AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

Instruments used in Chain survey:

A. Used for measuring distances: 1. Chain, 2. Tape
B. Used for marking survey stations: Ranging rod, Offset rod, Laths and whites, Pegs
C. Used for setting right angles: 1. Cross staff, 2. Optical square
D. Other instruments: 1. Arrow, 2. Plumb bob
Chain:
 The chain is composed of 100 or 150 pieces of links, made up of 4 mm diameter
galvanized mild steel wire.
Metric chain:- The chains are made in length of 20 and 30 meters.
Types of chains:
1. Gunter’s Chain:
 It is also called surveyor’s chain. The Gunter’s chain is 66 ft. long and is divided into 100
links. Used when area is an acre.
 10 Guntur’s chains – 1 furlong 80 Guntur’s chains- 1 mile 10 square Guntur’s chains – 1
acre
2. Revenue Chain: used for measuring fields in cadastral survey.
 It is 33 ft. long and divided into 16 links.
3. Engineers’ Chain: distances measured is recorded in feet and decimals.
 The engineer’s chain is 100 ft. long and is divided into 100 links each link is equal to 1 ft.
Steel Band:
 The steel band, also called the band chain, consists of a ribbon of steel with a brass
swivel handle at each end.
 It is 20 or 30 m long and 16 mm wide.
Tape :- For surveying, mostly 30 m tape is used.
 Tapes made of various materials and are, therefore, divided into five classes: (1) cloth or
linen, (2) metallic, (3) steel, (4) invar and (5) synthetic material.
Ranging Rods:
 The ranging rods are used for ranging lines and to mark stations which are at greater
distance
Arrows (Chain pins):
 Accompanying each chain are 10 arrows.
 They are also called marking or chaining pins, and are used to mark the end of each chain
during the process of chaining.
Plumb bob:
 A plumb bob consists of a metal weight made of brass with a pointed end.
 It is suspended by a string and is used to locate points directly below or above another
point.
Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the positions of stations.
Off-set rod: It is chiefly used for aligning the off-set line and measuring short off-sets.
  The off-set rod is similar to the ranging rod but is usually 3 m long and is divided into
parts each 0.2 m in length.

Cross-Staff: Cross-staff is used for

(i) finding the foot of the perpendicular from a given point to a line
(ii) Setting out a right angle at a given point on a line.
Optical Square:-
 It is more accurate than the cross staff and it can be used for locating objects situated at
larger distances.

Ranging :-
 The operation of establishing intermediate points on a straight line between the terminal
points is known as ranging.
Base Line :- The longest chain line in chain surveying is called the base line.
Check lines :- Check lines are also called as proof lines.
 The mistakes of the measurement and plotting can be easily checked with the help of
check lines.

Levelling Instruments
 Two instruments are required to determine the reduced levels of points.
 They are: (i) a level and (ii) a levelling staff.
 The level is used to provide a horizontal line of sight and the levelling staff which is a
graduated rod is used to read the vertical height of the line of sight above the selected
station.
The level :-
 Various types of levels are used for surveying viz.(i) Hand level, (ii) Farm level, (iii) Wey
level, (iv) Tilting level and (v) Dumpy level etc.
 The dumpy level is widely used for levelling works.
Terminology connected with leveling Datum:
 It is also called datum plane or only datum.
 A datum surface is usually an imaginary level surface or arbitrarily assumed level
surface, from which vertical distances are measured. Its elevation is zero. In India, the
datum adopted for the Great Trignometrical survey (GTS) bench mark is the mean sea
level at Karachi, now in Pakistan. At present, the mean sea level at Madras is used.
Elevation:
 It is the vertical distance above or below the datum.
 It is also known as reduced level (R.L.) The elevation of a point is plus or minus
according as the point is above or below the datum.
Bench Mark (B.M.) :
 It is a fixed point of reference of known or assumed elevation with respect to which other
elevations are calculated.
  It is a starting point for leveling. Temporary bench marks are selected at the end of a
day‟s work.
 There are four kinds of Bench marks:
(a) G.T.S (Great Trigonometrical Survey) Bench Mark:
 These bench marks are established with very high precision at intervals all over the
country by Survey of India department.
(b) Permanent Bench Mark:
 These are the fixed points of reference established between the GTS bench marks by
Government agencies such as PWD.
(c) Arbitrary bench Marks:
 These are the reference points whose elevations are arbitrarily assumed. They are used in
small levelling operations.
(d) Temporary Bench Marks:
 These are the reference points established at the end of day’s work or when there is a
break in the work. The work, when resumed, is continued with reference to these bench
marks.
Line of collimation:
 It is the line joining the intersection of the cross hairs to the optical centre of the object
glass and its continuation.
 It is called the line of sight.
Axis of telescope:
 It is a line joining the optical centre of the object glass to the center of the eye piece.

Farm Structures and Buildings

 The residential building on a farm is the heart of the farm stead.
 The store room should be situated near the kitchens.
 Barbed wire fencing cannot be used for poultry.
 Plain wire fencing is mostly used for large cattle fencing.
 The width of manager should have ranges as 75 to 90 cm.
 The farm-stead area of total farm varies from 3 – 5 %.
 The distance of milk room or milk house from the barn is generally 6 meter.
 A term sanitation is associated with disposal of human sewage and disposal of domestic
sewage.
 A soil suitable for disposal has percolation rate slower than 5 cm/hr.
 Woven wire fencing is suitable for large size animals.
 Close mesh type fencing is suitable for poultry, rabbit and goat.
 In close mesh type fencing, the wire used is hexagonal woven type.
 In barbed wire fencing, the spacing between bards is 7.5 – 15 cm.
 The wire used for construction of barbed wire fencing is 14 gauge.
 The barbed wire fencing is more effective than plane wire fencing.
 Barbed wire fencing is cheaper than woven wire fencing.
  Barbed wire fencing is not suitable for cows.
 Plane wire fencing is mostly used for small and large cattle.
 In electric wire fencing, the voltage variation for different situation is 6000 – 15000 volts.
 The height of farm gate should be 5 meter.
 In stanchion barn, the cows are housed and milked in same building.
 In loose housing barn, the cows are housed in the covered yard.
 In loose housing barn, the cows are milked in a milking parlour.
 In open air barn, the cows are housed and milked in open field.
 The open air barn is termed as Lofing barn system.
 The loose housing barn is termed as milking house system.
 The face out type barn is preferred for milch animals.
 The size of gutter of a stanchion barn is (width x depth) 45 x 15 cm.
 The face in type barn is usually preferred for bullocks.
 The sufficient width of feed alley is 1.2 meter.
 The average size of bull shed is 15 x 10 sq m.
 In poultry houses, a stopper is used for egg collection.
 In deep litter poultry house, the depth of litter should be 15 – 20 cm.
 Herring bone is milking parlour.
 The weight of standard bricks should be 4 kg.
 One cubic meter of silage weights 650 kg.

Dairy and poultry equipment related with Material tests related with
1. Gutter Sewage disposal 1. Fuller’s Quantity of sand, cement and
formula gravel
2. Stanchions Tying of animals 2. Slaking Lime
3. Manger Tough for feeding animals 3. Slump test Plasticity
4. Perches Sitting birds 4. Curring Strengthening of concrete
5. Egg retainer Space for collection of egg 5. Ramming Compacting concrete
6. Feeder Tough feeding birds 6. Fire bricks Heat flow
7. Trap nest Egg counting 7. Pug mill Bricks
8. Roost Act as perch 8. Slump cone Measurement of strength of
concrete
9. Cow stall Space for standing animals 9. Port land Cement
10. Feed alley Space for feeding animals 10. Seasoning Timber

Tillage
Primary tillage :-
 Open the compact or hard soil.
 Depth :- 10 – 30 cm.
  Implements: bullock drawn (desi plough, MB plough), Tractor drawn (MB plough, dise
plough, sub-soiler, chisel plough).
Secondary tillage:-
 After primary tillage.
 To prepare a good seed bed.
 Include harrowing, pulverizing, raking and leveling.
 Implements: cultivators, harrows, clod crushers and levelers.
Till-plant system:-
 Tillage and planting are done in one operation.
 Wide sweeps are operated 5 – 8 cm deep on the ridge top made during the previous year
cultivation.
Zero tillage:-
 The extreme form of minimum tillage is known as zero tillage.

 Minimum tillage practice is generally adopted under intensive cropping. Groundnut –

groundnut – sesame cropping system is predominantly followed in North-Eastern Zone of
Tamil Nadu, India.
 While operating the country plough, a “V” shaped furrow is formed.
Plough components:-
 Plough bottom, handle, beam.
Plough bottom:-
 The plough bottom consists of (i) the share, (ii) the mould board, (iii) the land side, (iv)
frog and (v) coulter.
 The share :- it has a sharp cutting edge.
 The mould board: also known as “breast” or “wing”. The mould boards are made up of
cast iron, steel and soft centre steel. This part helps in inverting the furrow slice.
 The landside: also known as “slad” or “heel”. It is made up of cast iron or steel and
usually rectangular in shape. It helps to resist the side pressure exerted by the furrow slice
and helps in stabilizing the plough during the operation.
 The frog: parts like share, mould board and landside are attached rigidly to the frog.
 The coulter: a knife or disc like attachment is fixed to the beam. The coulter helps in
separating the furrow slice from the un-ploughed land. The knife coulter is used in
grasslands and the disc coulter in the fields infested with weeds.
 Other parts: (i) Handle, (ii) Beam: beam is fixed to the plough bottom.
 (iii) Clevis or birdle: also known as “Clevis” or “Hake”.
 (iv) Wheels: one end of beam of heavy ploughs is fitted with wheels.
Types of mould board plough:
1. General purpose:-
 Ploughs are used for shallow ploughing (20 – 25 cm), grasslands and clay soils.
2. Stubble type:- engaged for deep ploughing (25 – 30 cm) and for root crops.
3. Sod or breaker type:- preferred for complete inversion of the furrow slice.
4. Slat type :- made of slats with gaps between the slats, to plough sticky soils.
5. High-speed type:-
 most of the tractor drawn mould board ploughs are high-speed type and are used for deep
ploughing (30 cm).
MB Plough:
 In gathering/splitting method, ploughing is started from the centre of the plot and is
turned round and round always towards the mould board side.
Disc Plough:-
 Have steel discs of 50 – 90 cm diameter.
 The discs are made of hard high carbon steel and have sharp cutting edge.
 Each disc revolves on a stub axle.
 It works well in conditions where mould board plough does not work satisfactorily,
particularly in sticky soils.
 It can be operated for incorporation of stubbles and green manures.
Cultivators and Harrows:-
 These are the secondary tillage implements used after initial ploughing of the soil.
 With the use of the primary tillage implements, the furrow slice and clods are left
unbroken.
 Cultivators and harrows are used for pulverization and to bring the soil to desired tilth.
Cultivators:-
 Cultivators are commonly called “tillers”in India.
 A number of tynes are attached for easy penetration into the soil and break the clods.
 Tractor drawn cultivators:- (i) cultivator with spring-loaded tynes, (ii) cultivator with
rigid tynes.
Junior Hoe:-
 It is a cultivator of walking type drawn by animals.
 Used for intercultural operation in row crops.
Disc harrow:-
 Suitable for hard ground with grassy weed infestation.
 Consists of number of concave disc sets or gangs.
 The concave discs are mounted on a common shaft or bolt, called “gang bolt”
 Disc harrows are of 3 types:- (i) single action, (ii) double action (tandem), (iii) offset
harrows.
Spring harrow:-
 Fitted with springs having loops of elliptical shape.
 The tynes pulverize the soil and help in killing weeds.
Spike tooth harrow:-
 Teeth are fixed to a frame.
 Teeth are mounted rigidly or on a flexible frame in a zigzag manner.
 Used for sowing or drilling and also for covering the seeds after sowing.
Danti:- Indigenous blade harrow used for inter-cultivation in row crops.
Guntaka :-
 comparatively larger indigenous blade harrow than danti harrow.
 mainly intended for stirring the soil and to cover the seeds (without blade).
Wetland puddler:-
 It is a labour saving implement used for puddling the wetlands.
 Consists of 3 angular bladed cast iron buds.
 Also used for trampling the green manure in the puddled field.
Helical blade puddler:-
 Six to eight blades of 5 cm width are helically bent and fixed in the radial arms by
welding.
 Helical shape of the blade gives continuous contact between the blades and the soil.

Buck scrapper:-
 Leveling implements.
 Is made up of thick mild steel plate lapped and revetted at the corners to form a
rectangular box with the front-end open.
V-ditcher:- Used for leveling and construction of field channels.
Bund former:-
 Consists of two divergent gathering steel blades fixed to a framework with a long wooden
shaft pole.
 The steel blade gathers loose soil from the surface and forms bunds.
Rotovator:-
 Also called as rotary plough or rotary cultivator.
 This is a tractor mounted or power tiller drawn implement.
 This performs the primary and secondary tillage operations simultaneously so as to
prepare a fine seed bed in a single pass.
Chisel plough:-
 Used to break the hard pan or plough sole, improve the moisture holding capacity and
pull out deep rooted weeds.
Sub-soiler:-
 Used to penetrate the soil deeper than with conventional cultivation machinery.
 Helps to break up the layers of soil which have become compacted due to the movement
of heavy machinery or as a result of ploughing.
 Normal depth is 50 cm.
IRRI model Paddy Transplanter:-
 The International Rice Research Institute, Philippines.
 Manually operated paddy-transplanting machine.
 Mat type paddy nursery grown in compartments is required for transplanting.
Rotary weeders:- Hand operated implement used for weeding in planted rice fields.
 Farm power

 The small farmers holds less than 4 ha land while marginal farmers hold between 4 to 10
ha land and large farmers hold more than 10 ha land.
 On the average a man can develop nearly 0.1 HP (horsepower).
 Medium size bullock can develop between 0.5 – 0.75 HP.
 The average capacity of windmill would be 0.5 hp.
 The power produced by windmill is varies from 0.1 – 0.9 hp with velocity varying from
6.4 – 37 km ph.
 The velocity required to operate windmill is more than 5 kmph
 The efficiency of diesel engine varies between 32 – 38 %.
 The efficiency of petrol engine varies between 25 – 32 %.
 The extra high speed engines used in knapsack sprayers are powered by petrol.
 On an average about 1/10th total electric power generated in India consumed farm work.
 10 human = 1.0 hp
 2 bullocks = 1.0 hp
 2 windmill = 1.0 hp
Engine :
 Engine is a device which converts chemical energy into mechanical energy.
Parts of engine :
1. Piston :- it transmits the power produced in the power stroke to the crankshaft.
 It exhaust stroke it pushes out the exhaust gases.
 The piston displacement also known as swept volume.
 The piston speed of high speed engine varies between 300 to 500 meter per minute.
 It has to withstand high temperature and pressure in power stroke.
2. Piston ring :-
 Able to withstand pressure upto 1000 psi i.e. between 2000 – 3000 times per minute in an
engine.
3. Flywheel :
 It store the energy in received in power stroke and keeps the crankshaft rating in idle
stroke.
 It maintains speed of crankshaft.
4. Carburetor :-
 It is the part of petrol engine.
 It supply rich mixture when engine is cold at the time of starting.
 It corrects the supply of fuel when engine get heat-up.
5. Spark plug: Give a hot spark in the combustion chamber for igniting the charge.
6. Fuel injection pump : It supply equal quantity of fuel to all cylinders.
7. Injector : It inject the fuel in the fine atomized form.

