Ancient Astronomy

03-12-2022
Unique Aspects of Indian Astronomy
Ram Ajor Maurya

ramajor@nitc.ac.in
Department of Physics
National Institute of Technology Calicut
Syllabus
 Historical development of astronomy in India,
 Celestial coordinate system,
 Elements of the Indian Calendar,
 Panchang
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Course Plan
 Astronomy and its requirement to ancient Indian
 Celestial coordinate systems
 Elements of Indian calendar
 Panchang and Gregorian calendar
 Historical development in ancient India & modern astronomy
Why study ancient Indian Astronomy?
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Your astronomy questions as an amateur astronomer?
Some Astronomical Observations
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The Sun
SUNRISE
SUNSET
Questions by an amateur astronomer?
How do we define North, South, East and West?
Why does the Sun rise in the East and set in the West?
Does the Sun rise and set at same points on the horizon?
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Solar Eclipse
Solar Eclipse
How to predict the Lunar and Solar eclipses?
Why do we have different types of eclipses, such as partial, complete, annular?
Why eclipses are rare?
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STARS’ APPARENT PATH IN THE SKY
Pole Star
west East
Questions by an amateur astronomer?
Why does the polar star looks stationary? Is it stationary?
Why other stars & planets moves from east to west?
Why do all planets follow a fixed path in the sky?
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Why was astronomy important to ancient Indian?
Understanding:
 Regular and periodic change of
 day and night
 Moon’s phases
 length of day and night during a year
 seasons
 motions of some celestial objects (planets) with respect to fixed objects (stars)
Why was astronomy important to ancient Indian?
 Why-position of rising and setting of Sun changes

 What causes the change in the Moon’s phase
 Lunar and solar eclipses
Keeping track of time for:
 day and night activities

 crops to sow and reap
 spiritual activities
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How Astronomy is different from Astrology?
Astronomy. The study of celestial objects and phenomena
Astrology. The study of the positions and movements of the stars and planets and the way that
some people believe they affect people and events
Astrophysics. The study of the physical and chemical structure of the stars, planets, etc.
Stars and Constellations

 constellation: a group of stars forming a recognizable pattern that is traditionally named after its apparent
form or identified with a mythological figure
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Stars and Constellations

 constellation: a group of stars forming a recognizable pattern that is traditionally named after its apparent
form or identified with a mythological figure
Star Constellation:
Today’s Orion
Night Sky from NITC
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Star Constellation: Orion
Star Constellation: Orion

The Rigveda refers to the Orion Constellation as Mriga (The Deer).
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Constellation: Ursa Major

(vashisth)
(marichi) (Arundhati)
(angira)
(Megrez (atri)
(kratu)
(Pulatsya)
(pulah)
Constellation: Ursa Minor
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Finding Pole Star
Pointing stars
POLE STAR
Seasonal Change & Nightly change of the Dippers
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Angular Units
One arc-minute =
One arc-second =
Angular area & size of objects
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Angular size of the Moon and the Sun
Sun: 32′ (0.53°)
Moon: 31’ (0.49o)
Angular Diameters of Celestial Objects
Celestial Objects Angular diameter

Sun 32′32″ – 31′27″
Moon 34′6″ – 29′20″
Venus 1′6″ – 0′9.7″
Jupiter 50.1″ – 29.8″
Mars 25.1″ – 3.5″
Saturn 20.1″ – 14.5″
Mercury 13.0″ – 4.5″
Uranus 3.4” - 3.7”
Neptune 2.4″ – 2.2″
Angular resolution of human eye ~1’=0.017 degree
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What did you learn?
How to find the pole star in the sky?
What is the angular size of the Sun?
What is the angular size of the Moon?
What do you mean by pointing stars?
Names of few constellations that you learned?
End of the 1st Lecture
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How to mark/find the locations of celestial objects?
Celestial Coordinate System
Celestial Sphere
 From the ground, the sky looks like a big dome above us.
(Urdhva)  The point directly overhead
Both the “zenith” and horizon are locally defined.
Horizon: All points 90° away from zenith
Nadir (AdhaH)
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Celestial Sphere
 an imaginary sphere of which the observer is the centre and on which all celestial objects are considered to lie
Celestial Sphere: Cardinal Points (N, S, E, W)

