CHAPTER 4 :

INTRODUCTION TO
PARASITOLOGY
Queenie C. Valencia,RMT,MLS(ASCPi )CM
➢is the study of the interaction
between parasites and their hosts.
➢In general, parasitologists tend to
concentrate on eukaryotic
parasites, such as lice, mites,
protozoa and worms, with
prokaryotic parasites and other
infectious agents the focus of
fields such as bacteriology,
microbiology and virology.
 • A living organism which
receives nourishments and
shelter from another
organism where it lives is
WHAT IS A
called a parasite.
PARASITE ?
• An organism that is entirely
dependent on another
organism (host) .
 CRITERIA USED IN CLASSIFICATION OF
PARASITE

1 2 3 4
ACCORDING TO ACCORDING TO ACCORDING TO ACCORDING TO
THEIR THEIR NEED OF THEIR THEIR MODE OF
PATHOGENECITY HOST LOCATION LIVING
 PATHOGENECITY

• The pathogenic mechanism of parasitic infection

varies according to species and quantity of parasites
as well as parasite-host adaptation and host
responses. The damage caused by parasites can be
either confined within the parasitic site or extend
into other parts in host. The damages are commonly
caused by mechanical pressure, capturing nutrition,
toxins, responses and anaphylaxis of host to the
stimulation from parasites as well as passage for
other pathogens invading the host.
• Pathogen is an organism that causes diseases to the
host after infection.
• Parasite is an organism that lives on or in another
organism of another species. It usually derives
nutrients at the expense of its host.
 Difference between Pathogen and Parasite

Pathogen Parasite

Pathogens usually kill Most parasites do not kill

their host through their host but do cause
diseases. some damage.

Pathogens typically do Parasites will have to

PATHOGEN - PARASIT E not require a host to depend on their host to
complete its life cycle. complete their life cycle.

Pathogenicity is the Parasitism can be

ability of an organism to considered as a kind of
infect another organism interaction between two
(host). species, where one
species is benefitted, and
the other is harmed.
PARASITE OF HOSTS
Definitive or Primary Host
The host which harbors the adult parasites or where the parasite replicates sexually is
called the definitive host. The definitive host can be a mammalian host or other living
hosts.
• Examples : sheep for Fasciola gigantica, a dog for Echinococcus granulosus, and a
female anopheles mosquito for Plasmodium spp.
Intermediate or Secondary Host
Refers to the host which harbors the larval stages of a parasite or in which the parasite
undergoes asexual multiplication.
• Example: humans are the intermediate hosts for Plasmodium (malarial parasites).
Reservoir Host
It is a host, which harbors the parasites, possibly grow, and multiply and serves as an important source of
infection to other susceptible hosts.
• Example: a dog is the reservoir host for cystic echinococcosis. Reservoir hosts do not get the disease
carried by the pathogen or it is asymptomatic and non-lethal.
Paratenic or Storage Host
A paratenic host serves as a temporary refuge and vehicle for reaching an obligatory host, usually the
definitive host. A paratenic host harbors the sexually immature parasite, but it cannot develop further in
this host. If a suitable definitive host ingests the paratenic host or a part of it containing the infective stage,
the parasite can grow to maturity otherwise it remains stored in the host itself.
• Example: lizards act as paratenic hosts for Spirocera lupi in dogs. The role of such a host is to fill up an
ecological gap between the intermediate host and the definitive host.
Incidental or Accidental host

A host organism that shelters the parasite, but since it can’t progress the life cycle
development, it is dead-end for it.
• Example, humans are dead-end hosts for the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV),
whose life cycle is normally between culicine mosquitoes and birds. People can
become infected, but the level of virus in their blood does not become high enough to
pass on the infection to mosquitoes that bite them.
 LOCATION & MODE OF LIVING
HOST-PARASITE RELATIONSHIPS

• Host-parasite relationships or symbiotic relationships are those in which the organisms (host and
parasite) live in close proximity to each other and are dependent on each other in one or another
way for their survival.
• Symbiotic relationships are usually of four main types namely parasitism, mutualism,
commensalism, and phoresis.