Special points related to engine :

 The low speed engine runs at speed of less than 350 rpm.
 The speed range of medium speed engine is between 350 – 1,000 rpm.
 High speed engine runs at a speed of more than 1000 rpm.
 The carburetor is main part of petrol engine.
 A single cylinder engine generally used in stationary engine.
 The steam engine is single stroke engine.
 The two stroke engine is petrol engine.
 The diesel engines used in tractors are two stroke engine.
 Diesel engine works on principle of diesel cycle.
 The injector and fuel pump are the heart of diesel engine.
 The compression ratio of diesel engine is 14 to 20 : 1.
 The compression ratio of petrol engine is 4 to 8 : 1.
 The air fuel ratio of diesel engine is 8 : 1.
 The air fuel ratio of petrol engine is 15 : 1.
 The carburetor of an engine is used to mix fuel with air.
 The firing order of 4 stroke 4 cylinder engine is 1 – 3 – 4 – 2.
 The firing order of 4 stroke 6 cylinder engine is 1 – 5 – 3 – 6 – 2 – 4.
 The firing interval of 2 stroke 2 cylinder engine is 3600.
 The firing interval of 4 stroke 4 cylinder engine is 1800.
 In diesel engine heat is added at constant pressure.
 The BHP (break horse power) of an engine indicates power on flywheel.
 The IHP of an engine indicates power on piston.
 The power stroke of single cylinder 2 stroke engine occurs after every 3600 of flywheel
travel.
 The power stroke of single cylinder 4 stroke engine occurs after every 7200 of flywheel
travel.
 The power stroke of 4 cylinder 4 stroke engine occurs after every 1800 of flywheel travel.
 The power stroke of 6 cylinder 4 stroke engine occurs after every 1200 of flywheel travel.
 The two stroke engine has an airtight crankcase.
 Specific fuel consumption of diesel engine is about 0.2 kg per bhp per hour.
 Specific fuel consumption of petrol engine is about 0.29 kg per bhp per hour.
 The thermal efficiency of petrol engine is low as compared to diesel engine.
 The inlet valve opens 100 after TDC and remains open up to 300 after BDC.
 The exhaust valve opens 30- 45 0 before BDC and remains open up to 90 after TDC.
 The exhaust valve opens about 2250 and 1/21 seconds.
 Both the valves (inlet and exhaust) remain closed for about 2850 during compression and
power stroke.
 Part of petrol engine : carburetor, spark plug, ignition coil
 The gaskets are used to prevent leakage.
 The gaskets are made of copper and asbestos.
  Pre-combustion chamber is found in diesel engine.
 The useful life of stationary engine is 10 years.
 Constant speed engine is used in electric generator.
 Variable speed engine are used in tractors, two and four wheeler vehicles.

Engine System:-
 The air fuel ratio of carburetor engine is 15 : 1.
 The fuel supply pump of diesel engine forces fuel at a pressure of 2 kgf/cm2.
 The fuel is injected through a nozzle of 126 to 175 kg/cm2 or more.
 Primary filter removes particles down to 5 microns (5/25000 in).
 Secondary filter removes particles down to 2 microns (2/25000 in).
 The governor used on tractor engine is variable speed governor.
 The governor used on stationary engine is constant speed governor.
 The percentage regulation at no load and full load is 7 per cent.
 The battery on tractor is of six cells and develop about 2.2 volts.
 The fully charged battery will have electrolyte of specific gravity 1.280.
 The electrolyte is a mixture of sulphuric acid and distilled water.
 The battery should be recharged when the specific gravity falls below 1.225.
 Hydrometer is used to check specific gravity of electrolyte.
 Cold plug are shorter insulator and used on petrol engines.
 Magneto used to supply the spark for ignition.
 A 500 amp. Electric current is required by motor to crack the engine of compression
ignition engine.
Fuels:-
 The best hydrocarbons from detonation point of view are aromatics.
 The calorific value of gasoline is 45 MJ/kg.
 The temperature at which fuel catches fire is flash point.
 The lowest temperature at which fuel begins to crystallize is cloud point.
 The temperature at which fuel begins to vaporize is smoke point.
 The specific gravity of high-speed diesel is 0.87.
 The specific gravity of light diesel oil is 0.92.
 The calorific value of high-speed diesel is 10,550 kcal/kg.
 The calorific value of petrol is 8150 kcal/litre.
 The calorific value of diesel oil is 9400 kcal/litre.
 The antiknock quality of petrol fuel is determined by octane number.
 The antiknock quality of diesel fuel is determined by cetane number.
 The viscosity of oil is denoted by a SAE number.
 Junker’s calorimeter is used for determining the calorific value of liquid fuels.
 General formula of paraffin’s is Cn G2n+2.
 General formula of olefins is :- Cn H2n
 The boiling range of kerosene is 2000 to 3000.
  The API gravity of light diesel oil is 22.
 The API gravity of petrol is 61.
 The API of high-speed diesel is 31.
 Molecular formula of diesel is C11 H16.
 The specific gravity of fuel is measured by hydrometer.
 The API gravity of water is 10.
 In richest mixture, the air fuel ratio is about 16 : 1.

Cooling system:-
 Purpose of cooling is to maintain the optimum temperature of engine, to dissipate surplus
heat for protection and to maintain the lubricating property of oil.
 The cooling system of an internal combustion engine, maintains the engine temperature
at 710 to 820 for petrol engine.
 The cooling system of an internal combustion engine, maintains the engine temperature
at 880 to 900 for heavier fuels.
 The air-cooled engine run hotter than water cooled engine and require heavier lubricating
oil.
 Air cooling system generally found in single cylinder engines.
 The fan of radiator is driven with the help of V-belt.
 Evaporating cooling system is used for cooling of industrial engines.

Lubricating system:-
 Oil pump of lubricating system is run by camshaft.
 Purpose of lubrication is reducing frictional effect, cooling effect and sealing effect.
 The lubricants are obtained from animal fat, vegetables and minerals.
 A pressure of 3 kgf/cm2 is needed to transfer the oil in the system.
 Gravity test is done by the using hygrometer.
 Vegetable lubricants are made from castor oil, olive oil, cotton seed oil etc.
 Mineral lubricants are obtained from crude petroleum.
 Suitable lubricant for 2 and 4 stroke engines is mineral lubricant.
 A pump used in force feed lubrication system is positive displacement pump.
 Lubricants are available in the form of fluid, semi-fluid and semi-solid.
 Lubrication oils are rated by viscosity.
 American Petroleum Institute adopted the classification of engine oils in 1952.
 Viscosity is measured in centipoises.
Ignition system:-
 In IC engines, the method used for ignition of fuel is electric sparks, heat of compression
and open flame and hot tube.
 Positive plate of battery is made of lead.

Tractor Transmission System:-

  It is device to disconnect the tractor engine from its power trains for changing gear ratios
known as master clutch.
 The single disc or single plate clutch is dry type clutch.
 Multiple disc clutches are either dry type or wet type.
 Steering clutches are operated by hand lever.
 Driving plate attached to flywheel and drive plate to clutch drum.
 Transmission systems on modern tractors are selective sliding gear type.
 Lubricants used for tractor transmission are termed as Gear Box or Rear Axle Lubricant.
 Reduction of the engine speed through the transmission gearbox, range between 1 and
1/5th at the highest and lowest speeds respectively.
 The tractor speed in top gear varies between 18 to 24 kmph.
 PTO shaft gets drive from engine, transmission and output shaft.
 PTO drive taken from output shaft, the speed of PTO is the proportional to speed of
tractor.
 PTO shaft drive taken from engine or transmission the speed of PTO will be inversely
proportional to engine speed.

Differential system :- Differential is the second speed reduction unit in tractor.

Hydraulic system:- Hydraulic pump develop a pressure of about 150 kgf/cm2.
Tractor parts:-
A. Chassis:-
 To support the load of assemblies such as engine, transmission, front axle etc.
 To provide connecting link for front and rear wheels.
B. Front Axle:-
 It carries the weight of the front end of tractor.
C. Muffler:- to reduce the temperatures of exhaust gases.
D. Alternator:-
 light in weight, simple machine, it produces enough electricity even at slow speed.

Other points:-
 Tappet is called valve lifter.
 Tappet adjustment should be made when engine is cool.
 The heat taken at one constant volume and rejected at another constant volume in otto
cycle engine.
 The efficiency of an ideal otto cycle engine increase with increase in compression ratio.
 The two-stroke engine has airtight crankcase.
 Injectors and pump injection pump are the main components of diesel engine.
 The specific gravity of diesel fuel is more than petrol fuel.
 The value of diesel fuel is less than the petrol.
 The flash point is a point at which the fuel ignites.
 The thermostat valve fully opens at 820C.
  The bellow type thermostat valves are used on tractors.
 Alcohol is used in flexible bellows type thermostat valve.
 Camshaft of engine is subjected to bending and twisting from the connecting rod thrust.
 The frictional horsepower is power loss between piston end and crankshaft end.
 Clutch works on principle of friction.
 The 20 : 1 is the most lean air fuel ratio.
 The combustion process is exothermic.
 The engine used in Eicher tractor is mostly air-cooled engine.
 IHP/BHP is always more than one.

Engine parts Engine terminology

1. Compression ring Leakage 1. BHP (Break horse power) Power on flywheel
2. Injector Diesel engine 2. IHP (Indicate horse power) Power on piston
3. Primary filter Cloth 3. Intake manifold Two stroke engine
4. Secondary filter Paper 4. Inlet valve Four stroke engine
5. Piston Aluminium 5. Decompression lever Diesel engine
6. Piston pin Wrist pin 6. Gasket Asbestos
7. Oil ring Lubrication 7. Oil bath Air cleaner
8. Connecting rod I-section 8. Octane number Petrol rating
9. Flywheel Energy store 9. Cetane number Diesel rating
10. Carburetor SI / petrol 10. Combustion chamber Swirl
engine

Engine components Tractor terminologies

1. Radiator Fins 1. Damper Seat
2. Electrolyte Battery 2. Tread Tyre
3. Venturi Carburetor 3. Skirt Piston
4. Magneto system Ignition 4. Frequency Hertz
5. Governor Regulation 5. Slogging ability Diesel engine
6. Spark plug SI engine 6. Hydraulic pump Spur gear
7. Thermo siphon Cooling 7. Crown gear Differential
8. Thermostat valve Alcohol 8. Free play Break pedal
9. Splash Lubrication 9. Taper roller bearing Front wheel
10. Oil pump Spur gear 10. Sediment bowl Fuel supply

Engine system Terminologies related to farm power

1. Fuel supply system Filter 1. BMEP BHP x 4500 / LAN
2. Cooling system Thermostat valve 2. HP 75 kg-m/sec
3. Ignition system Battery 3. IHP PLAN/4500
4. Lubrication system Dipper 4. BHP IHP – FHP
5. Hydraulic system Master cylinder 5. FHP IHP – BHP
6. Governing system Centrifugal weight 6. Mechanical efficiency BHP/IHP x 100
7. Break system Disc 7. Piston displacement AL
8. Clutch system Friction plate 8. Swept volume ALn
9. Steering system Drag link 9. Piston speed 2LN
10. Transmission system Synchronizer 10. Compression ratio V1/V2

Farm machinery
Seedbed preparation machinery:-
 Tillage system for dry land agriculture is called till plant system.
 Till plant equipment includes sweeps to open the seed bed.
 Minimum tillage is called plough plant method.
 Chisel ploughs are used for reduced tillage or conservation tillage system.
 Mould board plough works on principle of suction (horizontal and vertical).
 Stubble mould board is adapted for ploughing an old ground.
 Sod or breaker mould board used in tough sod (grass land).
 Slat M.B. preferred for sticky soils and High speed M.B. is used on tractor ploughs for
general farm use.
 The shape of furrow cut by MB plough is L- shape.
 The shape of furrow cut by indigenous plough is V- shape.
 Jointer: it is a miniature plough, purpose to turn over a small ribbon like furrow slice
directly in front of main plough.
 Coulter: it is used to cut furrow slice vertically from land ahead of plough bottom.
 Gauge wheel: an auxiliary wheel for maintaining uniform depth of working.
 Notch coulters used to cut heavy trashes.
 Disk ploughs are used where climate is dry and where soil is rough and stony.
 Disk plough is preferred for deep ploughing and also for conservation tillage.
 The tilt angle of standard disk plough varies from 15 to 250, while disk angle varies from
42 to 450.
 In vertical disc plough, tilt angle of disk is zero.
 Vertical disc plough has disc angle of 42 to 450 and no tilt angle.
 The vertical disk plough is preferred for use in wheat growing hence it is also called
wheat plough or one-way plough/harrow plough.
 The increase in tilt angle of disc plough influences penetration of disc.
 The tilt angle of disc plough influences depth of cut.
 The disc angle of disc plough influences width of cut.
 In disc plough, the penetration of disc improves but width of cut reduces due to
increasing disc angle.
  Chisel plough: used to cuts through hard soils by means of number of narrow tynes.
 Sub-soiler: it can penetrate to a depth of 40 cm or more in hardpan to drain heavy soil
and deep root growth.
 Rotary plough: it is used for rotary operation, having the rotor speed is 200 to 300
rev/min.
 Deep ploughing to the depth of 15 to 20 cm is beneficial in unirrigated areas.
 Chisel plough penetrate to the depth of 25 to 35 cm. while sub-soiler operates at the depth
of 60 to 70 cm.
 Bakhar: used for shallow working soil with minimum soil inversion.
 Bodela: it is a twin blade harrow.
 Duck foot cultivator: it is rigid tyne cultivator used for shallow ploughing.
 Puddler: used for churning soil in standing water of 5 to 10 cm depth.

Seeding and Harvesting Equipments:

 Dibbler is a planter.
 Dibbling is suitable for small plots and vegetable crops.
 By dibbling method seed rate is reduced to 1/5th or more.
 Check row planting is a method which makes possible intercultural from both directions.
 Disk type furrow openers are favored where considerable plant debris or trash mulches
are used.
 The seed drill drop seed in a continuous stream therefore the distance between plants is
not maintained.
 In drilling, the row to row spacing is maintained but plant to plant is not.
 Sowing behind plough can be done by device called as Malobansa.
 Shoe type furrow openers are specially suitable for black cotton soil.
 The field capacity of semi-automatic 2-4 rows potato planter is 0.15 – 0.25 ha/hr.
 Manual rice transplanter :- 0.2 – 0.25 ha/day of 8 hrs.
 Sugarcane planter has capacity of 0.6 ha/hr.
 Seed dresser is a machine to apply coating of protective chemicals to seeds.
 Fumigator is machine to generate and distribute gases or smoke.
 Flame gun is a apparatus to kill weeds by flame.
 Swath is a material left by harvesting machine.
 Windrower is machine to cut crops and deliver them in a uniform manner in row.
 Strip tillage is tillage operation in which only isolated bands of soil are tilled.
 Normal ploughing: ploughing about the depth of 15 cm.
 Contour ploughing: ploughing in which soil is broken and turned along the contours.
 Draft is horizontal component of the pull, parallel to the line of motion.
 Concavity is the depth measured at centre of disc by placing concave side of disc on flat
surface. The concavity of standard disc plough is 8 cm for 60 cm diameter of disc and 16
cm for 95 cm diameter of disc.
  Crown is top portion of turned furrow slice.
 Sieve loss is the percentage of healthy grain dropped from sieve with respect to healthy
grains received from main outlet.
 Jointer and coulter are the parts of MB plough.
 The part of plough that penetrate into the soil and cuts the soil in horizontal direction is
share.
 The share of MB plough is made of chilled cast iron.
 The MB plough works on the principle of Suction.
 A single piece share with curved cutting edge is slip share.