 Celestial Meridian: great circle passing through zenith and celestial poles
Cardinal Points: points on

the celestial sphere that are
on the horizon and due
north, south, east and west.
 Meridian line passes through zenith and connects N and S points on horizon
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Spherical Coordinates
e.g., Terrestrial Coordinates

NITC (lon, lat)?
(75.9336°E, 11.3216°N)
Latitude
Longitude
Origin
Horizontal coordinate system

 Altitude (a), sometimes referred to as elevation, is the angle between the object and the observer's local
horizon. For visible objects, it is an angle between 0° and 90°.
 Azimuth (A) is the angle of the object around

the horizon, usually measured from true
north and increasing eastward.
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Horizontal coordinate system
Limitations:
• altitude and azimuth of celestial objects changes due to earth’s rotation about its axis
• on changing observer’s place on earth, the coordinates of the object at given time would be different
• cannot be used to specify fixed coordinates for celestial objects
Altitude of the Celestial North Pole

 Altitude of the celestial north pole is the latitude (φ) of the place
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Local Equatorial System (δ, H)
N.P.
S.P.
Speed: 1600 km/hr
Path of Celestial Objects due to Earth’s Spin
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 Hour Angle (H): angle between two planes: one containing the Earth's axis and the zenith (the
meridian plane), and the other containing the Earth's axis and the given point (the hour circle
passing through the point).
 The angle may be expressed as negative east of the
meridian plane and positive west of the meridian plane,
or as positive westward from 0° to 360°. The angle
may be measured in degrees or in time, with 24h =
360° exactly.
 Declination (δ): the angular distance of a point north or

south of the celestial equator. Declination's angle is
measured north or south of the celestial equator, along
the hour circle passing through the point in question.
An object at the
• celestial equator has a declination of 0°
• north celestial pole has a declination of +90°
• south celestial pole has a declination of −90°
Time units to angular units:

Angular units to time units:
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Visibility of stars with different declinations
For circumpolar stars:

δ> 90-φ
Limitations:
• hour angle of celestial objects changes due to earth’s rotation about its axis
• on changing observer’s place on earth, H of the object at a given time would be different
• H cannot be used to specify fixed coordinates for celestial objects
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Equatorial & Ecliptic Planes
Vernal equinox: when the sun crosses the

celestial equator in a northerly direction
Image credit: https://www.ethosinc.org/
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Universal Equatorial Coordinate System

Right Ascension (RA: α) and Declination (Dec: δ)
 right ascension: the distance of a point

east of the First Point of Aries (vernal
equinox), measured along the celestial
equator and expressed in hours, minutes,
and seconds.
End of the 2nd Lecture
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Revision:
How to find the pole star in the sky if the latitude is given?
Define cardinal points (N, S, E, W)
What do you mean by celestial equator?
What do you mean by ecliptic plane?
Inclination of the ecliptic from the celestial equator?
Define the vernal equinox?
What range of stars one can see in the sky?
Can we define the coordinates (A, a) of a celestial object which can be used anywhere?
Altitude of the pole star from the north pole of the Earth?
Altitude of the pole star from NIT Calicut?
Questions:
• In a place of latitude 48o N, a star of declination 60o N is observed. What is its zenith distance at upper and
lower culmination?
Ans. ZU = 12o, ZL = 72o
• The zenith distances of a star at upper culmination (south of the zenith) and lower culmination are 24o and 74o
respectively. Calculate the latitude of the observer and the declination of the star.
Ans.
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Universal Equatorial Coordinate System

Sun's Path on the Celestial Sphere
The Sun’s RA and Dec change

along the ecliptic during the
course of a year
(summer
solstice)
Sun’s declination is negative in

fall & winter and positive in
spring & summer
(winter
solstice)
Summer and winter seasons in northern and southern hemisphere?
Inclination of Ecliptic to the plane of the celestial equator

Sun’s rays on the Earth
21 June
21 March & 21 September
21 December
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Rising points of the Sun
Ecliptic: Zodiac Constellations
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Parade of Zodiac Constellations

(Sun’s path through the zodiac.)
 e.g., Dec 18, 2014: Sun enters constellation Sagittarius (266.54o) as recorded by IAU in 1930.
Division of Ecliptic
Zodiac constellations or Rashis (12):
Constellations through which the Sun appears to travel during the year
360
𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 30
12
Nakshatras:
A nakshatra is one of 27 sectors along the ecliptic
360
𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑘𝑠ℎ𝑡𝑟𝑎 = = 13 20
27
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Division of Ecliptic
Padas (Quarters):
Every nakshatra is divided into four equal parts called padas
13 20′
𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑎 = = 3 20
4
108
(total number of beads in a rosary indicating all the elements (ansh))
NAKSHATRAS
• A nakshatra is one of 27 sectors along the ecliptic
Atharvaveda (Shaunakiya recension, hymn 19.7)
1. Ashvini 15. Svāti (Arcturus)