Mutualism
is a symbiotic relationship that is defined as an association between two living beings in such a way
that both benefit from each other’s existence. This relationship can either be within the species or
between the two different species.
 PARASITISM

• Parasitism is defined as a non-

mutual symbiotic relationship in
which one of the symbionts (the
parasite), benefits at the expense of
the host, while the host is harmed.
The parasite lives on or in the body
of the host.
 COMMENSALISM

• Commensalism is a type of symbiotic relationship

where one partner benefits whereas the second
partner (the host) are neither helped nor harmed. The
organism that receives the refuge and nourishment is
called the ‘commensal’. Most of the normal floras of
the human body can be considered as commensals.
• For example, Humans harbor several species of
commensal protistans such as Entamoeba
gingivalis which lives in the mouth where it feeds on
bacteria, food particles, and dead epithelial cells but
never harms healthy tissues.
 STAGE S O F
PARASITIC CYCLE
 PARASITIC ADAPTATION

• Any feature of an organism or its part which enables it

to exist under conditions of its habitat is
called adaptation.’ The adaptations are mainly to
withstand the adverse conditions of the environment
and to use the maximum benefit of the environment.
 STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS
(MORPHOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL
ADAPTATIONS)
• Feeding organs are usually absent in endoparasites.
• The presence of well-developed piercing device in some parasites enables them to
invade into the host tissue. Example: the stylet in nematodes.
• Since endoparasites show restricted movements, the locomotory organs are
generally absent or highly reduced in them. Example: gut parasites such
as Fasciola and Taenia.
• The presence of attachment organs such as rostellum, hooks or suckers for the
securely connecting to the organs of the host as in Fasciola and Taenia.
• The outer covering of the endoparasite is resistant to the enzymatic digestion of the
host. Example: Fasciola
• Some endoparasites such as Ascaris have highly muscular pharynx for the easy
absorption of food materials from the host.
 CLASSIFIC ATION OF PARASITES

PERMANENT TEMPORARY
ECTOPARASITE ENDOPARASITE
PARASITE PARASITE

FACULTATIVE OBLIGATORY OCCASIONAL

PARASITE PARASITE PARASITE
ECTOPARASITE
They are the ones who live on the surface of the body of the host.
E.g. Head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis), blood sucking fleas, flies, lice, mites etc.
ENDOPARASITE
They are the ones who live in the interior of the body of the host in the blood, tissues,
body cavities, digestive tract and other organs.
E.g. Entamoeba, Trypanosoma, Plasmodium, Leishmania, Fasciola etc.
PERMANENT PARASITE
Leads a parasitic condition throughout the whole period of its life. Head louse cannot live
away from the body of the host.
TEMPORARY PARASITE
Visit its host for a short period.
Facultative parasite
Lives a parasitic life when opportunity arises i.e., organisms which can live either a
parasitic or non-parasitic existence.
E.g. Larvae of a saprophagous fly (Sarcophaga macroauriculata) are on record to have
caused digestive disorder in man and also in a leopard after an apparent accidental
ingestion along with meat.
Obligatory parasite
Cannot exist without a parasitic life i.e., they are obliged to live a parasitic existence and
are incapable of surviving outside the host’s environment.
E.g. The head-louse have no alternative but to remain on the host.
Occasional parasite
Attacks an unusual host.
E.g. Mosquito behaves as a parasite only temporarily and moves away after
taking a full blood meal.
 THREE MAIN CLASSES OF
PARASITES

THERE ARE THREE MAIN CLASSES OF PARASITES

THAT CAN CAUSED DISEASED TO HUMANS:

• PROTOZOAN
• HELMINTHS
• ECTOPARASITES
 PROTOZOA

• Protozoa are microscopic, one-

celled organisms that can be free-
living or parasitic in nature. They
are able to multiply in humans,
which contributes to their survival
and also permits serious infections
to develop from just a single
organism. Transmission of protozoa
that live in a human’s intestine to
another human typically occurs
through a fecal-oral route.
• Protozoa that live in the blood or
tissue of humans are transmitted to
other humans by an arthropod
vector (for example, through the
bite of a mosquito or sand fly).
The protozoa that are infectious to humans can be
classified into four groups based on their mode of
movement:
Sarcodina – the ameba, e.g., Entamoeba

Mastigophora – the flagellates, e.g., Giardia, Leishmania

Ciliophora – the ciliates, e.g., Balantidium

Sporozoa – organisms whose adult stage is not

motile e.g., Plasmodium, Cryptosporidium
 HELMINTHS
(METAZOAN)

• Helminths are large, multicellular organisms that are generally visible to the naked eye in their adult
stages. Like protozoa, helminths can be either free-living or parasitic in nature. In their adult form,
helminths cannot multiply in humans.
THERE ARE THREE MAIN GROUPS OF HELMINTHS
❖FLATWORMS (PLATYHELMINTHS) – these include the trematodes (flukes) and cestodes
(tapeworms).
❖THORNY-HEADED WORMS (ACANTHOCEPHALINS) – the adult forms of these worms reside in
the gastrointestinal tract. The acanthocephala are thought to be intermediate between the cestodes
and nematodes.
❖ROUNDWORMS (NEMATODES) – the adult forms of these worms can reside in the
gastrointestinal tract, blood, lymphatic system or subcutaneous tissues. Alternatively, the
immature (larval) states can cause disease through their infection of various body tissues. Some
consider the helminths to also include the segmented worms (annelids)—the only ones important
medically are the leeches. Of note, these organisms are not typically considered parasites.
 ECTOPARASITE

• Although the term ectoparasites can broadly include

blood-sucking arthropods such as mosquitoes
(because they are dependent on a blood meal from a
human host for their survival), this term is generally
used more narrowly to refer to organisms such as
ticks, fleas, lice, and mites that attach or burrow into
the skin and remain there for relatively long periods
of time
• Arthropods are important in causing diseases in their
own right, but are even more important as vectors, or
transmitters, of many different pathogens that in
turn cause tremendous morbidity and mortality from
the diseases they cause.
 PARASITE AND THEIR ASSOCIATED
DISEASES IN HUMANS