Farm machinery related terminology:

Tillage
1. Primary tillage Operation for opening the line of soil
2. Secondary tillage Finer tillage operation
3. Zero tillage Plough plant
4. No tillage Direct sowing of seed without land preparation
5. Conservation tillage Reduce water runoff
6. Conventional tillage Mould board or disc plough
Implements:
1. MB Plough Cut, turn and invert the furrow slice
2. Disc harrow Shallow ploughing
3. Indigenous plough is Multi-purpose tool
4. Mower Cutting grasses
5. Winnower Cleaning of threshed crop
6. Reaper Harvest cereal crop
7. Cono weeder Weeding in paddy crop
8. Sub soiler Deep ploughing
9. Chaff cutter Cutting fodder
10. Zero till drill Inverted “T” type furrow opener
Plough parts:
1. Mould board Inverted furrow slice
2. Frog Share, MB and landside attached rigidly
3. Beam Transmit power of animals to implement
4. Landside Lateral stability in the plough
5. Share Penetrate in the soil
6. Coulter Circular disc
7. Jointer Miniature plough
8. Gauge wheel Control depth of plough
Sprayer used for
1. High volume sprayer More than 400 lit. per ha
2. Low volume sprayer 5 – 400 lit. per ha
3. Ultra low volume sprayer Less than 5 lit. per ha
4. Fumigator Less than 2 kg per ha
5. Flame gun Used for weed killing
6. Solid cone nozzle Used for weedicide
7. Hollow cone nozzle Used for herbicide
Plough related terms
1. Tilt angle 15 - 250
2. Disc angle 42 - 450
3. Light plough < 150 mm
4. Medium plough 150 – 200 mm
5. Heavy plough > 200 mm
6. Horizontal suction 3 – 5 mm
7. Vertical suction 3 mm
8. Reel index 1.25 to 1.50
9. Aligment 880
10. Concavity 8 cm for 60 cm diameter

Method of sowing /equipment:

1. Seed drill Seed to seed distance is not maintained

2. Drilling Dropping seed in a continuous stream
3. Dibbling Placing seeds in hole
4. Dibbler Planter
5. Check row planting Row to row as well as plant to plant distance is uniform
6. Transplanting Planting of seedlings
7. Seeding behind plough Malobansa
8. Broadcasting Scattering of seed on surface of soil
9. Hill dropping Seeds are dropped at fixed spacing not in continuous stream
10. Transplanter An equipment for placement of seedling in the field

Renewable sources of energy:

 Energy is the primary and most universal measure of all kind of work by human beings
and nature.
 Renewable source of energy is inexhaustible.
 Renewable source of energy can be renewed by chemical, mechanical and reproduction
processes.
 Renewable energy is mainly obtained from sun, wind, biomass and biogas.
 Tidal energy is the renewable energy.
 Tidal energy is associated with sea.
 Concave reflector is used in solar power plant to reflect sunlight.
 The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called solar
constant.
 Solar energy reaching the top of earth’s atmosphere consists of about 8 % ultraviolet
radiation, 46 % visible lights and 46 % infrared radiation.
 Ultraviolet radiation has short wavelength that is less than 0.39 micrometer.
 Wavelength of visible light ranges from 0.39 to 0.78 micrometer.
 Wavelength of infrared radiation more than 0.78 micrometer.
 Wind energy is one of America’s greatest natural resource.
 The windmill works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind into
mechanical energy.
 Solar energy absorption by the water takes place according to Lambert’s law of
absorption.
 Methane bacteria work best at temperature between 35 to 38 0C.
 The optimum thermophilic temperature is around 55 0C.
 The optimum mesophilic temperature lies at about 35 0C.
 The optimum C : N ratio that best suits for maximum microbiological activity is 30 : 1.
 Biogas is the mixture of methane and carbon dioxide.
 Calorific value of biogas is 4500 Kcal/kg.
 In biogas plant proportion of cattle dung mixed with water is 4 : 5.
 Pyranometer is also known as solarimeter.
 Electricity can be provided from the solar energy by photovoltaic solar cell.
 Wind energy is a kind of solar energy.
 A sailboat is utilizes the wind energy.
 Beam radiation is measured by Pyrheliometer.
 Solar cells are made of silicon, germanium and semi-conductor elements.
 Most of the energy we receive from the sun comes in the form of light.
 The hot magma is the source of geothermal energy.
 Oceans are the source of renewable energy.
 Wave energy is obtained from the ocean.
 Tide is periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea.
 When the sun and moon are at right angle with respect to earth neap tide occurs.
 Battery is a source of chemical energy.
 The first demonstration of magneto hydrodynamic power generation system was made in
USA in 1959.
 Atomic energy is used for electricity generation.
 Nuclear fusion is also called nuclear combustion.
 The dry process of biomass digestion involves pyrolysis and liquefication.
 The solar radiation receives from the sun after its direction has been changed is diffuse
radiation.
 The solar radiation receives directly from the sun is beam radiation.
 The air mass will be one at zenith.
 A vertical angle between the projection of the sunrays on the horizontal plane and
directions of sunrays is solar altitude.
 Equinox means equal nights.
 A angle through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian of a point directly in
time with sunrays is hour angle.
 The use of reflector in solar heating devices is to increase efficiency.
 A group of solar cell is called solar panel.
 In India, thermal power contribution to total energy production is 56 %.
 In India, the average intensity of solar radiation received is about 400 – 700 cal/cm2/day.
 Flat plate collector is generally used for room heating.
 The energy of wind is converted into mechanical energy.
 In a windmill, tip speed ratio increases with decrease of number of blades.
 Hot magma is a source of geothermal energy.
 Heat flow in the ground is measured in boreholes to a depth of about 100 meters.
 One heat flow unit is equal to 10-6 cal/cm2/sec.
 Geothermal energy from the earth interior is inexhaustible.
 Tidal power is dissipated by friction and eddies current.
 The fossil fuel is coal, natural gas and oil.
 Calorific value of coal is about 8300 kcal/kg.
 Calorific value of natural gas ranges between 33 – 50 KJ/kg.
 Calorific value of hydrogen gas is 150 KJ/kg.
 Paraboloidal type solar cooker was first developed in India.
 The first nuclear power station came into operation at USA (1957).
 In biogas plant, digestion (biological process) occurs in absence of oxygen.
 The biogas production start falling at an atmospheric temperature 20 0C.
 The biogas production stops at an atmospheric temperature of 10 0C.
 Solar radiations reach to the earth in the form of beam and defuse radiation.
 According to NASA, the standard value of solar constant is 1.353 kW/m2.
 Ocean waves contain potential energy.
 The proportion of wet cow dung and water in slurry feed to the digest is 1 : 1.
 The quantity of gas produced by one kg of dry dung is about 0.186 m3.
 Biogas can be used to operate both SI and CI engine.
 The boiling temperature of methanol is 65 0C.
 In solar power plant, the turbine is run by steam.
 The solar cells used in solar panel for convert solar energy into electrical energy.
 A sunrays has higher intensity near the equator.
 The solar radiation receives by every square meter area of the earth surface is 0.64
KJ/sec.
 In sunlight, the heating rays are infra-red rays.
 Wind is a source of inexhaustible energy.
 Wind due to its motion, possesses the kinetic energy.
 A sail boat utilizes the energy of wind.
 In multi-blade rotor, the number of blades varies from 12 – 20.
 The speed of multi-blade rotor is 60 – 80 rpm.
 A sail type unit has 3 blade.
 Blades of sail unit are made of canvas cloth.
 Propeller type unit runs at a speed of 300 – 400 rpm.
 65 per cent methane in biogas.
 32 – 45 per cent carbon dioxide in biogas.
 The quantity of Gobar gas required to cook one person meal is 5 kg.
 The production of gas from 1 kg of wet dung in biogas plant is 0.037 m3.
 The pH value of slurry for better gas production should vary between 7 – 8.
 Biogas is obtained by the anaerobic fermentation of animal dung, animal waste and plant
waste.
 The KVIC biogas plant is floating type.
 A high gas production achieved from biogas plant when inside temperature of the
chamber is 35 0C.
 Insulating metal of solar cooker is black from outside.
 The temperature inside the solar cooker ranges from 100 – 140 0C.
 Solar heater, solar cooker, solar cell etc. utilizes direct energy of sun.

Agricultural Processing
 Post-harvest technology has potential create industries.
 Drying is a process of heat and mass transfer.
 The rate of respiration of paddy increase sharply (at 250) at 14 to 15 % moisture content,
which is called critical point.
 Rate of respiration increases with increase of temperature to 40 0C.
 Drying involves both heat and mass transfer operations.
 The bed thickness in thin layer drying is 20 cm.
 Usually the moisture content of a substance is exposed in percentage by weight on wet
basis.
 Direct method of moisture determination measure directly moisture content by the
moisture evaporation.
 The air-drying method can be accomplished in a single stage or double stage in
accordance with grain containing less than 13 % or more than 13 % moisture content.
 Electrical resistance of grain varies with moisture, temperature and degree of compaction.
 The dielectric properties of grains depend on grain moisture content.
 Grain EMC curve or isotherms are generally S-shaped and attributed to multi molecular
adsorption.
 The EMC is determined by static and dynamic method.
 EMC is determined under constant RH and temperature.
 Cereals are dried entirely under falling rate period.
 The contact drying the heat from drying is transferred to wet solid mainly by conduction
through solid surface.
 In radiation drying heat energy can be supplied to the products by electromagnetic waves.
 Osmotic drying is successfully applied for dewatering of cellular products such as fruits,
vegetable and meat.
 Fluidized bed drying used for drying material having high initial moisture content and
lighter in weight such as vegetable seeds.
 Airflow rate of deep bed dryer is 2.94 – 3.92 m3/min per ton.
 For deep bed drying, the bed depth of grain should be limited to 3 m for grain having
moisture content upto 18 %.
 For deep bed drying, the bed thickness should be limited to 3 m for grain of moisture
content above 18 %.
 Paddy with 2.5 m bed depth takes 20 days for drying during favourable weather and 40
days during bad weather.
 Flatbed dryer are usually 1 - 2 ton capacity.
 The airflow rate of mixing type dryers is 50 – 95 m3/min-ton and high drying temperature
as 65 0C.
 LSU dryer was developed at Louisiana State University.
 LSU dryer was developed in 1949 (USA).
 LSU dryer is continuous flow mixing type dryer.
 For LSU dryer, the recommended drying air temperature is 60 0C.
 LSU dryer is mixing type continuous flow dryer with inverted V-shaped channel.
 Commercial rotary type dryer has been developed by TNAU.
 Try dryer are used for drying vegetables.
 Grain containing moisture content higher than 20 % should not be dried with natural air.
 Rotary dryer can employ for rapid drying parboiled paddy using temperature as high as
100 to 1100.
 The process of removing husk and bran of the paddy in one operation is known as
hulling.
 The process of removing husk/hull form the paddy grain is known as shelling/ milling/
husking.
 In rubber roll huller breakage is less.
 In rubber roll huller the rubber rolls turn at different speed and difference directions.
 In forced air-drying method the moisture moves from grain to air.
 The drying process involves heat and mass transfer.
 Thin layer drying includes flatbed dryer.
 Deep bed drying includes batch dryer.
 In deep bed drying, the depth of grain layer is more than 20 cm.
 A sack dryer is suitable for drying small quantity of grain.
 Recirculatory batch dryer was developed at Kharagpur.
 The optimum moisture content (wb) for paddy harvesting is 20 – 22 %.
 The optimum moisture content (wb) for wheat harvesting is 16 – 18 %.
 The percentage of hull in paddy grain is about 20 % by weight.
 The percentage of protein by weight in pulse is 17 – 25 %.
 Specific gravity of grains is determined by pycnometer and specific gravity bottle.
 The density of wheat is about 998 – 1238 kg/m3.
 Terminal velocity of wheat grain is 9 – 11.5 m/s.
 Cleaning of a material is done by washing, screening and handpicking.
 Cleaning of material is done on the basis of shape.
 Disc separator separates materials on the basis of length.
 Fluidized bed separator used to separate the lighter seeds.
 In India, morai type structure is used in the eastern region.
 The capacity of morai type storage structure is about 3.5 to 18 ton.
 The storage capacity of mud kothi is 1 to 50 ton.
 Safe storage moisture level of grain crop generally fall in the range of 8 – 10 %.
 In rice, angle of internal friction is 24 degrees.
 Cyclone separator is used for separating the fine particles.
 Safe moisture content of paddy (wb) for storage over one year is 12 %.
 In batch type dryer, the air temperature seldom exceeds 45 0C.
 The pressure of water vapour for each 10 0C rise in temperature is nearly half.
 The capacity of kothar types storage structure varies from 9 to 35 ton.
 The nature of crop grain is hygroscopic.
 The law applicable in size reduction of fine powder is Rittinger’s law.
 The moisture content for safe storage corn is about 13 %.
 In freeze-drying, the liquid phase comes at the pressure above 4.7 mm.
 In conventional freeze drying, dehydration temperature is kept between 37.8 0C – 93.3
0
C.
 Standard screens are used to measure the particle size range between 78 mm to 38 micro
meter.
 The opening of test sieve is square.
 Tyler sieves are originated in 1910 (USA).
 Crushing law is proposed by Rittinger.
 Hammer mill and Burr grinder are used for grinding the grain.
 In hammer mill, the force applied on grains is impact.
 The hammer of hammer mill is made of trough steel.
 Plate of burr grinder is made of chilled iorn.
 The size of most common type burr girnder is 30 cm diameter.
 Size reduction of fruits and vegetables are mostly performed by cutting.
 Rietz mill is applicable for milling wet material.
 Centrifugal sheller is used for milling wheat.
 Colloid mill is used for puree making, food paste formation and pulp formation.
 In oil extraction unit, the most commonly used solvent is n-hexane.
 Percentage of husk in paddy is about 18 – 22 %.
 Percentage of bran in the rice is 4 – 6 %.
 Percentage of endosperm in the paddy 70 – 72 %.
 The Englberg huller removes husk and bran from paddy.
 Clean and good quality of paddy gives a yield of 74 %.
 Parboiling of paddy is done for achieving maximum recovery of head rice, minimize the
broken percentage and reducing the milling losses.
 Parboiling is hydro thermal process.
 The temperature for gelatinization is about 70 0C.
 Rice recovery in parboiling as compared to raw rice milling is 1 – 2 %.
 In CFTRI method, the water is heated to a temperature of 85 0C.
 In pressurized parboiling method, the temperature of soaking water is about 85 – 90 0C.
 In comparison to raw rice, parboiled rice is rich in protein, vitamin and minerals.
 Parboiled rice contains inferior quality protein.
 In pounding method, rice recovery ranges from 60 – 65 %.
 A pounding method of rice milling requires human power.
 The most common paddy huller used in India is Englerg huller.
 The capacity of paddy huller varies from 250 – 750 kg/hr.
 In case of parboiled rice, the average yield obtained from huller is 62 – 64 %.
 In case of raw rice, the average yield obtained from huller is 56 %.
 The shelling of paddy by centrifugal dehusker is due to impact.
 Dry talc powder required to add rice by weight 1 – 1.2 %.
 A bearing used in belt conveyor is antifriction.
 The percentage of shelling outturn of groundnut decorticator is 75.
 The percent edible oil in rice bran is about 18 – 20 %.
 “V” pocket (vetch) type disc separator is used for separation of round shape material.
 In dry milling process, the pitting operation are done prior to oil treatment.
 Percentage of germ in rice is about 1 – 2.
 Rice yield can be increased with improved mechanical drying method by 1.5 %.
 Rice yield can increased due to improved milling equipment by 2 – 3 %.
 Centrifugal and rubber roll sheller may be used in place of hullers.
 Losses in fruits and vegetables generally vary from 10 – 30 %.
  In case of seed production, a maximum grain temperature usually recommended is 43 0C.
 Natural air-drying needs dehumidification if the atmospheric humidity exceeds 70 %.
 Solar energy reaching to per square meter of the earth’s atmosphere is called solar
constant.
 Hardness of rice endosperm ranges from 11.5 to 14.5 kg/mm2.
 In hydraulic press ghani, the percent oil loss (left in cake) is 7 – 8 %.
 The storage life of non-perishable fruits exceeds by 12 weeks.
 During processing of fruits and vegetables, transportation losses occur is as 30 %.
 During fruit juice canning, pasteurization is done at the temperature of 74 0C.

Processes:-
1. Crushing :- size reduction having multidirectional rupture.
2. Cutting:- size reduction by sharp knife
3. Shearing:- combination of cutting and crushing.
4. Soaking:- process of water absorption.
5. Cleaning:- removal of foreign and undesirable matters.
6. Steaming:- heat for gelatinization of a starch.
7. Canning:- fruit processing.
8. Blanching:- vegetable processing.
9. Scalping:- removal of few large particles in an initial process.
10. Sorting:- separation of cleaned product into quality fraction on the basis of size, surface
texture and colour.
11. Grading:- classification of cleaned product into quality fraction.
12. Whitening:- removal of silver skin and bran layer of brown rice.
13. Conditioning:- loosen the husk to facilitate its separation from kernel in legumes.
14. Polishing:- edible oil and water mixed with dal.
15. Pitting:- oil penetration process for loosening of husk.