2. Bharani 16. Vishākhā
3. Kṛttikā (the Pleiades) 17. Anurādhā
4. Rohinī (Aldebaran) 18. Jyeshthā
5. Mrigashīrsha 19. Mūla
6. Ārdrā (Betelgeuse) 20. Purva Ashadha
7. Punarvasu (Castor 21. Uttara Ashadha
and Pollux) 22. Shravana
8. Pushya 23. Dhanishta
9. Asleshā 24. Satabhishak
10. Maghā (Regulus) (Sadachbia)
11. Purva Phalguni 25. Purva Bhadrapada
12. Uttara Phalguni 26. Uttara Bhadrapada
(Denebola) 27. Revati
13. Hasta
14. Chitrā (Spica)
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NAKSHATRAS
अि वनी भरणी चैव कृ का रो हणी मग

ृ ः।
आ ा पन
ु वसु पु य तथा लेषा मघा ततः ॥
पूवाफा गु नकाचैव उ राफा गन
ु ी ततः ।
ह त च ा तथा वाती वशाखा तदन तरम ् ॥
अनुराघा ततो ये ठा ततो मूलं नग यते ।
पव
ू ाषढो राषाढा व भ वणा तथा ॥
घ न ठा शततारा यं पूवाभा पदं ततः ।
उ राभा पदं चैव रे व येता न भा न च ॥
१. अि वनी, २. भरणी, ३. कृ का , ४. रो हणी, ५. मग ृ शरा, ६. आ ा, ७.पुनवसु, ८. पु य, ९. आ लेषा, १०. मघा,

११. पव
ू ाफा गन ु ी, १२. उ राफा गन
ु ी, ९३. ह त, १४. च ा, १५. वाती, १६. वशाखा, १७. अनरु ाधा, १८, ये ठा, १९. मल
ू , २०.
पूवाषाढ, २१. उ राषा , २२. वणा, २३. ध न ठा, २४. शत भषा, २५. पूवाभा पद, २६. उ राभा पद, २७. रे वती
Nakshatra English Constellation

(Sanskrit)
1 Ashwini β and γ Arietis Aries
(physician to the
Gods)
2 Bharani (35, 39 & 41) Aries
(the bearer)
3 Krittika Pleiades Taurus
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Nakshatra (Sanskrit) English Constellatio

n
4 Rohini Aldebaran Taurus
(the red one)
5 Mrigashīrsha -Orion Orion
(the deer's head)
Nakshatra (Sanskrit) English Constellation
6 Ardra Betelgeuse Orion

(the storm god)
7 Punarvasu(dual) Castor and Gemini
(the two restorers of Pollux
goods)
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8 Pushya γ, δ, and θ Cancer

(the nourisher, also known Cancri i
as sidhya or tisya)
9 Āshleshā δ, ε, η, ρ, and σ Hydra

(the embrace)
10 Maghā (the bountiful) Alpha-leo Leo
11 Pūrva Phalgunī (first reddish δ and θ Leonis Leo

one)
12 Uttara Phalgunī (second Denebola Leo

reddish one)
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n
13 Hasta (the hand) α, β, γ, δ and Corus
ε Corvi
14 Chitra (the bright Spica Virgo
one)

n
15 Swāti (Su-Ati Arcturus Bootes
(sanskrit) Very good)
16 Vishakha (forked, α, β, γ and ι Libra
having branches) Librae
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n
17 Anuradha β, δ and π Scorpius
(following rādhā) Scorpionis
18 Jyeshtha α, σ, and τ Scorpius
(the eldest, most Scorpionis
excellent)
19 Mula ε, ζ, η, θ, ι, Scorpius
(the root) κ, λ, μ and ν
Scorpionis

n
20 Purva Ashadha δ and ε Sagittarius
(first of Sagittarii
the āṣāḍhā", āṣāḍhā "the
invincible one")
21 Uttara Ashadha ζ and σ Sagittarius

