versions of the same test. For example: A test with high alternate or parallel form reliability
should have equivalent scores for the same learners when they take different forms of the
test that have the same content and difficulty.
• Internal consistency reliability: The consistency of test items within the same test. For
example: A test with high internal consistency reliability should have items that are
correlated with each other and measure the same construct.
2.4.3. Practicality
The extent to which an assessment is easy and economical to construct, administer, and score. For
example: A practical test should be feasible and affordable in terms of cost, time, administration, and
scoring. Factors that affecting practicality:
• Cost: The amount of money required to develop, administer, and score an assessment. For
example: A low-cost test should use available resources and materials and avoid expensive
equipment or facilities.
• Time: The amount of time required to develop, administer, and score an assessment. For
example: A time-efficient test should be short and simple and avoid lengthy or complex tasks
or items.
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• Administration: The method or procedure of conducting an assessment. For example: An

easy-to-administer test should have clear and simple instructions and procedures and avoid
unnecessary or complicated steps.
• Scoring/Evaluation: The method or procedure of assigning scores or feedback to an

assessment. For example: An easy-to-score/evaluate test should have objective and
transparent scoring criteria and methods and avoid subjective or ambiguous judgments.
2.4.4. Authenticity (Equivalency)

The extent to which an assessment reflects the real-world context and tasks that learners will
encounter outside the classroom. For example: An authentic test should use natural, contextualized,
meaningful, and thematic language and tasks that are relevant and appropriate for learners’ needs and goals.
Characteristics of authenticity:
• Natural: Using language that is similar to what is used in real-life situations. For example:
A natural test should use texts and dialogues that are taken from or adapted from authentic
sources, such as newspapers, magazines, books, movies, etc.
• Contextualized: Using language that is embedded in a specific situation or context. For

example: A contextualized test should use texts and tasks that are related to a specific topic,
theme, genre, or purpose, such as travel, education, business, etc.
• Meaningful: Using language that is relevant and interesting for learners. For example: A
meaningful test should use texts and tasks that are connected to learners’ background
knowledge, experiences, interests, or motivations.
• Thematic organization: Using language that is organized around a central theme or topic –
For example: A thematic test should use texts and tasks that are coherent and consistent with
the theme or topic of the test, such as health, environment, culture, etc.
2.4.5. Washback
The effect or impact of an assessment on teaching and learning. For example: A test with positive
washback should enhance and improve the quality and effectiveness of teaching and learning.
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Types of washback:
• Positive washback: The beneficial effect or impact of an assessment on teaching and

learning. For example: A test with positive washback should encourage teachers and learners
to use communicative and learner-centered methods and activities that promote language
development and proficiency.
• Negative washback: The detrimental effect or impact of an assessment on teaching and

learning. For example: A test with negative washback should discourage teachers and
learners from using rote and teacher-centered methods and activities that inhibit language
development and proficiency.
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Part 5: Essays on Language Teaching History and Methods
1. Comparing the Grammar-Translation Method and the Direct Method in Language Teaching
Language teaching has undergone significant changes throughout history, with the emergence of
various approaches to teaching a second or foreign language. The Grammar-Translation Method and the
Direct Method are two different approaches to language teaching that have been widely used in the past.
This essay will discuss the foundations of language teaching methods, the emergence of language teaching
methods, and the advantages and disadvantages of the GTM and the DM.
The foundations of language teaching methods can be traced back to the Middle Ages, where Latin
was the primary focus of education, and the traditional grammar-translation method was used for teaching
Latin. The reform movement in language teaching, which took place in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, was a collective effort by linguists and language teachers to improve the teaching of modern
languages and to establish them as serious academic disciplines.
Despite criticisms of the traditional Grammar-Translation Method, it continued to be used in