Storage structures:-
S. Storage Capacity/others S. Storage structure Capacity/others
No. structure No.
1. Moari East and South India 6. Kanaj 1 to 20 tons
2. Bukhari 3.5 to 18 tons 7. Kuthla Bihar and U.P.
3. Kohar 9 to 35 tons 8. Pusa bin 2 to 4 tons
4. Mud Kothi 1 to 50 tons 9. Bricks and cemented bin 1.5 to 60 tons
5. Muda 1 to 3 tons 10. Metal bin GI Sheet

Laws Equations
S. Law/theory/a Description S. Equation Description
No. nalysis No.
1. Kick’s law Energy requirement in 1. Klevin Moisture adsorption by
size reduction equation solid material
2. Fick’s law Molecular diffusion 2. Henderson EMC curve
equation
3. Bond’s law Relationship between 3. Plank’s Freezing time
energy consumed and equation
size attained
4. Rittinger’s Size reduction of fine 4. Ergun’s Stress
law powder equation
5. Fourier law Molecular transport of 5. Hakins jura EMC model
heat equation
6. Hertz contact Loading pressure on 6. Jansen Grain pressure
theory fruits equation
7. Aeiry theory Lateral pressure of
shallow bin
-
8. Hukill’s Deep bed drying
analysis

Separators Instruments
S. Separators Description S. Name of Description
No. No. instrument
1. Disk separator Length 1. Universal Indirect method of
moisture determination of
meter moisture content
2. Indented cylinder Relative length 2. Oven Direct method of
separator determination of
moisture content
3. Spiral separator Roundness 3. Thermometer Temperature
measurement
4. Specific gravity Density 4. Pitot tube Static pressure of an air
separator stream
5. Inclined draper Shape and surface 5. Pycnometer Specific gravity
texture
6. Pneumatic separator Aerodynamic 6. Hypodermic Thermal conductivity
property needle
7. Fluidized bed Difference in size 7. Desicator Moisture dishes
separator and density
8. Magnetic separator Stickiness 8. Hygrometer Relative humidity
9. Cyclone separator Centrifugal force 9. Manometer Pressure
10. Electrostatic Electrostatic force 10. Sling Wet bulb temperature
 separator Psychrometer
11. Colour separator Photo electric cell

Short forms related with:-

∎ HTST :- Pasteurisation ∎ Ton :- Unit of refrigeration
∎ CAP :- Storge ∎ LSU :- Dryer
∎ NTU :- Thermal unit ∎ COP :- Refrigeration
∎ MAP :- Packaging
Important points related with:-
 Rheology :- Food texture
 Englberg :- Huller
 Rubber roll sheller :- Shelling
 Hammer mill :- Feed grinding
 Attrition mill :- Impact
 Paddy separator :- Gravity type
 Rubber rolls :- Paddy milling
 Dunage :- Bag storage
 Twin fluid nozzle :- Spray drying of liquid foods

Soil and water conservation engineering :-

 Hydrology is the science, which deals with the occurrence, circulation and distribution of
the water and earth’s atmosphere.
 A tropical cyclone, also called cyclone in India, Hurricane in USA and Typhoon in
South- East Asia.
 The centre of storm is called eye.
 Accelerated erosion is in excess of geologic erosion.
 Raindrop erosion is also known as splash erosion.
 Gully erosion is the advance and last stage of water erosion.
 Glacial erosion is found where mean temperature is below zero degree Celsius.
 Zoogenic erosion is caused by animals.
 Erosivity is defined as the potential ability of rain to cause the erosion.
 Erodibility is the susceptibility of soil to get erosion.
 Contour bunding is not technically feasible on the land slopes greater than 6 %.
 Bunding practices are found most suitable for the land having the slope ranges from 2 –
10 %.
 Bench type terraces are generally constructed on the land of 6 to 33 % slope.
 The total depth of water application to the crop is called duty.
 History

1743 Needham Reported first plant parasitic nematode, wheat seed gall
nematode, Anguina tritici
1855 Barkeley First reported the occurrence of root gall (root knot
nematode) on glasshouse grown cucumber in England.
1859 - N.A. Cobb Coined the word “Nema”, described more than 100
1932 nematode, father of American Nematology
1871 Kuhn CS2 to control sugar beet cyst nematode
1892 Atkinson Association of root – knot with Fusarium in vascular wilt
1901 Barber Reported root knot nematode infecting tea in South India –
first ever report of PPN from India
1913 - 19 Butler Reported Ufra disease of rice (Ditylenchus angustus) from
Bengal
1917 Hutchinson First report of Tundu disease of Wheat, Anguina tritici from
India
1943 Carter Nematological property of DD
1945 Christie Nematological property of EDB
1957 Hewitt, Raski & Transmission of fan leaf of grapes virus by Xiphinema indica
Gohen
1958 Vasudeva Molya disease of wheat and barely in India was recorded first
time from Neem Ka Thana, Sikar, Rajasthan.
1961 F.G.W. Jones Reported potato cyst nematode, Globodera rostochiensis for
the first time from Nilgiri Hills, Tamil Nadu, India
1961 Siddiqui Reported first time citrus nematode (Tylenchulus
semipenetrans) from India
1970 J.C. Edward and Wrote first textbook on Nematology – “An Introduction to
S.L. Misra Plant Nematology”

1971 - Indian Journal of Nematology was published for the first

time
1977 - All India Coordinated Research Project on Nematodes
started

 Karl Asmund Rudolphi is considered as Father of Helminthology.

 Nematode are also known as thread worms, roundworms, eelworms.
 Nematodes are bilaterally symmetrical, pseudo-coelomate, triploblastic.
 The word nematode has been derived from a Greek words which means “thread worms”.
 7 % of nematode are parasites of plants.
 First plant parasitic nematode reported was Anguina tritici.
 Ear cockle disease of wheat is caused by the nematode, Anguina tritici.
 Prasad et. al. in reported Moly disease of barley from Rajasthan in 1959.
 The nematode, Heterodera avenae causes molya disease of wheat and barley.
 The book nematodes harmful and useful in agriculture was written by I.N. Filipjev.
 Meloidogyne belongs to group of sedentary endoparasite.
 Nematological society of India was established during 1969.
 Nematode as a causal agent of plant disease was first reported by Needham.
 Most plant parasitic nematodes take 3 – 15 weeks to complete life cycle.
 Heterodera cysts are lemon shaped and Globodera cysts are spheroid.
 In India potato cyst nematode was first recorded in 1961 by F.G.W. Jones.
 Black head of banana :- Radopholus similis
 Ufra disease of rice :- Ditylenchus angustus
 Slow wilt disease of pepper :- Radopholus similis
 Slow decline disease of citrus :- Tylenchulus semipenetrans
 White tip disease of rice :- Aphelenchoides besseyi
 Red ring disease of coconut and palm :- Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus
 Ear cockle /seed gall nematode :- Anguina tritici
 Root lesion nematode :- Pratylenchus coffeae
 Yam nematode :- Scutellonema bradys
 Citrus nematode :- Tylenchulus semipenetrans
 Golden nematode of potato :- Globodera rostochiensis
 Burrowing nematode :- Radopholus similis
  Root knot nematode :- Meloidogyne sp.
 Cyst nematode :- Heterodera globodera
 Stem and bulb nematode :- Ditylenchus
 Foliar nematode :- Aphelenchoides
 Stubby root nematode :- Paratrichodorus & Trichodorus
 Chrysanthemum foliar nematode :- Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi
 Sessile nematode :- Cacopaurus sp.
 Dagger nematode :- Xiphinema index
 Pin nematode :- Migratory ectoparasite
 Root knot nematode :- sedentary endoparasite
 Root lesion nematode :- migratory endoparasite
 Dagger nematode :- ectoparasite.
 Meloidogyne, Heterodera, Anguina and Tylenchulus has J2 stage of nematode is infective
stage.

Nematode species habitat with their abundance :-

 Marine nematode species :- 50 %

 Free living nematode species :- 25 %
 Parasites of animals :- 15 %
 Parasites of plants :- 10 %

Nematode taxonomy and morphology:-

 Male nematodes are cylindrical and filiform, while females are bigger in size with round
and oval shaped.
 The size of plant parasitic nematodes may vary from 0.2 mm to 12 mm.
 The body cavity of nematodes is pseudocoelom.
 The outer body tube comprises of 3 layers.
 Cuticle is secreted by epidermal cells (hypodermis).
 The outermost layer of a nematode is called as cuticle.
  The function of cuticle is to support muscles, regulate permeability and maintains turgor
pressure.
 The oesophagus lumen is triradiate.
 Cervical alae are found in animal parasitic nematodes.
 Nematode causes cellular hypertrophy/hyperplasia, suppression of mitosis, cell necrosis.
 The organ, stylet helps the nematode to penetrate in plant tissues.
 The non-metabolically active layer of nematode cuticle is matrix.
 The origin of midgut or mesenteron is endoderm.
 The number of lips that surround nematode mouth is 6.
 Fore gut and midgut parts of digestive system which are lined with cuticle.
 Rectal glands produces gelatinous matrix in which eggs are laid.
 The main function of microvilli of intestine is increase the surface area, secretion and
absorption.
 Isthmus is posterior part of esophagus.
 In nematode, renette cells are associated with excretory system.
 Nematodes are dioecious.
 Cloaca, spicules and gubernaculum are part of male reproductive system.
 During moulting the cuticular lining of rectum, excretory duct, cephalic sclerotization
and anterior portion of stylet is shed off at each moult.
 Caudal glands are absent and phasmids are present in the order Tylenchida and
Aphelenchida.
 Family Anguinidae belongs to order Tylenchida.
 The longest nematodes are vertebrate parasites.
 Xiphinema index has ectoparasite.
 Meloidogyne incognita is sedentary endoparasite.
 Reproducing from eggs without fertilization by sperm cells is parthenogenetic.
 The cuticle is predominately composed of protein.
 Microfilaria are found in spirurida order of nematode.
 Ecto parasitic nematodes are :- ring nematode (Criconemoides sp.), spiral nematode
(Helicotylenchus sp.), aerial rice white tip nematode (Aphelenchoides besseyi).

Nematode and their order :-

  Pratylenchus sp. :- Tylenchulidae
 Meloidogyne incognita :- Tylenchida
 Xiphinema index :- Dorylaimida
 Sterinernema sp. :- Rhabditida
 Heterorhabditis sp. :- Rhabditida

Nematological techniques :-

 The best time to sample fields for nematodes is from August to October.
 Veihmeyer sampling tube, soil auger and power auger trowel are sampling tool.
 The depth at 20 cm, soil sample should be collected during survey.
 The amount of soil sample that should be collected is 200 gm.
 200 mesh sieve is 74 micron aperture.
 Bearmann Funnel technique is used for the extraction of nematode from soil, roots and
other plant parts.
 Centrifugal floatation technique is for the extraction of sluggish nematode.
 Mist extractions techniques is used for the extraction of nematodes from soil, roots and
other plant parts.
 The chemical solution, sodium hypochlorite used for staining the roots.
 Waring Blender technique or Maceration method is used for extracting migratory endo-
parasites and sedentary endo-parasites.
 The advantage of Cobb’s sieving and gravity method is quick, can be used for large soil
sample and sluggish nematodes are recovered.
 Cobb’s sieving method, sucrose centrifugation and Oostenbrink elutriation are used for
the extraction of nematodes from soil.
 Nematodes are separated according to the size in seinhorst elutriation technique.
 Centrifugation with heavy sugar, floatation modified Fenwick-Can technique and sodium
hypochlorite extraction technique are used for the isolation of cysts of Heterodera and
Globodera.
 Floatation modified Fenwick-Can technique used for the extracting cysts from dry soils.
 The best way to kill live nematodes is to put in water bath at 70 – 90 0C for 20 – 30 sec.
 Fixatives are used for preserving nematodes.
  The phenol content in 1 litre of lactophenol is 200 ml.
 The stain/chemicals used for staining dead nematode are New Blue R, Potassium
permanganate, chrysoidin.
 The staining procedure used for nematode infected root material are Johansen’s
Quadruple stain, Sass Safranin and Fast Green Stain and Triarch Quadruple stain.
 The most commonly used material for covering the cover slip of permanent slide is
Canada Balsam.
 The concentration of sodium hypochloride solution used for surface disinfection is 1 per
cent.
 Cysts :- Fenwick can method of extraction
 Endo – parasites :- Waring Blender technique or Maceration method of extraction
 Soil and other substrates :- Decanting and Sieving : Cobb’s method of extraction
 Plant material :- Baermann funnel

Nematode Ecology:-

 1 – 10 million nematodes in per m2 soil.

 6 number of stages in nematode life cycle.
 The larvae undergoes 4 number of moutls to become adult.
 The thick chitinous layer of egg shell is secreted by egg.
 Carbon dioxide inhibits egg hatching of Heterodera.
 The origin of gelatinous mass surroundings the eggs in Meloidogyne sp. is rectal glands.
 The origin of gelatinous mass surroundings the eggs in Tylenchulus sp. is excretory
system.
 Phyto-nematodes are obligate parasites.
 Only J2 is an infective stages in Anguina, Meloidogyne and Heterodera.
 J4 is an infective stages in Ditylenchus, Rotylenchulus and Bursaphelenchus.
 All stages are infective of Xiphenema, Pratylenchus and Naccobus.
 Epi-cuticle is shed during molting.
 Cysts are formed by Heterodera.
 The nematodes which have long generation time and low offspring count are called k-
strategy.
  The populations of nematodes are more abundant in organic soils.
 Ditylenchus dipsaci is more prevalent in clay soils.
 Most of the nematodes become inactive at a temperature range of 5 – 15 0C or 30 – 40 0C.
 Anguina sp. under goes quiescence during J2.
 J4 is a cryptobiosis stage in Ditylenchus dipsaci, Aphelenchoides, Pratylencus.

Nematodes with their habitat:-

 Ecto parasite :- Xiphineam

 Semi endo-parasite :- Tylenchulus
 Migratory endo parasite :- Paratylenchus
 Sedentary endo-parasite :- Meloidogyne

Plant parasitic nematodes with their egg hatching factor :-

 Globodera rostochinensis :- Root exudates.

 Heterodera glycines :- Glycinoclepin A-a dibasic acid
 Heterodera sp. :- Moisture
 Meloidogyne sp. :- Suitable temp. and moisture.

Plant nematode relationship :-

 Host penetration by the plant parasitic nematode is by enzymatic softening, mechanical

piercing.
 The part of the plant root which are penetrated by the plant parasitic nematodes is root
tip, zone of cell differentiation and elongation, root hairs.
 Sub-ventral glands are most visible and active in J2.
 The enzymes responsible for the giant cell initiation are secreted by sub-ventral glands.
 The nematode infected plant there is increase in free amino acids, proteins, auxins.
 Swelling or outgrowth of plant tissue is due to hypertrophy and hyperplasia.
 In Globodera rostochiensis, the stimuli for egg hatching is root exudates.
 In Meloidogyne, the stimuli for egg hatching is favorable environmental conditions.

Nematode with their infestation in host plants :-

  Ditylenchus destructor :- root rot
 Heteroder sp. :- Root proliferation
 Trichodorus sp. :- Stubby root
 Meloidogyne sp. :- Root knots

Nematode with their shape:-

 Kidney shaped :- Rotylecnchulus

 Pear shaped :- Meloidogyne
 Lemon shaped :- Heterodera
 Globular shaped :- Nacobbus

EPN :-

 Heterorhabditidae, Mermithidae and Steinernematidae are nematode families consists

entomopathogenic nematodes.
 Entomopathogenic nematodes enter the insect body through mouth, anus and spiracles.
 Entomopathogenic nematodes are formulated and applied as infective juveniles.
 Good quality entomopathogenic nematodes possess high levels of lipids.
 Steinernema carpocapsae is most studied and versatile of all entomopathogenic
nematodes.

Commercial product of EPN:-

 Steinernema carpocapsae :- NemaStar, BioVector

 Steinernema feltiae :- NemaPlus,
 Heterohabditis bacteriophora :- NemaGreen, NemaTop

Imp. Genera of Plant Parasitic Nematodes:-

 Cysts are lemon shaped in Heterodera.

 Slow- decline of citrus is caused by Tylenchulus.
 Spreading decline of citrus, toppling disease of banana and pepper yellows in black
pepper diseases caused by borrowing nematode.
 Hoplolaimus galeatus and Belonolaimus sp. are pests of lawn and turf grasses.
  Anguina tritici and Aphelenchoides besseyi are seed transmitted nematode.
 Vulval cone and egg sac are absent in Globodera.
 Harmful nematodes attack mushrooms belonging to Tylenchida and Aphelenchida.
 Tulip root, cabbage plant and spikkles symptom produced by Ditylenchus dipasaci.