(second of the āṣāḍhā ) Sagittarii
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Nakshatra (Sanskrit) English Constellati

on
22 Sravana α, β and γ Aquila
Aquilae
23 Dhanishta α to δ Delphinus
(most famous, Delphini
also Shravishthā "swiftest")
24 Shatabhisha γ Aquarii Aquarius

(requiring a hundred physicians)
25 Purva Bhadrapada α and β Pegasi Pisces

(the first of the blessed feet)
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26 Uttara Bhādrapadā γ Pegasi and α Pegasus,
(the second of the blessed feet) Andromedae Andromeda
27 Revati ζ Piscium Pisces
(prosperous)
PANCHANG
 Panchang (Sanskrit word) = panch (five) + ang (parts)
 Five elements of a panchang:
1. Tithi – angular separation between Sun and Moon

2. Karana – half of a tithi
3. Nakshatra – 27 or 28 parts of the ecliptic
4. Yoga – (addition) longitude of Sun and Moon
5. Vara – day of the week
 Based on true longitude of the Sun and the Moon
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Month Panchang, November 2022
https://www.drikpanchang.com/panchang/month-panchang.html
Elements of Panchang
1. Tithi
• Angular separation between the Sun and the Moon
• Time unit during which the angle between the Sun and the Moon (as viewed from the Earth) increases by 12o or
its integral multiples
S1 So
∠𝑀 𝐸𝑆 = 0 , 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑎
S2
Mo ∠𝑀 𝐸𝑆 = 12 , 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟1𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖
M1
S15
∠𝑀 𝐸𝑆 = 24 , 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟2𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖
M2 ∠𝑀 𝐸𝑆 = 180 , 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑛
E
M15
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1. Tithi
M
S
𝜃 −𝜃 𝜃
12
=𝐼+𝑓
𝜃
E Mesa Rashi
Where, (Aries Sign)
I – no. of tithi elapsed
f – fraction
1. Tithi
Case-I
𝜃 = 60 12 , 𝜃 = 19 7
𝜃 −𝜃 60 12 − 19 7 41 5′
= =
12 12 12
= 3.4261
 3 tithis elapsed
 Current tithi is 4th (Sukla-paksh)
Case-II
𝜃 = 201 2 , 𝜃
= 219 17′
𝐼𝑓𝜃 < 𝜃 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝜃 = 𝜃 + 360
𝜃 −𝜃
12
= 28.4791
 28 tithis elapsed
 Current tithi is 29th = 15 +14, i. e. chaturdasi in Krisha-paksh
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2. Karana:
• one karana = angular separation between Moon and Sun increases by 6 degree
• One lunar month = 60 karanas
Case-I 𝜃 = 60 12 , 𝜃 = 19 7
𝜃 −𝜃 60 12 − 19 7 41 5′
= =
6 6 6  6 karana elapsed
= 6.8472
 current karana is 7
Case-II
𝜃 = 201 2 , 𝜃
= 219 17′
𝐼𝑓𝜃 < 𝜃 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝜃 = 𝜃 + 360
 56 karana elapsed
 Current karana is 57
56.9583
3. Nakshatra:
Particular position of ecliptic in which Moon is situated at any instant