language teaching until the 1950s. The emergence of a communicative approach to language teaching in
the 1970s marked a departure from the traditional grammar-translation method and paved the way for later
approaches to language teaching, such as the direct method, the Oral Approach, and the audio-lingual
method.
The Grammar-Translation Method and the Direct Method are two different approaches to language
teaching that have their advantages and disadvantages. The GTM emphasizes reading and writing skills,
while the DM focuses on oral communication skills. The GTM helps learners develop their reading and
writing skills and appreciate literary texts in the target language. On the other hand, the DM focuses on
developing learners' oral communication skills and understanding and using the target language naturally.
However, the DM may be difficult to implement in large classes or with low proficiency learners and
neglects reading and writing skills.
In conclusion, the choice of method depends on the learners' needs, interests, and goals, as well as
the teacher's experience and expertise. The GTM is more suitable for learners who want to focus on reading
and writing skills, while the DM is more suitable for learners who want to focus on oral communication
skills. A combination of both methods may provide a more balanced and effective language learning
experience. It is essential to keep in mind that language teaching methods continue to evolve and change
to meet the evolving goals of language learning.
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2. Comparing Language Teaching Methodologies: Total Physical Response, The Silent Way,
Community Language Learning, and Suggestopedia
Language teaching has evolved over time, and various approaches and methods have been
developed to enhance language acquisition. This essay will focus on four of these methods: Total Physical
Response (TPR), The Silent Way (SW), Community Language Learning (CLL), and Suggestopedia that
emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, a period of innovation and experimentation in the field of language
teaching. These methods emerged as a response to the limitations of traditional grammar-translation and
audio-lingual approaches, which were deemed ineffective in developing communicative competence in
learners. These methods were developed for different reasons, and each has a unique teaching philosophy.
Despite their differences, these methods share a common goal of promoting language acquisition
through engaging and interactive activities that cater to diverse learning styles. TPR, for instance,
emphasizes the use of physical movement and gestures to help learners internalize language structures. In
contrast, The Silent Way promotes learner discovery and visualization, with minimal intervention from the
teacher. Both methods aim to create a relaxed and enjoyable learning environment that fosters natural
language acquisition.
CLL and Suggestopedia, on the other hand, focus on building relationships and reducing anxiety
levels in learners. CLL encourages learners to take charge of their learning by facilitating group interactions
and providing emotional support. Meanwhile, Suggestopedia uses relaxation techniques such as music and
art to help learners overcome their inhibitions and tap into their subconscious mind.
While these methods have their strengths, they also have their limitations. TPR, for instance, may
not be suitable for learners who are not comfortable with physical movements or have mobility issues. The
Silent Way may be challenging for learners who struggle with independent learning or lack motivation.
CLL may require a significant amount of time and effort to build trust and establish rapport with learners.
Finally, Suggestopedia may be perceived as too unconventional or esoteric for some learners.
In conclusion, the emergence of TPR, The Silent Way, CLL, and Suggestopedia can be
attributed to the desire to improve language teaching and learning outcomes. Each method has its unique
characteristics and strengths, but also its limitations. Teachers should carefully consider the needs and
preferences of their learners and their own teaching philosophy when selecting a method to use in the
classroom.
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Part 6 : Regular Spring Session Exams Correction – 2020-2021 and Mock-up Exam for 2022-2023
1. Regular Spring Session Exams– 2020-2021
ENGLISH STUDIES - S 6 MODULE: Applied Linguistics

*FULL NAME *AP. CODE *EXAM N° PROFESSOR:
------------------------------- -------------------------- ------------------ Hanane DARHOUR
------ ------
*Obligatory: Please fill all the information above including your exam number
I/ Read the sentences below and fill in the blanks with the appropriate concept (4 pts)
Synthetic approach Suggestopedia Backward design
Audio-Lingual method Forward design Communicative Competence
Strategic Competence Analytical Approach Silent Way method

1. ------------------------------------------- It encourages shy students to speak by forming new habits in
the target language and teachers do not have to be fluent in the Target Language.
2. ------------------------------------------- The teacher makes a deliberate and skillful use of the general
learning atmosphere by encouraging positive thinking and reducing learning anxieties. The teacher
sets up a non-evaluative classroom atmosphere.
3. ------------------------------------------- Curriculum development begins with a specification of
learning outputs and to use these as the basis for developing instructional processes and input.
4. ------------------------------------------- Curriculum development starts with the use of the
understanding of the subject matter as the basis for syllabus planning.
5. The ability to “know when and how to say what to whom” is called -------------------------------------
------ according to Hymes.
6. The ------------------------------------------- to syllabus design introduces language in discrete list of
items and requires learners to put together the elements of language.
7. The ------------------------------------------- to syllabus design introduces language in a holistic
chunks and requires learners to break them to the parts.
8. ------------------------------------------- It encourages shy students to speak by fostering creativity,
discovery, and increase in intelligent potency.
II/ Explain the quote below (2 pts)

“All tests are means of gathering information but Not all means of gathering information are tests”.
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III/ Which of the following criteria define the Audiolingual method? (2pts)
□ Behaviorism □ Interactionism
□ Accuracy □ Fluency
□ Learner-centeredness □ Teacher-centeredness
□ Structural syllabus □ Flexible syllabus
IV/ In light of what you have studied, analyze and discuss ONE of the following quotes (Instruction:
Please write a three paragraph essay respecting the size provided below) (12pts)
1. “Learning happens when learner’s particular intelligences are fully taken into consideration during
the teaching process”. (Gardner 1983)
2. “Adhering to a single method can impede the teacher’s full potential” (Richards 1998, p. 44).
Topic title:----------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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------------------------
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------------------------
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------------------------
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------------------------
Good luck!
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2. Regular Spring Session Exams Correction – 2020-2021
I. Filling in the blanks with the appropriate concept