Symptoms of damage with their nematode:-

 Yellow dwarf :- Heterodera glycines

 Peach replant problem :- Pratylenchus penetrans
 Beet tiredness :- Heterodera schachtii
 Mentek disease :- Hirschmaniella oryzae
 Dry root of yam :- Scutellonema bradys
 Early yellowing of peas :- Rotylenchus robustus
 Blind plant :- Aphelenchoides fragariae
 Root galls :- Meloidogyne sp.
 Seed gall :- Anguina tritici
 Stem gall :- Subanuina agropyri
 Leaf gall :- Anguina balsamophila
 Cabbage plant :- Ditylenchus dipsaci
 Red plant :- Aphelencoides fragariae
 Red ring :- Rahdinaphelenchus cocophilus
 White tip :- Aphelenchoids bessey

Types of root system with their nematode:-

 Coarse roots :- Belonolaimus longicaudatus

 Root rot ;- Scutellonema bradys
 Excessive root ranching :- Meloidogyne hapla
 Stubby roots :- Paratrichodorus

Nematode Management:-

 Radophlous simillis, Globodera rostochiensis and Globodera pallida has been introduced
into India.
  Ditylenchus destructor, Ditylenchus dipsaci and Heterodera schachtii are of quarantine
importance to India.
 Domestic quarantine exists in India against potato cyst nematode.
 Diazinon, aldicarb and acetoprole are insecticides, nematicides and acaricide.
 Oxamyl and Phenamiphos, nematicides can be used as foliar spray.
 DBCP, Ethylene dibromide and DD nematicide is no longer manufactured.
 Soil solarization is done to manage root knot nematode and cereal cyst nematode.

Crop with their root exudates :-

 Marigold :- Alpha terthinyl

 Mustard :- Isothiocynate
 Pangola grass :- Pryrocatechol
 Sunhemp :- Monocrotaline

Nematodes with their control measures:-

 Hot water treatment :- Aphelenchoides sp.

 Crop rotation :- Heterodera avenae
 Flooding :- Root knot nematode
 Healthy planting material :- Golden cyst nematode
 Brine floatation :- Anguina tritici

Nematicides with their trade name :-

 Oxamyl :- Vydate
 Fenamiphos :- Nemacur
 Thionazin :- Nemafos
 Cleothocarb :- Lance
 DBCP :- Nemagon
 Dazomet :- Basamid

Nematode
 Order : Tylenchida
S. No. Common name Scientific name Family
1. Bent grass nematode Anguina agrotis Anguinidae
2. Fescue leaf gall nematode Anguina graminis Anguinidae
3. Shoot gall nematode Anguina sp. Anguinidae
4. Ear – cockle/wheat gall/ Anguina tritici Anguinidae
seed – gall nematode
5. Rice stem nematode Ditylenchus angustus Anguinidae
6. Potato rot/ potato tuber/ Iris Ditylenchus destructor Anguinidae
nematode
7. Bulb/ onion stem/ tulip root/ Ditylenchus dipsaci Anguinidae
clover/ beet stem nematode
8. Rice white tip/ spring Aphelenchoides besseyi Aphelenchoididae
dwarf/ strawberry bud
nematode
9. Rice nematode Aphelenchoides oryzae Aphelenchoidae
Bud and leaf nematode Aphelenchoides sp. Aphelenchoidae
Sessile nematode Cacopaurus sp. Criconematidae
Spine nematode Criconema sp. Criconematidae
Ring nematode Criconema sp. / Criconemoides Criconematidae
sp.
Citrus ring nematode Criconemoides citri Criconematidae
Cobb’s ring nematode Criconemoides simile Criconematidae
Awl nematode Dolichodorus sp. Dolichodoridae
Sheath nematode Hemicycliophora sp. Criconematidae
Potato cyst/ potato eelworm/ Globodera rostochiensis Heteroderidae
golden nematode
Cyst nematode Globodera sp./ Heterodera sp. Heteroderidae
Cereal root/ great root/ oat Heterodera avenae Heteroderidae
cyst nematode
Pigeon pea cyst nematode Heterodera cajani Heteroderidae
Soybean cyst nematode Heterodera glycines Heteroderidae
Buckwheat cyst nematode Heterodera graduni Heteroderidae
Barley cyst nematode Heterodera hordecalis Heteroderidae
Rice cyst nematode Heterodera oryzae Heteroderidae
Sugar beet cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii Heteroderidae
Corn cyst nematode Heterodera zeae Heteroderidae
Peanut root-knot nematode Meloidogyne arenaria Meloidogynidae
Spiral nematode Helicotylenchus sp./ Hoplolaimidae
Rotylenchus sp./ Scutellonema
sp.
Lance nematode Hoplolaimus sp. Hoplolaimidae
Cobb’s root-knot/ false root- Nacobbus batatiformis Hoplolaimidae
knot/ hairy-gall nematode
Reniform/ kidney shaped Rotylenchulus reniformis Hoplolaimidae
nematode
 Cobb’s meadow/ root lesion Pratylenchus penetrans Pratylenchidae
nematode
Banana root/ burrowing Radopholus similis Pratylenchidae
nematode
Citrus nematode Tylenchulus semipenetrans Tylenchulidae
Order : Dorylaimida
Dagger nematode Xiphinema index Longidoridae
Needle nematode Longidorous sp. Longidoridae
Stubby root nematode Trichodorus sp./ Trichodoridae
Paratrichodorus sp.
Order : Rhabditida
Sour paste nematode Panagrellus redivivus Panagrolaimidae
Vinegar nematode Turbatrix aceti Rhabditidae

 Infective stage of Meloidogyne sp. and Heterodera sp. is J2.
 Resistant stage of Meloidogyne sp. is egg/cyst.
 Infective and resistant stage of Anguina sp. and Tylenchulus sp. is J2.



 Plant Pathology

Year Significant work

1674 Discovery of bacteria by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
1845 Potato blight (Phytophthora infestans) epidemics in Ireland
1853 Anton de Bary established the role of fungi as plant pathogens
1865 De Bary reported heteroecism in Puccinia graminis
1865 Anton de Bary demonstrated Heteroecism nature of stem rust of wheat
1868 - 1882 Classic studies on Coffee Rust (Hemileia vastatrix) epidemics and etiology by
Marshal Ward in Sri Lanka.
1876 Robert Koch established “Koch’s Postulates” for ascertaining pathogenicity of
microorganisms associated with diseased plants.
1882 Discovery of Bordeaux mixture by PMA Millardet for management of Downy
Mildew of Grape.
1885 Discovery of Mycorrhizal fungi by Frank
1885 First Indian scientist (K.R. Kirtikar) who collected and identified the fungi
1887 Development of hot water treatment for wheat loose smut by Jensen
1891 First time N.A. Cobb formulated scale to measure plant disease intensity.
1913 Physiologic races of Puccinia graminis discovered by E.C. Stakman
1928 Discovery of specific antigen in Tobacco Mosaic Virus infected plants by
Beale
1943 S.A. Waksman and A. Schatz discovered “Streptomycin” as first broad
spectrum antibiotic
1946 “Gene for Gene Hypothesis” proposed by H.H. Flor in flax rust pathosystem.
1952 International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) submitted to the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) and agreed in principle
1965 Discovery of first systemic fungicide “Carboxin”
1966 Von Schmeling and Marshal Kulka discovered systemic fungicides “Oxanthin”
1968 DNA as nucleic acid constituent of a virus (Cauliflower Mosaic Virus) was
discovered by Shephard and Co-workers.
1974 Seed transmission of virus (Tobacco Ring Spot Virus) discovered by Yang and
Hamilton
1977 Development of ELISA test for detection of plant viruses by Clark and Adams
1994 Isolation of first viral resistance gene N from Tobacco by S. Whitham and Co-
workers.

 The oil immersion lenses were introduced by Ernst Abbe.

 Frits Zernike developed “Phase Contrast Microscopy”.
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1723) is credited with the discovery of bacteria.
  Hutchinson (1917) reported for the first time yellow ear rot or Tundu disease of Wheat in
India.
 Bacterial blight of rice was first time reported by Sreenivasan and co-workers (1959) in
India from Pune, Maharashtra.
 Butler, first time recorded epiphytotic incidence of late blight of potato in Nilgiri,
Darjeeling, Khasi, Kumaon and Shimla Hills.
 Red rot of sugarcane was first time reported in India from Godavari Delta of Andhra
Pradesh by Barber (1901).
 In India extensive studies on symptoms, causal organism and disease epidemiology of red
rot of sugarcane was initiated by Butler (1906).
 Butler proposed the name “Red Rot of Sugarcane”.
 The first publication of on bacteria by Antony de Leeuwenhoek was in 1683.
 Louis Pasteur (1822 – 1895) considered as founder of modern bacteriology.
 Robert Koch is considered as father of bacteriological techniques.
 Pour plate technique was devised by Robert Koch (1881).
 Sap transmission of the viral tobacco mosaic disease was first demonstrated by Mayer in
1886.
 Viroids were discovered and given this name by T.O. Diner in 1971.
 Bunchy top of banana was first observed in Bengal in 1925 and subsequently form
Assam, Kerala and Odissa.
 Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) disease of citrus was first recorded from Bombay by
Vasudeva and Capoor in 1958.
 Selman Waksman (1944) discovered streptomycin.
 Destructive insects and pest act was launched in India in Feb. 1914.
 Detained disease cycle of cereal rust in India was studied by K.C. Mehta.
 Directorate of plant protection quarantine and storage was started in 1946.
 Transformation was discovered in Enterobacter pneumonia.
 The term “Bacteriophages” was coined by Felix d’Herelle.
 EJ Butler:- studies on Phytophthora blight of potato, studies on fusarial wilt of
pigeonpea, taxonomic studies the genus Allomyces and Pythium.
 R.H. Dastur :- studies on Phytophthora parasitica on castor, studies on cotton wilt and
foot rot of betel, pink disease of citrus and black thread of Hevea.
 T.S. Sadasivan:- established the school of Mycology and Plant Pathology at Madras
University, laid the foundations of research on soil-borne pathogens, initiated studies on
physiology of hydromycotic wilting.
Scientists associated with plant disease :-
∎ V. Agnihothrudu :- Tea diseases ∎ L.M. Joshi :- Wheat Rusts
∎ M.M. Payak :- Maize diseases ∎ Pushkarnath :- Potato diseases
∎ Om Prakash :- Mango diseases ∎ R.P. Asthana :- Control of smuts of millets
∎ C.V. Subramanian :- Wilt of Cotton ∎ S.B. Mathur :- Seed Pathology
 ∎ D.N. Srivastava :- Bacterial blight of paddy ∎ R.D. Rawal :- Fruit pathology
∎ Y.L. Nene :- Khaira disease of Rice
∎ K.C. Mehta (1940) :- further studies on cereal rusts in India.
Books and their authors:-
 Introductory Plant Pathology :- M.N. Kamat
 Fungicides in Plant Disease Control :- Y.L. Nene
 Diseases of Crop Plants in India :- G. Rangaswami
 Fungi and Plant Disease :- B.B. Mundkur
 Fungi and Diseases in Plants :- Butler

Mycology

 Father of Indian Mycology :- E.J. Butler

 A motile asexual spore that uses a flagellum for locomotion is termed as zoospore.
 The flagella having lateral filaments perpendicular to the main axis are termed as tinsel
flagella.
 Basidiospores are haploid.
 Phylum Basidiomycota contain puff balls, stink horns and jelly fungi.
 Chlamydospores are produced always by secondary mycelium.
 Sexual and asexual types of reproduction is found in Chytridiomycetes.
 Most of the species of Chytridiomycetes are inoperculate.
 Planogametic copulation, gametangial copulation and somatogamy types of sexual
reproduction takes place in Chrytridiomycetes.
 The Chytrids in family Synchytriacae are endobiotic and holocorpic.
 Big vein virus of lettuce, tobacco necrosis virus and tomato stunt virus are transmitted by
Olpidium brassicae.
 Zygomycetes are characterized as coenocytic and zygospores.
 The fungi in the class Zygomycetes reproduce by means of aplanospores and zygospores.
 Zygomycetes and Trichomycetes classes fall under phylum Zygomycota.
 Apodachlya and Phythium, oomycetous fungi contain both chitin and cellulose in their
cell wall.
 Anterior tinset flagellum is characteristic of Chytridiomycetes.
 Saucer is the shape of Acervuli.
 Presence of stolons and rhizoids, shorter or stouter sporangiophores differentiate
Rhizopus from Mucor.
 Ascus normally contains 8 numbers of ascospores.
 Hymenomycetes lack basidiocarps.
 The sterile hyphal outgrowths intermingled with asci are called as interascal tissue and
hamathecium.
 Cleistothecium, Perithecium and Apothecium types of ascomata are produced in
ascomycetes.
 Hyphal tissues that form the excipulum of ascoma are known as textura.
 Textura globulosa, Textura angularis and Textura prismatica are short celled tissues.
 Textura intricuta, Textura ablita and Textura porrecta are long celled tissues.
 Puffing of ascospares usually takes place in pezizales.
 Archiascomycetes is the basal group of Ascomycota representing primitive ascomycetes.
 The ascospores produced by Protomyces sp. multiply by budding.
 Budding of asxospores of Taphmina spp. Gives rise to blastospores.
 Agglutination and flocculence are generally common phenomenon in yeasts.
 The largest order of phylum Asconycota is Dothidiales.
 The genera of Erysiphaceae are classified based on appendages on Cleistothecia, nature
of mycelium and number of asci.
 The conidia of powdery mildew fungi are released passively.
 Aspergillus niger and Nurospora crassa fungi is known as “weed of the laboratory”.
 Aflatoxin is produced by Aspergillus flavus.
 Parasexual phenomenon was discovered in Aspergillus nidulans fungi.
 Penicillium, have important role in antibiotic production and cheese industry.
 Sporangiophores of Plasmopara viticola branch at right angle.
 Naked asci are produced in Hemiascomycetes class.
 Asexual reproduction is phylum oomycota is by primary zoospores and secondary
zoospores.
 Presence of papilla or the sporangium is characteristic feature of Phytophthora.
 Plasmodia, Sclerotinia and Rhizoctonia produces sclerotia.
 The unique nuclear division in plasmodiophoraceae is cruciform division and
ectomycorrhizae.
 The antibiotic griseofulvin produced by P. griseofulvin is effective only against fungi
having chitin in cell walls.
 Antibiotic griseofulvin is not effective against Oomycetes.
 The shape of ascospores of genera Eurotium are pulley wheel type.
 The conidia of Claviceps sp. multiply by budding.
 Neurospora fungi is used for genetic studies.
 The conidia produced by the fungi which exclusively reproduce by a sexual means are
called as mitospores.
 Fruiting bodies with cup-like structure bearing asci containing ascospores are called as
Apothecium.
 Dolipore septum is a characteristic of Basidiomycetes.
 Basidispores of stem rust of wheat attacks barberry plant.
 Laterally biflagellate zoospores production is the characteristic feature of Oomycota.
 Fungi belonging to Basidiomycetes class reproduce clamp connection.
 Penicillium notatum is now named as P. crysogenum.
 Septate basidium is known as phragmobasidium.
 Bird’s nest fungi, stink horns and bracket fungi is a basidiomata.
 The germtube emerging from germinating teliospore is known as promycelium.
 Sequence of production of spores of Puccinia graminis tritici :- Urediniospore,
Teliospores, Basidiospores, Spermatia, Aeciospores.
 Teliospore is a binucleate spore.
 Promycelium is produced by teliospores.
 Aeciospores are binucleate.
 The teliospores of uromyces fungi is unicellular.
 Hump-backed urediniospores are produced by hemileia.
 Cercospora fungi usually do not sporulate in culture.
 Basidiospores are produced on sterigmata.
 Basidiospores of smut fungi are known as sporidia.
 Calcium and magnesium ions are essential for flocculence.
 Spores produced by budding are known as blastospores.
 The cell wall of Zygomycete fungi is made up of chitosan chitin.
 Pycnidium :- ostiolate, sphaerical or flask shaped.
 Sporodochium :- externally borne on cushion shaped stoma.
 Acervulus :- disc shaped flat stomatic mass of hyphae.
 Synnema :- conidiophores fused at base and fused at tip.
 Corenia :- loosely aggregated conidiophores.
 Unequally bicelled ascospore :- Venturia sp.
 Transversely septate ascospore :- Mycosphaerella sp.
 Obligate endopatasitic slime molds :- plasmodiophoromycota