360 × 60′ 2. Bharani 16. Vishākhā
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑘𝑠ℎ𝑡𝑟𝑎 = = 13 20 = 800
27 3. Kṛttikā (the Pleiades) 17. Anurādhā
4. Rohinī (Aldebaran) 18. Jyeshthā
Case-I 𝜃 = 60 12 , 𝜃 = 19 7 5. Mrigashīrsha 19. Mūla
𝜃 60 12 and Pollux) 22. Shravana
𝑛𝑎𝑘𝑎𝑠ℎ𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = = = 4.515
800′ 800′ 8. Pushya 23. Dhanishta
9. Asleshā 24. Satabhishak
 4 nakshatra elapsed 10. Maghā (Regulus) (Sadachbia)
 Current nakshatra number is 5th 11. Purva Phalguni 25. Purva Bhadrapada
 Position of Moon: Mrigashira 12. Uttara Phalguni 26. Uttara Bhadrapada
13. Hasta
14. Chitrā (Spica)
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3. Nakshatra
Case-II 𝜃 = 201 2 , 𝜃
= 219 17′
2. Bharani 16. Vishākhā
201 2′ 12062′ 3. Kṛttikā (the Pleiades) 17. Anurādhā
𝑛𝑎𝑘𝑠ℎ𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = = 4. Rohinī (Aldebaran) 18. Jyeshthā
800′ 800′
= 15.0775 5. Mrigashīrsha 19. Mūla
 15 nakshatra elapsed and Pollux) 22. Shravana
 Current nakshtra number is 16th 8. Pushya 23. Dhanishta
 Position of Moon: Vishakha 9. Asleshā 24. Satabhishak
10. Maghā (Regulus) (Sadachbia)
11. Purva Phalguni 25. Purva Bhadrapada
12. Uttara Phalguni 26. Uttara Bhadrapada
13. Hasta
14. Chitrā (Spica)
4. Yoga (Addition):
 sum of the nirayana* longitude of Moon and Sun
 One yoga is , which is length of one nakshtra
Case-I 𝜃 = 60 12 , 𝜃 = 19 7
 5 yoga elapsed
𝜃 + 𝜃 = 60 12 + 19 7  Current yoga is 6th
= 79 19′
𝜃 +𝜃 79 19′
𝑦𝑜𝑔𝑎 = =
800′ 800′
= 5.94875
Case-II 𝜃 = 201 2 , 𝜃
= 219 17′
then
𝜃 +𝜃 60 9′
𝑦𝑜𝑔𝑎 = =  4 yoga elapsed
800′ 800′
= 4.5112  Current yoga is 5th
*nirayana literally means ‘neglecting the precession of the equinoxes’, its opposite is śāyana
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5. Vara:
• Day of the week
Aryabhata-I:
• ahargana = count of days
• Beginning of current Kali-yoga was considered on a Friday (18 February, 3102 BCE)
Let be the ahargana corresponding to a given day. Then,
remainder=0-Friday, 1-Saturday, 2-Sunday, 3-Monday, 4-Tuesday, 5-Wednesday, 6-Thursday
Example:
𝐴  Remainder is 4
= 18,70,348  Day will be Tuesday
End of 3rd Lectures
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Ancient Indian Astronomy
Vedanga Jyotisha (Author: Lagadha ~1400 BC):

one of the six branches of knowledge
यथा शखा मयूराणां नागानां मणयो यथा ।

त व वेदा गशा ाणां यो तषं (ग णतं) मूध न ि थतम ् ॥ १९ ॥ (Veda. Jyot. 4)
yathā śikhā mayūrāṇāṁ nāgānāṁ maṇayo yathā ।

tadvadvedāṅgaśāsrāṇāṁ jyotiṣaṁ (gaṇitaṁ) mūrdhani sthitam ॥ 19 ॥
Like the crests on the heads of peacocks, like the gems on the hoods of the snakes (cobras), astronomy
(mathematics) is at the highest position of vedanga shastras (the six ancillary branches of knowledge).
Some Ancient Astronomers and their Works

~1200 BC: Lagadha (Astronomer & Mathematician)
 Book: Vedanga Jyotisha
 Astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observations
 Ritus (seasons) as yugamsas (or parts of the conjunction cycle)
 Lunar months, solar months and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of Adhimasa
 Twenty constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac
Gap-1 (~1200 to 476 CE)

 After 1200 + 476 = 1876 years
 Why there is no other reference?
476-550 CE: Aryabhata I (mathematician & astronomer, in Pataliputra during Gupta empire 350 CE-550 CE)
 Book: Aryabhatiya & Arya-siddhanta:
 Heliocentric idea of solar system (1000 years before the Copernicus and Galileo)
 Methods of eclipse prediction
 Codified many trigonometric laws, sin tables
 value of pi
 Zero (sunya) and decimal systems
 Knew of most of the planets (at least 7) without telescope
 Earth’s spin and its spherical shape, circumference 24,835 miles (or 39,968 km, modern: 40, 075 km)
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505–587 CE: Varahamihira (Astrologer, astronomer, and polymath lived in Ujjain, M. P. during Gupta empire)
 Book: Pancha-Siddhantika
 Described the Earth as spherical and as being suspended in space
 first one to mention that the Ayanāṃśa, or the shifting of the equinox, is 50.32 arc seconds per year.
598-668 CE: Brahmagupta (mathematician and astronomer, lived in Bhillamāla in Gurjaradesa (modern Bhinmal in
Rajasthan) during the reign of the Chavda dynasty (690 CE - 942 CE) ruler, Vyagrahamukha)
 Book: Khandakhadyaka
 motion of planets,
 computation of eclipses,
 Earth’s gravitational attraction
~600 CE: Devacharya (mathematician and astronomer)