1. The Audio-Lingual method encourages shy students to speak by forming new habits in the target
language and teachers do not have to be fluent in the Target Language.
2. Suggestopedia is the method where the teacher makes a deliberate and skillful use of the general learning
atmosphere by encouraging positive thinking and reducing learning anxieties. The teacher sets up a non-
evaluative classroom atmosphere.
3. Backward Design is the approach where curriculum development begins with a specification of learning
outputs and to use these as the basis for developing instructional processes and input.
4. Forward Design is the method where curriculum development starts with the use of the understanding of
the subject matter as the basis for syllabus planning.
5. Communicative Competence is the ability to “know when and how to say what to whom” according to
Hymes.
6. The Synthetic approach to syllabus design introduces language in discrete list of items and requires
learners to put together the elements of language.
7. The Analytical approach to syllabus design introduces language in holistic chunks and requires learners to
break them to the parts.
8. The Silent Way encourages shy students to speak by fostering creativity, discovery, and increase in
intelligent potency.
II. Explaining the quote : “All tests are means of gathering information but Not all means of
gathering information are tests”.
The quote “All tests are means of gathering information but Not all means of gathering
information are tests” shows the difference between tests and other assessment methods in language
education. Tests are formal and standardized ways of measuring learners’ knowledge or skills. Other
methods are informal and flexible ways of collecting information about learners’ performance or
progress. Tests give quantitative and objective data, while other methods give qualitative and
comprehensive data. Teachers and learners can use both types of methods to improve their teaching and
learning.
III. The criteria that define the Audiolingual method are :

✓ Behaviorism
✓ Accuracy
✓ Teacher-centeredness
✓ Structural syllabus
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IV. A/ Analyzing and discussing the quote : “Adhering to a single method can impede the teacher’s
full potential” (Richards 1998, p. 44).
The quote, "Adhering to a single method can impede the teacher's full potential" emphasizes the
importance of flexibility and adaptability in teaching. Sticking to one particular approach can limit a
teacher's ability to reach their full potential in the classroom. A teacher who only uses a single method
may struggle to address the unique needs and learning styles of their students. This can lead to
disengagement and a lack of motivation among students who require different approaches to learning.
It is crucial for teachers to be open-minded and willing to try out different teaching methods and
strategies to meet the diverse needs of their students. This requires continuous learning, professional
development, and reflection to enhance their teaching skills and expand their knowledge base. By being
adaptable and versatile in their approach, teachers can reach their full potential and provide their students
with the best possible learning experience. Teachers who are willing to experiment with new approaches
may find that they are more effective in helping students learn and grow.
In addition, adhering to a single method can hinder a teacher's creativity and ability to explore
alternative approaches and techniques that might be better suited to their teaching goals and situations.
Therefore, it is essential to foster a more flexible and eclectic view of teaching. Teachers can draw on
various sources of knowledge and guidance, such as research findings, professional literature, colleagues'
feedback, and their own intuition. By doing so, they can enhance their full potential and achieve more
effective and satisfying outcomes in their teaching.
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B/ Analyzing and discussing the quote “Learning happens when learner’s particular intelligences are
fully taken into consideration during the teaching process”. (Gardner 1983)
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that traditional measures of

intelligence, such as IQ tests, are too narrow in scope. Gardner identified eight different types of
intelligence, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalistic. According to Gardner, each individual possesses varying degrees of each
of these types of intelligence, and effective learning occurs when educators consider these differences in
their teaching process.
Gardner's theory suggests that teaching approaches should be tailored to each student's strengths
and preferences. For instance, a student with strong spatial intelligence might benefit from visual aids or
hands-on activities, while a student with strong linguistic intelligence might excel with reading and
writing assignments. This highlights the importance of recognizing that each individual learns differently,
and educators must adjust their teaching approach to accommodate these differences.
In conclusion, Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences emphasizes the importance of

recognizing that traditional measures of intelligence are limited and that there are multiple types of
intelligence. Effective learning occurs when educators take into account each student's unique strengths
and preferences and tailor their teaching approach accordingly. By doing so, educators can help students
reach their full potential and achieve success in their academic pursuits.
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3. Mock-up Final Exam for 2022-2023
ENGLISH STUDIES - S 6 MODULE: Applied Linguistics 2

FULL NAME AP. CODE EXAM N° TEST CONSTRUCTORS:
------------------------------- -------------------------- ------------------ ALAHYAN KHAWLA
------------------------------- HANNOUNE SOUFIANE
i. Define the following terms (3 points)

1. Grammar Translation Method :-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ .
2. Communicative Language Teaching : -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ .
3. Internal consistency reliability : -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ .
ii. Match the following methods with their descriptions (2 points)
Method or Approach Characteristic or Principle