∎ Pulley shaped ascospores :- Eurotia sp.
∎ Filiform ascospores :- Claviceps sp.
∎ Slime molds :- Acrasiomycota
∎ Bread mold :- Rhizopus niger
∎ Cup fungi :- Pezizales
∎ Sewage fungus :- Leptomitus
∎ The sacred fungi :- Psilocybe
∎ Shot gun fungi :- Pilobolus
∎ Earth star fungi :- Geastrum
∎ Grape like :- Botrydiplodia
∎ Necklace of beads :- Monilia
∎ Hat shaped ascospores :- Ascoidea sp.
∎ Water molds :- saprolegniomycetidace
∎ True Slime molds :- Myxomycota
∎ Pin molds :- Mucorales
∎ Hat thrower fungus :- Pilobolus
∎ Saddle fungus :- Helvella
∎ Shoe string fungi :- Armillaria
∎ Bird’s nest fungi :- Cyathus
∎ Small brush :- Penicilium
∎ A whorl of branches :- Vericillium
∎ Worm like spore :- Helminthosporium

 Mycology - Study of fungi

 Father of Mycology - Mitcheli > Book : Nova plantarum genera
 Father of modern mycology - De Bary
 Father of Indian mycology - B.B. Mundker / E.J. Butler
  Fungi name given by - Gaspard Bauhin
 Chloroplast is absent in fungi, so fungi are heterotrophes. Fungi obtain their own food
from dead organic matter or living organism.
 Nutrition is absorptive type in saprophytic fungi.
 They obtain nutrition with the help of haustroria.
 Cell wall is present around fungi, which is made up of chitin. Some quality of proteins,
lipids & cellulose also present with chitin.
 Cell wall of the members of class-oomycetes is mainly made up of cellulose.
 In fungi the stored food remains in the form of glycogen and oil.
Heterothallic species :-
 Those species in which fertilization takes place between two genetically different
gametes are called as heterothallic species. And this phonomenon is known as
heterothallism.
 In heterothallic condition, the fertilizing gametes are formed on different thallus
(mycelium)
 eg. Mucor, Rhipus Puccinia & Mostly fungi
Homothallic species :-
 Those species in which fertilization takes place between two tenetically similar gametes
are called as homothallic species. And this phenomenon is known as Homothallism.
 In Homothallic condition, the fertilizing gametes are formed on same thallus.
 e.g. Chaetomium
Reproduction : In fungi, reproduction is of three types.
1. Vegetative reproduction : It occurs by different process.
(a) Fragmentation : Some times the fungal filament (mycelium) breaks in to small pieces
due to any reason.
(b) Budding : a bud like protuberance is formed in non-mycelial fungus. At the time of
seperation of bud from its mother cell or fungi, the nucleus of mother cell divided
mitotically (or amitorically – in yeast) in to two parts.
Note : Reproduction through bud formation and fission takes place only in
nonmycelial form.
2. Asexual reproduction :-
 Asexual reproduction takes place by formation of different types of spores. These
spores are formed by mitotic division.
(a) Sporangiospores – They are formed in sporangia.
 The formation of sporangiospores takes place endogenously.
 Sporangiospores are of two types :
 Zoospore :- when the sporangiospores formed in sporangia are flagellated and
motile, then they are called as zoospores
 Aplanospore :- When sporangiospores are non flagellated and non motile.
(b) Conidia : The formation of conidia takes place exogenously.
  Condiophore – Straight fungal filament on which conidia are formed are
called conidiophore
 Conidia – Conidia are formed single or in chain. Each conidia forms fungal
filament (mycelim) by germination.
(c) Chlamydospores : They are formed in adverse condition.
3. Sexual Reproduction :-
(a) Plasmogamy : This is the first stage of sexual reproduction. This binucleate or
dikaryon stage is called dikaryion
(b) Karyogamy : In this stage the nuclei present in the cell fuse with each other, to form a
diploid nucleus which is known as synkaryon.
(c) Meiosis : In this stage, meiosis takes place in the diploid nucleus due to which again
haploid nuclei or haploid cells are formed.
Gametangial Contact (Oogamy) : -
 Male sexorgan is called antheridium and female sex organ is called oogonium.
Fertilizing :- As a result of which a diploid zygote is formed which is called oospore (zygote)

 True fungi are divided in to following classes on the basis of structure of mycelium &
sexual reproduction.
1. Phycomycetes 2. Ascomycetes
3. Basidiomycetes 4. Deuteromycetes

 Lower fungi also known as Algal fungi.

1. Phycomycetes :- four different class :-
(a) Chytridiomycetes :-
 Asexual reproduction – By sporangiospore (zoospore & aplanospore)
 Sexual reproduction – By Planogametic copulation
(b) Plasmodiophoromycetes :-
 Synchytrium
 Synchytrium endobioticum – This fungi causes "Black heart of Potato" or "Wart
of Patato" disease.
(c) Oomycetes :-
(i) Phytophthora infestans – Causes "late blight of potato". This disease is known as
''Femine of Ireland" – 1845.
(ii) Pythium spp. – Causes "Damping Off" disease in tobacoo & "vegetable Crops"
(iii) Sclerospora graminicola – Causes "Green ear disease" of Bajra.
 The main characterstics of this disease is Phylloidy (Phylloidy – i.e. all the parts
of flower are modified in to green leaves).
(iv) Albugo candida or Cystopus candidus – It cause "White rust disease" in the members
of cruciferi family.
(d) Zygomycetes :-
 (i) Pilobolus – It grows on dung, since it is dung loving fungi therefore it is called as
coprophilous fungi. It prefers to grow on horse dung. It is also called as "Hat thrower"
or "fungal shotgun"
(ii) Rhizopus & Mucor : These are known as bread mold
2. Ascomycetes :-
 Ascospores are formed during sexual reproduction.
 Now meiosis take place in the nucleus of Ascus. hapliod spores are formed, which are
called ascospores.
 After the formation of ascospores, the mycelium grows around the ascus and forms a
covering which is called as fruiting body or ascocarp.
Three types of fruiting bodies :-
(i) Cleistothecium :– This is a closed fruiting body. e.g. Penicillium, Aspergillus, Erysiphe
(ii) Perithecium :– This fruiting body is flask like. e.g. Neurospora, Claviceps.
(iii)Apothecium :– This fruiting body is like open disc. Morchella. Morchella is edible.
Ascus are naked in Yeast.
Class ascomycetes :-
1. Penicilium :- Blue or Green mold
 P. notatum :– A. Flemming obtained the antibiotic Penicillin from it.
 Penicillin is the first discoverd antibiotic. But now dyas more quantity of Penicillin is
obtained from P. chrysogenum.
 Discovery of Penecillin was a serendipity i.e. by chance discovery.
 P. griseofulvum – "Griseofulvin" an antifungal antibiotic is obtained from it.
 P. camemberti & P. roquefoti :– Both are used in the manufacturing of camembert
cheese and roquefort cheese resspectivly. Cheese is made by the fermentation which is
done by fungus.
2. Aspergillus :– Black or Brown mold or Blacky – smoky mold.
 A proliferans – An antibiotic 'Proliferin' is obtained from it.
 A. flavus – It refers to gow on stored food (groundnut, cashewnuts etc.) and fodder.
 It secretes toxic substances. These toxic substance are knwon as aflatoxins.
 Aflatoxins – They are carcinogenic i.e. develop cancer . Alfatoxin cause liver cancer.
 A. niger – Weed of laboratory
3. Claviceps :– Claviceps purpurea – It causes "Ergot disease" of Bajra.
 Claviceps purpurea – "Ergotin" (drug) is obtained from it.
 Claviceps purpurea – A narcotic durg (LSD) is obained from it. LSD is a hallucinogenic
drug.
4. Morchella :– The species of Morchella are commonly called as Morels. It is an edible fungus.
5. Neurospora – Red or Pink mold – Drosophila of plant kingdom .
 It is used for the study of genetics in plant kingdom.
 Beadle and Tatum proposed One gene – one enzyme theroy in Genetics by
experimenting on Neurospora.
6. Erysiphe :- Different species of Erysiphe causes "Powdery mildew" disease on plants.
 E. tritici – It causes powdery mildew of wheat.
 E. polygoni – It causes powder mildew of pea.
7. Peziza – it is called as cup fungi.
8. Yeasts – yeast is an unicellular fungi.
 Mycelium is absent in yeast. If yeast is dissolved in sugar solution then
pseudomycelium is formed The most common method of reproduction in yeast is
budding.
 Saccharomyces
 Schizosaccharomyces
 Haplo – diplonitc life cycle. eg. Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
Economic Importance :-
 Yeast is also called as fermentation fungi.
 Saccharomyces cerevisiae – It in used as fermentation agent in bakery (bread industry
and brewery (wine industry). So Saccharomyces cerevisiae is also called "Baker's yeast".
 Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is obtained from Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
 Septate and uni or binucleate (dikaryotic)
 In basidiomycetes, these septum are of special type and they are called Dolipore septum.
One big pore is present between every septum. The boundary of pore is spread on both
side, this boundary is called as parenthesome.
 Clamp connection : It is a tabular relationship between two neighbouring cells. Clamp
connection is used to change monokaryotic mycelium to dikaryotic mycelium in
basidiomycetes.
 Ascospore is endogenous and that of basidiospores is exogenous.
Spermatization :-
 This type of reproduction is more commonly seen in those fungi that develop rust. e.g. –
Rust fungi – Puccinia
Three different species of Puccinia :- develop rust in wheat
 Puccinia graminis – Black rust or stem rust.
 Puccinia recodita – Brown rust or leaf rust.
 Pucinia striiformis – Yellow rust or strips rust
 Puccinia is a heteroecious fungi – i.e. the fungs that needs two types of host to complete
its life cycle. 1. Wheat 2. Barberry.
 The Barbery plant act as an alternate host.
 First of all this fungus infect the Barbery plant. Due to the infection many cup shaped
structions are formed on leaf of brabery. These structures are knwon as Pycnidial cups
(Pycnia or spermogonia) Pycnidial cup are formed on upper surface of leaf. Each cup
contains one type of hypae (+ or - ).
 Some hyphae in the each cup act as sporophore and form spores by division. These
spores are called as spermatia or pycniospores.
  After that the pycniospores of one strain reach the receptive hyphae by air. The receptive
hyphae of each cup become dikaryotic.
 Dikaryotic receptive hyphae divide many times and form another cup shaped structure on
the lower surface of leaf, which is known as Acedial cup. In this cup shaped structure,
Aecoispores are formed from these dikaryotic hyphae. These aeciospores are dikaryotic.
 Aeciospore attack on wheat plant and develop rust disease.
 These aeciospores germinate on wheat plant and form dikaryotic mycelium. Uredospores
are fomed on these mycelium. They are also dikaryotic.
 These uredospore attack other wheat plants through air. And when then growing period
of wheat plant is at its end then a new stage (new spores) teleutospore is formed instead
of uredospore on the leaf of wheat plant.
 Karyogamy – Nuclesus becomes diploid. Now basidium is formed from telutospore.
After that meiosis takes place in this nucleus. These basidiospores then agains infect
barberry plant through air.
Life cycle of Puccinia :– called rust cycle.
 Rust cycle was discovered by Porf. K.C. Mehta. He has done a lot of hard work on rust.
 Starting of rust disease on wheat plants through aeciospore i.e. Primary infection takes
place through aeciospores secondary infection take place through uredospore
uredospores.
Bracket or Shelf fungi :-
 These are epixylic fungi i.e. these like to grow on wood. Their fruiting body is similar to
braket therefore they are called as bracket fungi. e.g. Polyporus
Puff balls :– These are a saprophytic fung.
Clavatia :– A drug 'clavatin' is obtained from it. It is an anticancer medicine.
Mushrooms :– These are umbrella like fungi often seen growing in grounds during rainy season.
 Most delicious mushroom – Agaricus bisporus
 World's most poisonous mushroom – Amontia muscoides. Toad – Stool
Smut fungi :– Smut fungi infect seed and form black sooty spores inside the seed.
 eg. Ustilago nuda or Ustilago tritici :– It cause "loose smut of wheat.' This disease
spreads by infected flowers and seeds.
 Ustilago maydis :– Smut of maize. This disease spreads by infected seeds.
 Ustilago hordei – Covered smut of barley
 Ustilago scitaminea – Whip smut of sugarcane.
 Prof. J.C. Luthra discovered a technique to control smut.
Agaricus :- It is called as "gill fungi" because gills like pores are present in its fruiting body.

3. Basidomycetes :-
 It is also called as "club fungi" because a club shaped basidium is formed in it.
 It is also called as "ray fungi".
4. Deuteromycetes :-
  It is also called "fungi Imperfecti", because perfect stage or sexual reproduction is absent
in this class of fungi. Those fungi are included in this class in which sexual reproduction
is absent or is not discovered at yet.
Sexual reproduction :-
 Sexual reproduction is absent in this class. Instead a parasexual cycle is present.
 Importance of Parasexual cycle – Mitotic recombination
 Arthrobotrys – These are entomophagons fungi i.e. insect predating fungi.
 Dactylella – These fungi can be used is biological control of insect pasts.
 Leaf spot of rice – This disease is known as famine of Bengal (1945).
 The fungi included in this class causes many disease :-
S. No. Fungi Disease
1. Alternaria solani Early blight of Potato
2. Cercospora personata Tikka disease of groundnut
3. Colletotrichum falcatum Red rot of sugarcane
4. Helminthosporium oryzae Leaf spot of Rice
5. Fusarium udum Wilt of pigeonpea

Fungal disease of crop plants

Disease with their respective hosts:
∎ Zebra chip disease :- Potato ∎ Pineapple disease :- Sugarcane
∎ Buck eye rot disease :- Tomato ∎ Crazy top disease :- Maize
∎ Green ear disease :- Bajra
Diseases in different crops with their causal organism:-
 False smut of paddy :- Ustilaginoidea virens
 Common smut of maize :- Ustilago maydis
 Whip smut of sugarcane :- Ustilago scitaminea
 Long smut of sorghum :- Tolyposporium ehrenbergii
 Smut of Pearl millet :- Tolyposporium penicillariae
 Powdery mildew of grapes :- Uncinula necater
 Powdery mildew of cucumbers :- Sphaerotheca fuliginea
 Powdery mildew of rose :- Sphaerotheca pannosa
 Powdery mildew of apples :- Podosphaera leucotricha
 Powdery mildew of barley :- Erysiphae graminis
 White rust :- Albugo candida
 Red rust :- Cephaleuros virescens
 Black rust :- Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici
 Yellow rust :- Puccinia striiformis
 Brown rust :- Puccinia recondita
 Blue mold of citrus fruit :- Penicillium italicum
 Green mold of citrus fruit :- Penicillium digitatum
 Sooty mold of mango :- Capnodium ramosum
 Blue mold of tobacco :- Peronospora tabcina
 Grey mold of china aster :- Botrytis cineria
 Red leaf spot of palmarosa :- Colletotrichum graminicola
 Violet root rot of beet root :- Helicobasidium purpureum
 Black leaf spot of rose :- Diplocarpon rosae
 Red rust of spinach :- Puccinia aristidae
 Black rot of grape :- Guignardia bidwellii
 Apple frog eye leaf spot :- Botryosphaeria obtuse
 Bird’s eye rot of grape :- Elsinoe ampelina
 Finger and toe disease of crucifers :- Plasmodiophora brassicae
 Black leg and root rot of cabbage :- Phoma lingam
 Brown eye spot of coffee :- Cercospora coffeanum