 described a method for calculating the precession of the equinoxes. Varahamihira knew of precession, but was
not certain of its rate. Aryabhata I and Brahmagupta do not mention precession, while Bhaskara I did not believe
in it.
600 – 680 CE: Bhāskara I (mathematician and astronomer, from Asmaka present-day between Telangana and Maharashtra)
 Mahabhaskariya (astronomy book):
• the longitudes of the planets;
• association of the planets with each other and also with the bright stars;
• the lunar crescent;
• solar and lunar eclipses;
• rising and setting of the planets
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720–790 CE: Lalla (mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer from Lāṭa region of Gujarat)
 Book: Śiṣyadhīvṛddhidatantra (I. Grahadhyaya, II. Grahadhyaya)
 Jyotiṣaratnakośa: A popular book on astronomy in India
 A commentary on Brahmagupta's Khandakhadyaka (now lost)
Gap-2 (790 CE – 1068 CE)

 After 1068 - 790 = 278 years
1068 – 1099 CE: Satananda (lived in Puri or Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh)

• Book: Bhasvati
• Estimated precession
1114 - 1185 CE: Bhaskara II (Vijjalavida, Maharashtra)

• Book: Siddantasiromani (Head Jewel of Accuracy) and Karanakutuhala (Calculation of Astronomical Wonders)
The nearest Star to the Sun
Proxima Centauri (Mitra*)
Right ascension 14h 29m 42s

Declination −62° 40′ 46″
Apparent magnitude (V) 10
distance from Sun: 4.2465 lyr
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Brightest Star in the Sky
Sirius (Canis Major)
In Sanskrit, Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, is

known as Mrigavyādha (deer hunter) and as Lubdhaka,
the hunter who shot his arrow into Mriga, the deer,
represented by Orion's Belt.
As Mrigavyādha, the star represents Rudra, a Rigvedic

deity, associated with wind, storm and hunting.
Earth’s Precession
Precession: Counter-clockwise
Hipparchus (190–120 BC)
Devacharya (600 CE)
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Earth’s Precession
The Moon helps to cause precession, a slow, conical motion of Earth’s axis of rotation
Luni-solar precession: the Earth’s axis precede around the axis of the ecliptic backward, i.e., from east to
west with a slow speed, making one circuit in about 26,000 yrs., which makes the vernal equinox (γ) slide
backward by about 50”.26 per year at the present time
 (α, δ) changes continuously in a slow manner on account of precession
Note: The direction of precession is opposite to the daily rotation of the Earth
on its axis.
Earth’s Precession: Positions of the North and South Celestial Pole

 Precession causes the gradual change of the star that marks the North Celestial Pole
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𝑪= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒 × 𝟖 × 𝟔𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔𝟐, 𝟖𝟑𝟐
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Value of Pi 31 correct to places

The oldest available evidence of the use of Kaṭapayādi (Sanskrit: कटपया द) system is from Grahacāraṇibandhana
by Haridatta in 683 CE. It has been used in Laghu·bhāskarīya·vivaraṇa written by Śaṅkara·nārāyaṇa in 869 CE.
गोपीभा यमधु ात-श ृ गशोद धसि धग॥ गो पी भा य म धु ा त शु

खलजी वतखाताव गलहालारसंधर॥ 3 1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5
3.1415926535897932384626433832792
Foreign Invasions in India

India had been a land of wealth and virtues, which later became the reason for the invasion.
Foreign rulers, over the centuries, tried to annex and rob the country around 200 times.
518 BC
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India’s Glorious Ancient Universities destroyed by invasion