Acanthamoebiasis
• This is a tiny ameba can cause an infection to the eye, the skin, and the brain. It can be found all over the world in
soil and water. Individuals can get an infection if they have their contact lenses cleaned with tap water.
Babesiosis
• This is a disease that is caused by parasites that are carried by ticks. The disease affects the red blood cells and
poses a higher risk in summer around the Northeast and upper Midwest of the US.
Balantidiasis
• This is a disease transmitted by Balatidium coli, which is a single-cell parasite that mostly infects pigs but can cause
intestinal infections in humans rare cases. It can be spread by drinking contaminated water, or through direct
contact with pigs.
Blastocystosis
• This is an illness that affects the intestines. The blastocystis goes into the human body via the fecal-oral route. Any
person can get one by eating or drinking anything that has been contaminated with animal or human feces where
the parasite is present.
Coccidiosis
• This is a disease that affects the human intestines. Coccidia is transmitted through the fecal-oral route. It is a condition found
all over the world.
• It can also affect cats and dogs, but these are different from the kinds that affect humans. Cats, dogs, and humans typically
can’t infect each other.
Amoebiasis
• This is a disease caused by the parasite known as Entamoeba histolytica. It attacks the intestines. It is highly unlikely to be
found in places outside tropical regions and in areas with poor sanitation and high population density. It is transmitted via
the fecal-oral route.
Giardiasis
• Giardia, also known as “beaver fever,” is a disease that affects the lumen of a person’s small intestine. If humans keep
drinking anything that has been contaminated with feces, dormant cysts may cause an infection to the body.
Isosporiasis or cyclosporiasis
• This is a disease that is caused by the Cystoisospora belli, formally called Isospora Belli. It creates an infection to the
epithelial cells of the small intestine.
• It can be found all over the world and is both preventable and treatable. It is passed on via the fecal-oral route.
Leishmaniasis
• This is a common disease that is transferred by parasites belonging to the Leishmania family. It can affect the viscera, the
skin, or the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and throat.
• It can be a fatal condition. Certain types of sandflies transmit the parasite responsible for this case.
Trichomoniasis
• This condition is also known as “trich” and is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) that is caused by
the parasite called Trichomonas vaginalis. It can affect males but will display no symptoms. It mainly
affects the female urogenital tract.
Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping sickness)
• Also called the African sleeping sickness, Trypanosomiasis is a disease that is passed on when a tsetse
fly transmits a parasite belonging to the Trypanosoma family. The parasite affects the blood, central
nervous system, and lymph.
• It causes a change in sleep pattern or behavior, among several other physical symptoms, and it is
considered fatal without immediate treatment. It can cross the placenta and even infect a fetus
during pregnancy.
Chagas disease
• This is a disease that affects the muscle, blood, nerves, esophagus, heart, and colon. It is transferred
through an insect bite. More than 300,000 people in the United States have the parasite that causes
this disease.
Roundworm:
• A roundworm or ascariasis infection does not usually show any physical symptoms, but the worm
may be noticed in feces. It enters the human body through the consumption of contaminated food or
drink.
Clonorchiasis
• Also called the Chinese liver fluke disease, clonorchiasis is a disease that affects the gall
bladder. A person can become infected by this disease after eating raw, preserved, or poorly
processed freshwater fish.
Diphyllobothriasis
• This disease affects the blood and intestines. Humans can get infected by the illness after
eating raw fish that live fully or partly in freshwater. The prevalence of this disease has
increased in certain parts of the developed world, most likely as a result of the growing
popularity of salted fillets, sushi, ceviche, and other dishes that involve raw-fish.
Enterobiasis
• A threadworm, or pinworm, Enterobius vermicularis can take abode in the human colon and
rectum. The worms lay eggs around a person’s anus while they sleep, which leads to itching.
These parasites spread through the oral-fecal route.
Hookworm infection
• These are common causes of intestinal disease. These parasites lay their eggs in the soil, and
their larvae can easily penetrate the human skin. Early physical symptoms of hookworm
include a rash and itching. Hookworms are most common in damp places and places with poor
sanitation.
Strongyloidiasis
• This is a parasite that can lead to severe and even fatal immunodeficiency. The Strongyloidiasis parasite
penetrates via the human skin and affects the intestines, lungs, and skin. This parasite is passed on from
direct contact with soil that has been contaminated. It mostly occurs in subtropical and tropical regions.
Taeniasis ( pork and beef tapeworm)
• Taeniasis is a disease that is caused by tapeworm belonging to the taenia family. They attack the intestines
and are passed on by eating raw or undercooked beef or pork.
Toxocariasis
• This is an infection transmitted by a roundworm from animals to humans. It affects the brains, eyes, and
liver. Toxocariasis is caused by swallowing the eggs of the parasite accidentally.
Trichinosis
• This is an infection caused by the roundworm belonging to the Trichinella family. An infection can cause
fever, intestinal symptoms, and muscle aches. It is transferred from animals to humans by eating
undercooked meat.
Whipworm infection
• Also called trichuriasis, the whipworms takes abode in the human large intestine. Its eggs are passed in
feces, and it is a prevalent parasite all over the world. Humans can get infected from ingesting the eggs
accidentally when consuming unwashed fruit or vegetables.