Bacteria
 Bacteria have a nucleus without membrane which is actually a circular chromosome
composed of DNA.
 The transfer of a naked fragment of DNA between bacteria is called as transformation.
 The amount of peptidoglycans is more in gram positive bacteria.
 Curing is the process by which the bacteria lose its plasmid.
 The book “The Bacteria” is authored by J.P. Varma.
 Teichoic acid is found in gram positive bacteria.
 More amount of lipoproteins and lipopolysaccharides are present in the cell walls of gram
negative bacteria.
 Bacteriophage is actually a virus.
 Bdellovibrio is actually a bacteria.
 Bdellovibrio parasitizes and kills only gram negative bacteria.
 Coliphase fd and ∅ 174 , bacteriophages have single stranded DNA as their nucleic acid.
 Phage PM2, bacteriophages have a lipid envelope.
 Sequence of a lytic cycle of bacteriophages :- Adsorption, Penetration, Replication,
Maturation, Liberation.
 Lambda, bacteriophages has a lysogenic life cycle.
 Xylella are gram negative, nonmotile, aflagellate, strictly aerobic and non – pigmented.
 Most plant pathogenic bacteria are rod shaped but the shape of Streptomyces is
filamentous.
 On agar media the colour of colonies of the bacteria Xanthomonas is generally yellow.
 Erwinia are the only plant pathogenic bacteria that are facultative anaerobes.
 Oozing from the cut end of the infected plant tissue vascular bundles indicate bacterial
infection.
 Plant pathogenic species of cause scabs or lesions of only below ground crops :-
Streptomyces.
 Species of Agrobacterium causes overgrowths or proliferation of plant tissues.
 In Gram’s staining reaction gram – positive bacteria retain the violet – iodine stain
combination.
 Sandal spike disease of sandal (Santalum album) is caused by phytoplasma.
 The whiteflies, leafhoppers and aphids, are the main insect vectors of viruses.
 Leafhoppers are the main insect vectors of mollicutes, fastidious bacteria and protozoa.
 The vegetative stages of most types of bacteria reproduce by fission.
 Sequence of discovery :- Transformation, Conjugation, Transduction.
 Composition of carbon elements is highest in a microbial cell.
 Acridine dye is a curing agent.
 Gram negative and gram positive bacteria were discovered by Christian.
 Gram negative bacteria are under class Proteobacteria.
 Gram negative bacteria are under division Gracillicutes.
 Gram negative bacterial cell wall is lacking in tacuic acid.
 In general gram positive bacteria contain mucopeptide of 85 %.
 In general the cell wall of the gram negative bacteria contain mucopeptide of 3 – 12 %.
 In, gram staining, Clavibacter shows violet colour.
 Optimum pH of media for bacterial growth is around 6.5 – 7.5.
 Bacteria multiply by binary fission.
 T DNA introduced into the plant cell in a conjugation – like process codes for the
synthesis of small carbon compounds called opines.
 Ti plasmids contain a complete set of tra genes that facilitate inter-bacterial transfer of the
Ti plasmid.
 The first extra-chromosomal genetic element recognized was the sex factor F in E. coli K
12.
 The virus cyanophages infects cyanobacteria.
 The bacterial flagellum is made up of the protein flagellin.
 Gram positive bacteria have two basal body rings in its flagella.
 Agrobacterium :- motile and one to four peritrichous flagella, circumtrechital flagella
 Clavibacter :- non motile and gram positive.
 Xanthomonas :- motile and single polar flagella, utilizes starch
 Xylella :- non motile and gram negative.
 Streptomyces :- filamentous and gram positive.
 Erwinia :- Fermentive and Peritrichous
 Pseudomonas :- polar flagella
 Streptomycin :- prevents formation of initiation complexes
 Tetracycline :- inhibits amioacyl – tRNA binding at A site
 Erythromycin :- premature peptidyl – tRNA dissociation.
 Chloramphenicol :- inhibits peptidyl transferase activity.
 Aurintricarboxylic acid :- prevents 1F binding to 30 S subunit.
 Acidophiles :- adapted to acidic environment
 Halophiles :- adapted to high salt concentration
 Neutrophils :- grow at around 7.0 pH
 Microaerophiles :- adapted to low oxygen
 Psychrophiles :- adapted to low temperature
 Photorophs :- light
 Lithotrophs :- oxidation of inorganic compounds
 Organotrophs :- organic compound as electron donor
 Autotrophs :- CO2 as sole carbon source
 Mixiotrophs :- Facultative autotrophs
 Richest source of bacteria is soil.
 Archaebacteria are responsible for producing methane in bio-gas fermenter.
 Prokaryotic cell that lack a cell wall is Mycoplasma.
 Haploid DNA and Nuclear membrane less nucleoid are characteristic of nostoc.
 Chlorophyll of prokaryotes found on thylakoids.
 Mesosomes found in bacteria.
 Methanogens, bacteria is utilized in gobar gas plant.
 Plasmid are extra chromosomal genetic material of bacteria.
 A free living aerobic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen is azotobactor.
 Wine turns sour because of aerobic bacteria.
 Rhodospirillum, one of fixes CO2 in to carbohydrates.
 Antibiotics are disease is competitive inhibition.
 Pure culture of bacteria was first obtained by R. Koch.
 Antibiotic mostly obtained from bacteria.
 The main difference between gram+ and gram- resides in the composition of cell wall.
 The visible appearance of growth of bacteria seen on laboratory culture media are called
colonies.
 Free living nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in soil.
 Transformation experiments using pneumococcus bacteria led to hypothesis that DNA is
genetic material.
 Cell membrane of bacteria is made up of Lipid + Protein.
 The habitat of E. coli is colon (intestine).
 Shape of E. coli is rod shaped.
 Bacteria are most useful for soil fertility.
 Bacteria flagella made of protein.
 Fertility of soil is increased by nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
 Mostly parasitic bacteria are inter cellular.
 NIF gene found in rhizobium.
 Bacteria, Nitrosomonas converts ammonia to nitrites.
 Streptomyces reproduce by producing conidia.
 Clostridium butylicum, synthesis Ribo flavin or vit. B2.
 Bacillus denitrificans, bacteria reduce fertility of soil.
 Chemical produced by one microbe and inhibit growth of another microbes are called
antibiotics.
 Plant pathogenic bacteria are garm+ and gram-.
 Bacillus megatherium, bacterium develops flavor and aroma in tea and tobacco leaves.
 Souring of milk is due to anaerobic bacteria.
 In distilled water, bacteria are not found.
 Conjugation involves the direct transfer of genetic material from one bacteria to another.
 “Rickettsia” is bacteria.
 Bacterial genome is double stranded circular DNA.
 Micobacterium leprae can not grown on synthetic media.
 Wall of Gram+ bacteria is characterized by absence or deficiency of lipid.
 Wall less Gram+ bacteria are called protoplast.
 Penicillin inhibit the growth of bacteria its site of action is mesosome.
 Bacteria uses maximum energy in fission.
 Antibiotics are mostly produced commercially from saprophytic bacteria.
 The shape of root nodules bacteria is X and Y shaped.
 Bacteria are mostly heterotrophic.
 Bacteria which are smallest in size are cocci.
 General shape of bacteria are rod.
 Bacterial staining technique was discovered by Gram.
 Plate method, for the study of bacteria was discovered by Koch.
 Transformation in Streptococcus was discovered by Frobischer and Brown.
 Lederberg and Zinder discovered transduction in bacteria.
 Conjugation was first discovered in E. coli.
 Clostridium, bacteria is helpful in the production of vitamin.
 Retting of fibres is done by Clostridium.
 Azotobacter considered as biofertilizer.
 Clostridium, bacteria generally used for genetic engineering.
 Koch’s postulates not applicable to Mycobacterium leprae.
 Koch’s postulates applicable to Tuberculosis, Pneumonia and Cholera.
 The process in which viruses are involved in sexual reproduction of bacteria is called
transduction.
 Monera kingdom includes heterotrophs, photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs.
 Aspergillus niger yields citric acid.
 Saccharomyces cerevissae is used in the formation of ethanol.
 E. coli is indicator of water pollution.
  Azotobacter, is non-symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria.
 Bacteria are essential in carbon cycle as decomposer.
 Transduction in bacteria carried out by bacteriophage.
 E. coli and Agrobacterium most used in genetic engineering.
 Modern farmer’s can increase the yield of Paddy upto 50 % by the use of Cyanobacteria
in Azolla pinnata.
 Plant pathogenic bacteria are mostly gram – negative non spore forming.
 Anabaena is associated with Azolla’s leaves.
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria converts :- N2 NH3
 Main reason of water bloom in rivers, lakes, sea etc. is cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates.
 Azolla is used in the cultivation of Rice.
 Methanogenic bacteria, one produce gas by decomposing the gobar (dung) in gobar gas.
 Maximum photosynthesis takes place by phytoplankton.
 Genetic material of prokaryotic cell is non histonic double stranded DNA.
 Enzymes not found in virus.
 Enzymes found in fungi, algae and cyanobacteria.
 Aquatic fern is used to increase the yield in Paddy crop is Azolla.
 Stored food in fungi is glycogen.
 Azolla, aquatic fern performs nitrogen fixation.
 Transformation experiment was first performed on Diplococcus pneumonia (bacteria).
 The Ti plasmid is often used for making transgenic plants. This plasmid is found in
Agrobacterium.

Eubacteria
 First observed by Leeuwenhock.
 Whittakar placed the all prokaryotes in KIngdom "Monera".
 Louis Pasteur proposed "germ theory" are called the bacteria "germ".
Robert Koch :-
 Koch obtain pure culture of bacteria firstly.
 Koch gave some rules to prove that the bacteria are the cause of disease. There rules
known as "Koch postulates".
 Koch postulates does not applicable on obligate parasite (e.g. Mycobactgerium leprae)
H.C. Gram (1984) developed the bacterial staining technique.
Corccus (Pl. Cocci  Sing. Coccus) :–
 Bacteria are spherical
 These are smallest bacteria
 These are highly (Maximum) resistant.
 Monococcus – e.g. Micrococcus
 Diplococcus – e.g. Diplococcus pneumonia,
 Tetra coccus – e.g. Micrococcus luteus
  Streptococcus – e.g. Streptococcus lactis
 Sarcinae
 Staphylococcus
Bacillus (Pl. Bacilli – Sing. Bacillus) :-
 This group includes most of the bacteria.
 These are rod shaped
 eg. E.coli, Lactobacillus
 eg. Corynebacterium diphtheriace
Spirillum (Pl. Spirilli – Sing. Spirillum) :- These are spiral shaped bacteria.
Comma (Vibrio) :–
 Comma sharped bacteria. eg. Vibrio cholera.
Pleomorphic bacteria :– eg. Rhizobium or X, Y, Z
Motility in Bacteria
 Peritrichous – When flagella are found on the whole body of bacterium. Eg. E.coli,
Salmonella typhi
Structure of Bacterial cell
 When bacteria are surrounded by capsule, it is called capsulated bacteria. Capsulated
bacteria are mostly pathogenic
 Capsule is made up of unknown polysaccharides and polypeptides.
Cell Wall :-
 Bacterial cell wall made up of mainly peptidoglycan or marriage which is type of muco-
peptide.
 In Gram (+) Bacteria cell wall is single layered and thick. It is made up of peptidoglycan
Lipids are also present but in less quantity.
 While in Gram (-) bacteria cell wall is double layered. Inner layer is thin and composed
of peptidoglycan while outer layer is thick and made up of lipopolysaccharide.
 Gram negative bacteria are called porins.
Gram Positive Gram Negative
1. Cell wall of peptidoglycan is 20- Cell wall of peptidoglycan is 8-12 nm
80 nm. Thick thick
2. Murein (Peptidoglycan) content is Murein (Peptidoglycan) content is 10-
70-80 % 20%
3. Basal body of the flagellum Basal body of the flagellum has 4 rings
contains 2 rings (S & M) (L, P, S & M)
4. A few pathogenic bacteria Most of the pathogenic bacteria

 Bacterial cell membrane is made up of lipoprotein.

 Storage granules -
o Glycogen granules
 o Volutin granules - These are also known as metachromatic granules. They are
made up of RNA. They stored RNA as a source of nitrogen and phosphorus.
Types of Bacteria
1. Obligate saprophyte -
 These bacteria obtain food only from dead organic matter. These are completely
saprophytic.
o e.g. Bacillus vulgaris, Clostridium botulinum
2. Facultative parasite :- eg. Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus
3. Obligate parasite :- eg. Mycobacterium leprae
4. Facultative Saprophyte :- eg. Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
eg. Rhizobium
Respiration
1. Obligate aerobic :- eg. Azotobacter
2. Facultative anaerobic :- eg. Acetobacter aceti, Clostridium tetani
3. Obligate anaerobic
4. Facultative aerobic
Reproduction
A. Vegetative reproduction :-
(i) Binary fission :- Most common method of bacterial reproduction.
B. Asexual reproduction :-
 By Endospore - Endospore formation occurs under unfavourable conditions.
 Reproduction without multiplication
 Endospore is highly resistant structure due to presence of Ca-dipicolinate
o Eg. Endospore formation is seen in mostly Bacillus type of bacteria.
Sexual Recombination
1. Transformation :-
(a) In this process one kind of bacterium is transformed into another kind.
(b) Transformation was first of all discovered by Griffith (1928) in Diplococcus
pneumoniae (New name Pneumococcus pneumoniae)
2. Conjugation :-
 Conjugation was first discovered in 1946 by Lederberg and Tatum in E.coli., They were
awarde Nobel prize for their work.
 First of all owner cell is attached to recipient cell with the help of sex pili. Sex pili
functions as conjugation tube.
Sexduction :- It was discovered by Jacob and Adelberg.
Useful Activities
1. Ammonification - Ammonifying bacteria -
 Some bacteria convert the protein (present in decaying plant and animals) into Ammonia.
2. Nitrification - Nitrifying bacteria :-
 These bacteria convert the Ammonia to Nitrite and later into Nitrate.
 Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter
 NH3 ------------------------> NO2 (Nitrite) --------------------NO2 (Nitrate)
3. Nitrogen fixation - Nitrogen fixing bacteria :-
 These bacteria convert the atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds like amino
acids, nitrate or ammonium salts
 Nitrogen fixation is done by two methods :-
(A) Symbiotically :- Some bacteria live symbiotically an do nitrogen fixation,
 Eg. Rhizobium - In the rot nodules of legumes.
(a) Aerorhizobium - In the stem nodules of sesbania
(b) Azospirillurn - is rots nodules of cereals (e.g.. Wheat, Rice, Maize)
(c) Frankia - is root nodules of non leguminous tree (e.g. Casurina)
(B) Asymbiotically - Some bacteria occur freely in soil and do nitrogen fixation.
 Eg. Clostridium, Chromathum, Azoobecter, Rhodomicrobium, Rhodospirilium,
Rhodopseudomenas
4. Dairy products -
 Dairy products are formed with the help of bacterial fermentation.
i. Curd :- it is made by milk.
Streptococcus lactis or
 Milk ----------------------------------------------> Curd
Lectobacillus Butter - I
ii. Butter - It is made by churning cream that has been soured by lactic acid bacteria.
 Eg. Streptococcus lactis or Streptococcus cremoris.
iii. Yoghurt :- It is made by fermenting milk with a mixture of Lactobacillus bulgaris and
Streptococcus thermophilus.
iv. Chees :- It is made by curd with the help of Streptococcus lactis and Lactobacillus lactis.
5. Antibiotics :-
 Term antibiotic was given by S.A. Waksman.
 First discovered antibiotic was Penicillin it was obtain from fungi Penicillium.
 First discovered antibiotic from bacteria was streptomycin.
 Many antibiotic medicines are obtained from the bacteria.
6. Industries :- Many bacteria are use in industries :-
(i) Alcohol formation :-
 Ethanol is formed with the help of yeast (fungi) or bacteria (Sarcina vertriculi) by the
process of fermentation.
(ii) Vineagar formation (Acetic acid)
(iii) Retting of fibres -
(iv) Flavouring of tea and tobacco leaves -
(v) Cleaning of hides
(vi) Production of Vitamins -
(vii) Butaric acid formation
7. Decomposing bacteria :- Some bacteria decompose the harmful chemicals.
* Flavobacterium :- 2 4, - D
* Acetobacter  DDT
8. Bacteria for specific pests - Bactera are use to kill specific pests
9. Purity of Ganga water :- In Gangatic water a bacteria Bdellovibrio bacterovorus is found, it
kill the another water pollutant bacteria.
10. Pollution indicating bacteria -
 Water in which E.coli bacteria are present known as polluted water.
 Quality of water depends on no. of E. coli. If E. coli are very much in no. the water
will be highly polluted.
 So, the E. coli is known as pollution indicating bacteria.
11. Oil Clearing bacteria :- eg. Pseudomonas putida
12. Bacteria for genetic engineering :- e.g. E.Coli and Agrobacterium
NIF gene - "Nitrogenase Inducing factor"
* NIF gene is present in all nitrogen fixation bacteria.
Bacillus thuringiensis - This bacteria is related with "Bt" toxin.
Special Points :-
o Ray fungi, because structurally they are similar to fungi.
o Fungi are eukaryotic while actinomycetes are prokaryotic. These are now placed in
kingdom Monera.
o Now their new name if Mycobacteria, Mycelial bacteria or Filamentous bacteria.
o Filamentous bacteria are found more in soil.
o Used to prepare many antibiotics.
o Reproduce by means of conidia.
o eg. Streptomyces, Mycobacterium, Begiatoa
o Now it is included in Kingdom Monera, because it is a prokaryotic cell.