Name & address Founder, discipline Some known teacher/alumni Destroyer & Year
(Current Address) Capacity
Taxila or Takshashila Chandragupta Vedas, Philosophy, • Panini was a great Sanskrit Kidara Huns, who
University, Maurya in 6th Grammar, Ayurveda, linguist and grammarian invaded Takshashila,
Gandhara (Pakistan’s century BC, Surgery, Agriculture, • Charaka who was a great destroyed the
Rawalpindi district) Astronomy, physician university in 5th
(540 BC – 5 CE) Students: Astrology, • Chanakya was a great century
10,500 Commerce, Warfare, philosopher and economist
Test: test (30% Techers: 2000 Music, and Dance. • Jivaka Komarabhacca was a great
admission) teachers surgeon
Age criteria: 16 yrs specialization in > 64 • Vishnu Sharma who was a great
different fields. author
• Maurya emperor Chandragupta
*Founder: Kuru prince Duryodhana
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Name & address Founder discipline Some known teacher/alumni/ Destroyer & Year
(Current Address) Capacity
Nalanda University, Shakraditya of various Students from Tibet, China, Persia, In 1193 AD invader
Magadha (Rajgriha in the Gupta disciplines using Greece, and beyond. Bakhityar Khilji (a
Bihar) dynasty, 5th highly Turkic military
(427-1197 CE) century. formalized general of Qutb-ud-
methods of Capacity: din Aybak)
Entrance: test (20% Library: three Vedic learning, Students: 10, 000 demolished the
admission) large multi- Teacher: 2,000 monastery, killed
Age: 20 yrs storeyed Mahayana the monks and
buildings Buddhism, burned the valuable
Vedas, Sanskrit, (establishment of Oxford university in library. Whoever, be
Books: 90 lacs Contribution: Logic, Grammar, 1167 and the founding of Cambridge in it students or
King Shailendra Medicine, 1209, first European university was teachers came in the
of Indonesia Samkhya, and established in Bologna in 1088) way to protect the
built a structure other subjects in institution was
within the every learning mercilessly
Nalanda field butchered
University
campus

 535 BC – 250CE: European invasions ~1200 BC: Lagadha (Astronomer & Mathematician)
 535 BC: Iranian (or Persian) invasion
 326 - 304 BC: Macedonian invasion (Alexander)
Gap-1 (~1200 BC to 476 CE)
 180 BC – 10 CE: Indo-Greeks (Yavanas)  After 1200 + 476 = 1876 years
 30 CE – 375 CE: Kushan Empire (Indo-European people)  Why there is no other reference?
476-550 CE: Aryabhata I (in Pataliputra during Gupta empire 350 CE-550 CE)
 150 CE- 400 CE: Indo-Scythians (Sakas)
720–790 CE: Lalla (from Lāṭa region of Gujarat)
 711 CE – 1526 CE: Arab invasion
 711 AD: First Muslim (Iraq) invasion lead by Muhammad Bin Qasim Gap-2 (790 CE – 1068 CE)
 1001 AD: First Turkish invasion lead by Mohammed Ghazni  After 1068 - 790 = 278 years
1068 – 1099 CE: Satananda (lived in Puri or Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh)
 1450 – 1954: Colonial India

o Vasco da Gama (European Portuguese) arrived to Calicut (India) on May 20, 1498
o 1450 – 1510: Francisco de Almedia captures Calicut and Cochin, becomes first Portuguese governor in India
• 1605-1825 - Dutch,
• 1628- 1633: Portuguese East India Company,
• 1757-1858 - Company rule in India,
• 1769 – 1954: French India
 1858-1947: British Rule https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history
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Truncile.com
India was hub to knowledge, home to great number of renowned ancient universities, which were
destroyed by Islamic invaders and, later British put a cap on them. This is how Indians were
disconnected from vast knowledge of ancient times.
The distinguished writer Mark Twain once told the world,

“India is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the
grandmother of legend and the great grandmother of tradition. Our most valuable and constructive
materials in the history of man-kind are treasured up in India only.”
Nearly a hundred years ago, English historian George Rusby Kaye remarked that “the History of Indian
Astronomy has a considerable history of its own.”
The Hijacking of Indian Astronomy
Heliocentric Model of the Solar System

Copernicus & Nilakantha
Was Copernicus (Poland) influenced by Nilakantha (Indian astronomer of the Kerala School)?
 The dates of the two, Nilakantha (1444-1544) and Copernicus (1473-1543), are certainly close
enough to stir the imagination.
 Nilakantha completed his astronomical work (The Tantrasangraha) in the year 1500, while
Copernicus is known to have first mentioned the heliocentric idea in a letter to a friend in 1514,
though it took him another 30 years to publish his revolutionary book.
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Europe first learnt of Indian Astronomy, not from India, but from Siam (Thailand)
French diplomat 1687
Siam (Thailand)
Astronomy
(Siamese Manuscript)
Casini Italian mathematician, astronomer & engineer

In 1691 received the title of “The First Astronomer of Europe”
Euler (1707-1783, Basel, Switzerland) on Indian Astronomy
 The Solar Year of the Indians is Sidereal, not Tropical.