1) The Direct Method a) Language learning is facilitated by
physical movement and actions
2) The Oral Approach / Situational Language b) Language learning is enhanced by positive
Teaching suggestion and relaxation
3) The Audiolingual Method c) Language learning is based on structural
patterns and drills
4) Total Physical Response d) Language learning is guided by
communicative functions and tasks
5) The Silent Way e) Language learning is influenced by the
social context and interaction
6) Community Language Learning f) Language learning is achieved by using
only the target language
7) Communicative Language Teaching g) Language learning is organized by
situational topics and vocabulary
8) Suggestopedia h) Language learning is supported by colorful
rods and charts
1 : ……… ; 2 : ……… ; 3 : ……… ; 4 : ……… ; 5 : ……… ; 6 : ……… ; 7 : ……… ; 8 : ………

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iii. Fill in the gaps with the appropriate word or phrase from the suggested answers provided
below (2,5 points)
grammatical - communicative - specific - oral - classical

whole persons - behaviorist - respond - visual – psychological
1. The Grammar Translation Method was mainly used for teaching -------------------------languages
such as Latin and Greek.
2. The Direct Method emphasized -------------------------communication and avoided using the native
language in the classroom.
3. The Oral Approach / Situational Language Teaching focused on teaching -------------------------
structures and vocabulary in meaningful contexts.
4. The Audiolingual Method was based on the -------------------------theory of language learning and
used repetitive drills and exercises.
5. Total Physical Response required learners to -------------------------to commands given by the
teacher in the target language.
6. The Silent Way used -------------------------materials such as rods and charts to help learners
discover the rules of the language.
7. Community Language Learning treated learners as -------------------------who could express their
feelings and needs to the teacher-counselor.
8. Communicative Language Teaching aimed at developing learners’ -------------------------
competence in using the language for various purposes and situations.
9. Suggestopedia used -------------------------techniques such as music, comfortable seating, and
positive affirmations to create a conducive learning environment.
10. English for Specific Purposes tailored its curriculum and materials to meet the -----------------------
--needs and goals of learners from different fields and professions.
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iv. Direct Questions (4,5 points)

1. What is the main difference between the Grammar Translation Method and the Direct Method?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .
2. What are some of the criteria for evaluating the quality of a language test?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .
3. In what ways does a cognitive approach to language learning theory influence language teaching
methods?
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .
v. Essay Questions : Based on what you have studied, analyze and discuss one of the following
topics. (8 points)
1. Discuss how second language assessment can be used for different purposes and audiences, such
as formative, summative, diagnostic, placement, proficiency, achievement, etc.
2. Compare and contrast the Audiolingual Method and the Oral Approach/Situational Language
Teaching.
3. “Language learning methods are not neutral pedagogical tools, but rather reflect the values,
beliefs, and ideologies of their proponents and contexts.” (Richards and Rodgers, 2014, p. 19)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Best of luck!
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Applied Linguistics 2

Simplicity in Linguistic Complexity – 2nd edition (2023)

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The DOI of a book: 10.5281/zenodo.7844110

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2.3.2.4. Learner roles ...............................................................................................................................16

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3.4. Design .....................................................................................................................................................26

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5.4.3. Types of learning and teaching activities ........................................................................................32

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7.4.6. The role of instructional materials..................................................................................................39

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9.7. See it in Action: A Method Demonstrating Video for (CLT) ....................................................................49

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1. Brief history of early developments in language teaching

1.1. The emergence of methods

1.2. The influence of Latin

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1.3. The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

1.4. Language teaching innovations in the 19th century

1.5. The reform movement

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2. The nature of approaches and methods in language teaching

2.1. The Direct Method (DM)

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2.2. Approaches and methods in teacher preparation programs

2.3. Approach and method

2.3.1.1. Theory of language

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2.3.1.1.1. The Cognitive model

2.3.1.1.2. The Structural model

2.3.1.1.3. The Functional model

2.3.1.1.4. The Interactional model

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2.3.1.1.5. The Sociocultural model

2.3.1.1.6. The Genre model

2.3.1.1.7. The Lexical mode

2.3.1.2. Theory of language learning

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2.3.1.2.2. Cognitive-code learning

2.3.1.2.3. The creative-construction hypothesis

2.3.1.2.4. Skill learning

2.3.1.2.5. Interactional theory

2.3.1.2.7. Sociocultural learning theory (or social constructivism)

2.3.2.2. The syllabus

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2.3.2.3. Types of learning and teaching activities

2.3.2.4. Learner roles

2.3.2.5. Teacher roles

2.3.2.6. The role of instructional materials

2.3.3.1.1. In situational language teaching

2.3.3.2. In communicative language teaching

Communicative language teaching is a method in language teaching that emphasizes language as a

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Part 2 : The teaching-methods eras

Lanuage teaching history can be divided

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Part 3 : Language Teaching Methods: Applications

1. The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

1.2. What is (GTM) ?

1.5. Teacher roles