 The Sidereal Year of the Indians is of 365 days, 6 hours and 12.5 minutes duration, which is about 2 minutes
longer than the best European estimate at the time, of 365 days, 6 hours and 10 minutes.
 The Indians use two Zodiacs, the first comprising 12 Signs, also used by western astronomy, and the second
comprising 27 Signs, which is unique to Indian astronomy.
 Euler determines that the 27-Sign Zodiac defines a new kind of month used by the Indians – the Sidereal
Month.
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Prime meridian: Ujjain meridian
Lanka: origin with 0 degree longitude and latitude crossing the Ujjain meridian and equator
British: taken prime meridian from Ujjain to Greenwich in 1858
Reference:
 The Recovery of Early Greek Astronomy from India,
Pingree, D., 2019, Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol. 7, p.109
 Anil Narayanan, 2019, The Hijacking of Indian Astronomy, I-III
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European Calendar: Julian calendar

 Julian calendar: designed with the aid of Greek mathematicians and astronomers such as Sosigenes of
Alexandria
 Two types of year: a normal year of 365 days and a leap year of 366 days
 Four year cycle: three normal years + one leap year
 One year average days days
• A solar year is the time between two successive occurrences of the vernal equinox
= 365d 5h 48m 46s (365.24219 days)
• Error in one year =

= 0.00781 days
• 1 day error in years =
 which means the Julian calendar gains a day every 128 years
European Calendar: Gregorian calendar

 Pope Gregory III (helped by astronomer Christopher Clavius) improved on the (Julian calendar) system by abolishing the
days October 5th to October 14th ,1582 inclusive so as to bring the civil and tropical years back into line, and by missing
out three days every four centuries.
 In this reformed calendar the years ending in two noughts (e.g. 1700, 1800, etc.) are only leap years if they are
divisible by 400, i.e., 1900 is not a leap year but 2000 is a leap year.
 Leap years examples: 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012
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Jantar Mantar (Jaipur) observatory

Sawai Jai Singh (1688–1743 CE)
Samrat Yantra Rama Yantra
Shastansh Yantra
Jaya Prakash Yantra
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End of the Lecture
57

Ancient Astronomy

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Ancient Astronomy

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03-12-2022

Unique Aspects of Indian Astronomy

Ram Ajor Maurya

 Historical development of astronomy in India,

 Celestial coordinate system,

 Elements of the Indian Calendar,

 Astronomy and its requirement to ancient Indian

 Celestial coordinate systems

 Elements of Indian calendar

 Panchang and Gregorian calendar

 Historical development in ancient India & modern astronomy

Why study ancient Indian Astronomy?

Your astronomy questions as an amateur astronomer?

Some Astronomical Observations

Questions by an amateur astronomer?

How do we define North, South, East and West?

Why eclipses are rare?

STARS’ APPARENT PATH IN THE SKY

Questions by an amateur astronomer?

Why does the polar star looks stationary? Is it stationary?

Why other stars & planets moves from east to west?

Why do all planets follow a fixed path in the sky?

Why was astronomy important to ancient Indian?

Why was astronomy important to ancient Indian?

 Why-position of rising and setting of Sun changes

Keeping track of time for:

 day and night activities

How Astronomy is different from Astrology?

Astronomy. The study of celestial objects and phenomena

Stars and Constellations

Stars and Constellations

Star Constellation: Orion

Star Constellation: Orion

Constellation: Ursa Major

Constellation: Ursa Minor

Finding Pole Star

Seasonal Change & Nightly change of the Dippers

Angular area & size of objects

Angular area & size of objects

Angular area & size of objects

Angular size of the Moon and the Sun

Sun: 32′ (0.53°)

Moon: 31’ (0.49o)

Angular Diameters of Celestial Objects

Celestial Objects Angular diameter

Angular resolution of human eye ~1’=0.017 degree

What did you learn?

How to find the pole star in the sky?

What is the angular size of the Sun?

What is the angular size of the Moon?

What do you mean by pointing stars?

Names of few constellations that you learned?

End of the 1st Lecture

How to mark/find the locations of celestial objects?

Celestial Coordinate System

(Urdhva)  The point directly overhead

Both the “zenith” and horizon are locally defined.

Horizon: All points 90° away from zenith

Celestial Sphere: Cardinal Points (N, S, E, W)

Cardinal Points: points on

e.g., Terrestrial Coordinates

Horizontal coordinate system

 Azimuth (A) is the angle of the object around