Cyanobacteria Eubacteria
In it, photosynthesis is oxygenic In it, photosynthesis is non-oxygenic
i.e. O2 is evolved during i.e. O2 is not evolved during
photosynthesis photosynthesis.
* Carotenoids – yellow
* C-Phycocyanin - blue
* C - Phycoerythrin – red

 Cyanobacteria is not always of blue-green colour. eg. Trichodesmium is a red coloured.

 The colour of water of red sea is due to this reason.
Structure of B.G.A. :- The structure of B.G.A. is similar to Gram (-ve) eubacteria.
Stored food :- B.G.A. stores its food in the form of -granules and -granules
  -granules - They are made up of cyanophysian starch. It is structurally similar to
glycogen
 -granules - They are made up of facts droplets.
Nitrogen fixation :-
 Maximum B.G.A. can perform Nitrogen fixation. They convert atmospheric nitrogen into
nitrogenous compounds like amino acids, nitrates.
 B.G.A. fixes nitrogen in two forms :-
Symbiotic form Free living form
 Eg. Anabaena & Nostoc  Eg. Anabaena, Nostoc & Aulosira
 These B.G.A. remains in symbiotic  Some B.G.A. are found free living in
association with many plants and water and soil and perform nitrogen
performs nitrogen fixation fixation.
 In the leaves of Azolla  Aulosira - This B.G.A. is found in
 In root nodules of Trifolium planty in paddy fields.
 Azolla

Binary fission :- Most common method.

Asexual Reproduction :- It is method of protection from unfavourable conditions.
Water Bloom :- "Excessive growth of plants in water, that pollute the water".

 B.G.A. grows rapidly in water and secretes toxic substances. These toxic substance are
known as "death factor"
 Main cause of eath in aquatic animals. It also gives toxity a bad odour to water.
Economic importance of BGA :-
Useful activities :-
 They provides fertility to soil by nitrogen fixation. Eg. Nostoc, Anabaena
 The most proteinous food for animals, Eg. Spirulina
 It gives fertility to sterile alkaline soil and usar soil. Eg. Nostoc comune
 Some BGA are used as green manure, Eg. Anabaena, spirulina
 Some BGA secrete toxin, which inhibits the growth of mosquito larva in water, Eg.
Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Aulosira
Harmful activities :- Eg. Oscillatoria
Group of ancient bacteria :-
 "Oldest living fossile"
 All archaebacteria are obligate anaerobe.
 Due to the branched chain structure, archaebacteria have more resistance ability as
compared to eubacteria. They are resistance to all these. So that archaebacteria are found in
highly unfavourable habitat.
Methanogens :- Methane producing bacteria
  These bacteria convert the CO2 of swampy area (Marshy) in to methane (CH4), Eg.
Methanobacterium, Methanococcus
 These bacteria converts the organic substance (cellulose) present in cow dung into methane
by fermentation (Gobar gas fermenter)
 An archaebacterium is found in the rumen of cattle, where he digests the cellulose by
fermentation and convert it into methane. Eg. Rumenococcus
Halophiles :- Highly saline areas, Eg. Halobacterium, halococcus
 This membrane absorbs the bright light and directly forms ATP. Therefore Halophiles are
non photosynthetic.
Thermo acidophiles :-
 Found at those places where temperature is approx 80C and medium is acidic (pH = 2)

 Hot sulphur springs. Survive at 100C temperature.

 They are the example of chemosynthetic (Chemoautotrophic) bacteria.
 Rickettsia called as bacteria because they are similar to eubacteria in structure.
Bacterial disease of crop plants
 Black spot of rose :- Diplocarpon rosae
 Black leg of crucifers :- Phoma lingam
 Black arm of cotton :- Xanthomonas campetris pv. malvacearum
 Black rot of crucifers :- Xanthomonas campetris pv. campestris
 Black rot of grapes :- Guignardia bidwellii
 Tomato spotted wilt :- persistently by thrips

Virus
 Virus is the example of Retrogressive evolution
 Virus is called free gene.
 Virus surrounded by a protein coat. It is called Capsid.
 It is composed of many subunits are called Capsomeres.
 The proteins which are found in capsids are homogenous.
 A additional covering is also present in some of viruses around, the caspids. It is called
envelope. It is composed of lipids and glycoproteins. They are known as lipovirus.
 Rod shaped protein coat : Example - TMV
 Long fibrous protein coat : Example - Potato virus.
 Multi layered protein coat :- Example - Bacteriophage virus.
 Spherical protein coat :- Example - Myxo virus.
 Certain viruses lack of protein coat, they are called viroid.
 Only one type of nucleic Acid is present in virus which is either DNA or RNA. Both of
them never present together.
 Most of the plant viruses are made up of RNA. (i) Cauliflower Mosiac virus, (ii) Poto leaf
roll virus. Both of them contains DNA.
 Double helical linear DNA is present in bacteriophage virus.
 Single straned circular DNA is present in  x 174 bacteriophage.
 Animal virus may have DNA or RNA.
 An infectious virus particle is called VIRION.
 Some of virus depend upon other virus for their infection, such virus are known as satellite
virus.
 The water of Ganga is not spoiled due to presence of bacteriophage viruses.
 The circular area of dead bacterias on Agar plate, is called plaque.
 Some of the genes may transfer from one bacteria to another bacteria during this process.
This is known as transduction.
 The virus attacks on yeast is called Zymophage and the virus which infects fungus is called
mycophage.
 Antibiotic proteins are formed in the host body by the infection of virus. These proteins are
called "Interferone".
 "Phyto Alexins" are formed in plants which prevent the plants from the infection of
viruses, bacteria and fungi.
 Cauliflower mosaic virus :- Double stranded DNA (dsDNA).
 Beet curly top virus :- Single stranded DNA (ssDNA).
 Tomato spotted wilt virus :- Negative sense single stranded RNA (ssRNA-).
 Rice ragged stunt virus :- Double stranded RNA (dsRNA).
 Tomato bushy stunt virus :- Monopartite
 Tobacco mosaic virus :- Bipartite
 Cucumber mosaic virus :- Tripartite
 Tomato spotted wilt virus :- ss – RNA multipartite
 Wound tumor virus :- ds – RNA Multipartite
 Tobacco necrosis virus :- Fungal transmission
 Rice ragged stunt virus :- Plant hoppers
 Tomato spotted wilt virus :- Thrips
 Cauliflower mosaic virus :- Aphids
 Tomato pseudocurly top virus :- Tree Hopper
Family :- (i) Deoxiribovia (ii) Ribovira
(i) Deoxiribovira : - Those virus which contain the DNA includes in this family.
(ii) Ribovira :- Those virus which contains RNA, comes in this family.
Viral diseases :-
 Cowpea mosaic :- persistently by beetles
 Cacao swollen shoot :- semi-persistent by mealy bugs
 Soybean yellow mosaic :- persistently by whitefly
 Sugar beet savory :- circulative by lace bugs
 Carnation latent virus :- Carlavirus
 Barley yellow dwarf :- Luteovirus
  Tobacco streak virus :- Ilarviurs
 Barley stripe mosaic :- Horbevirus
 Beet yellows :- Closterovirus
 Rice tungro bacilliform virus :- Caulimoviridae
 Wound tumor virus :- Reoviridae
 Maize streak virus :- Geminiviridae
 Lettuce necrotic yellow virus :- Rhabdoviridae
 Tomato spotted wilt virus :- Bunyaviridae

Mycoplasma
 Mycoplasma first of all it discovered by Nocard and Raux.
 They discovered in the infected hens by pleuropneumonia.
 Class them PPLO.
 Ester yellow caused by mycoplasma.
 Mycoplasma affected the phloem tissues extremely in this disease.
 Mycoplasma are "smallest cellular organisms".
 Their size – 0.1 (PPLO). Smallest mycoplasma – M. laidlaway.
 Mycoplasma lack of cell wall, so that their shape is indefinite. They are Pleomorphic in
nature.
 Gram positive L-typical bacteria are called "Protoplast".
 Gram negative L-typical bacteria are called "spheroplast".
 Mesosomes are absent in mycoplasma.
 Certain mycoplasma like Mycoplasma laid laway are obligate saprophytic
 Growth of mycoplasma on solid cultural medium – Agar plate, is like to "fried egg".
 Antiseptic :- They destroy the bacteria.
 Witches Broom.
Plant disease :-
(i) Little leaf of Brijal
(ii) Bunchy top of papaya.
(iii) Witches broom of Ground nut.
(iv) Aster yellow of sunflower.
(v) Com stunt of maize.
(vi) Strip disease of can sugar.

Phanerogamic Parasites and Non- parasitic disease

 Separation of the seeds of the parasite mechanically from the crop before sowing,
destroying the plants before seed formation and treating contaminated seed lots with 25
% CuSO4 solution measures can be effective in controlling the broomrapes.
 Spray application with Agroxone (McPA), Fernoxone (2-4 D) and 1 % Tetra chloro di
methyl phenoxy acetic acid can be recommended for killing of root parasite Striga.
 Soil fumigation with methyl bromide, application of 2 – chloroethyl phosphonic acid to
stimulate germination and application of Strigol and Imazoquin are effective measure to
control Striga.
 Cereal plants are not infested by Cuscuta.

Plant Disease Epidemiology

 Yield loss is related to disease measurement at a specific growth stage is critical point
models.
 Polycyclic pathogens are responsible for most of the sudden and destructive plant disease
epidemics.
 Yield loss due to plant disease is generally referred to the difference between attainable
yield and actual yield.
 Measurement of plant disease is generally done in terms of severity, incidence and yield
loss.
 Host, pathogen and environment factors influence the incubation period.
 Ug 99 is a strain of Puccinia graminis tritici.
 Splash droplets in a range of 140 – 500 𝜇𝑚 can dislodge and lift the spores with them.
 The terminal velocity of the spores after take-off depends on the size, shape and
appendages of the spore.
 Ukkelberg’s apparatus is used to determine the terminal velocity of the fungal spores.
 The value of terminal velocity is directly proportional to the size of the spores.
 Wheat rust come under the category of exogenous epidemics.
 Rice blast come under the category of endogenous epidemics.
 Introduction of high yielding rice variety TN-1 is associated with the epidemics of
bacterial leaf blight.
 In India systematic analysis of races of pathogen was initiated in the year 1931.
 “Delhi declaration on wheat stem rust Ug 99” was adopted during the 2008.
 In general the growth curve of development of epidemic is sigmoid.
 Wilt of potato is favoured by acidic soils.
 Common scab of potato is favoured by alkaline soils.
 The system of analysis of brown rust pathotypes of wheat in India was proposed by
Nagarajan and co-workers (1983).
 “Puccinia Path” for stem rust of wheat in Indian subcontinent was discovered by
Nagarajan and Joshi (1980).
 Fire blight of apple, wheat rust and powdery mildew of wheat are favoured by high doses
of nitrogen fertilizers.
 Ammonium form of nitrogen favours Fusarium sp., Plasmodiophora brassicae and
Sclerotium rolfsii pathogens.
  “Indian Stem Rust Rules” have been developed by S. Nagarajan and Hardev Singh
(1975).
 Red rot of sugarcane perpetuates through diseased stubbles, infected setts, debris and
resting propagules in soil.
 High incidence kernel smut of rice is associated with heavy application of nitrogen
fertilizers, light sandy loam soils, high humidity and temperature.
 “Endemic Disease Control Programme” subsidizing cost of fungicides to 50 per cent to
manage Apple Scab Epidemics in Himachal Pradesh.
 Rice blasts out break rules were developed by Muralidharan and Venkatrao (1980).
 K.C. Mehta (1929) established that in India no local source of infection had a role in the
recurrence of rust diseases.
 Bioclimatic model for leaf rust for North Western India was developed in 1980 by
Nagarajan and co-workers.
 Disease = Inoculum potential x disease potential.
 The epidemic rate curve the late blight of potato is symmetrical and bell shaped.
 Eradication is not a prophylactic measure.
 Extended latency period is observed in the Mentha Rust.
 Back – crossing is an excellent technique when breeding for vertical resistance.
 A saturation type disease progress curve is characteristic for monocyclic diseases.
Plant disease epidemics in India :-
 Ergot of bajra in Maharashtra :- 1956
 White rust of rapeseed in North India :- 1997 – 98
 Apple scab in Kahmir valley :- 1973
 Bacterial blight of rice in Bihar :- 1962
 Apple scab in Himachal Pradesh :- 1983

Management of plant diseases

∎ Rusts :- Oxycarboxin ∎ Smuts :- Carboxin
∎ Blast :- Ediphenphos ∎ Powdery mildew :- Sulphur
∎ Downy mildew :- Bordeaux mixture ∎ Phycomyces fungi :- metalaxyl
∎ Wheat bunt :- Thiabendazole ∎ Eradicant :- Lime sulphur
∎ Antibiotic :- Griseofulvin ∎ Seed protectant :- Thiram
∎ Wound dresser :- Chaubattia paste ∎ Biopriming :- Pseudomonas
∎ Regulatory control :- Quarantine ∎ Cultural control :- crop rotation
∎ Biological control :- cross protection ∎ Physical methods :- soil solarization
∎ Chemical methods :- wound dressing
 Endemic :- confined to a particular region
 Epiphytotic :- plant disease in a destructive from over a wider area.
 Pandemic :- occurrence of disease across continents/world over
 Sporadic :- disease in scattered small pockets in irregular intervals
 Epidemic :- diseases appear among people over a large area

Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology

 Identifying the root cause of the disease, which can be due to biotic or abiotic stress is
diagnosis.
 Witches broom symptoms manifestation is due to the process of hyperplasia.
 Diseases affecting translocation of water in plants lead to wilt disease.
 Downward translocation of nutrients may be affected by canker disease.
 The colour of bacterial ooze usually turns brown soon after exposure to air.
 Elicitors are produced by pathogen.
 Through stomata, lenticels and hydathodes are natural openings penetration of pathogen
may take place.
 Appressoria structures is produced by some fungi to help them penetrate epidermal cells.
 Heavy accumulation of glycerol in the appressorium, increase the turgor pressure of an
appressorium.
 Generally the major mechanisms of variability in pathogens are mutation and
recombination.
 Mutations occur spontaneously in nature in only living organisms which reproduces
sexually, asexually or both.
 Mutations occurs only in extranuclear DNA and nuclear DNA.
 The term Phyoalexins was coined by K.O. Muller.
 The term Phytoanticipins was coined by J.W. Mansfield.
 𝛼 −tomatine, 𝛼 −chalconine and 𝛼 −solanine are phytoanticipins.
 Phytotoxin coronatine is produced by Pseudomonas syringae, Pseudomonas syringae pv.
tomato, Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola bacteria.
 Pathotoxin syringomycin is produced by Pseudomonas syringae bacteria.
 HC toxin, AAL toxin and T toxin are host specific fungal toxins.
 Chitinases and glucanases are common pathogenesis related proteins.
 Oxidative burst responses to invading pathogen can lead to cell death.
 Elicitins and glucans are produced by Pythium and Phytophthora.
 HpaG is the first harpin identified from a Xanthomonas species.
 Induced systemic resistance (ISR), Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and Localized
acquired resistance (LAR) refers to the triggering of resistance mechanism.
 Abnormal growth due to pathogen attack is observed in warts, scab and galls diseases.
 Severe failure of xylem system in translocation of water is caused by vascular wilts.
 Blockage of vascular bundles in wilt diseases may be due to production of tyloses by the
host, disintegration of vascular bundles by enzymes produced by pathogen and
production of polysaccharides by bacterial pathogen.
 Fungi can penetrate in the host surface to cause infection.
  Leaf spots, galls and cankers are local symptoms which are physiological or structural
manifestations within a limited area of host tissue.
 Wilting, yellowing and dwarfing are the systemic symptoms manifesting in a greater part
or all of the plant.
 RNA silencing occurs in cytoplasm.
 Fungi invade the xylem vessels of plants to cause vascular wilts.
 Viral coat proteins generally act as elicitors of the plant defense response.
 The accumulation and oxidation of phenolic compounds increase with increased
respiration due to pathogen infection.
 Due to increased respiration diseased plant utilizes more ATPs.
Symptoms with their description:-
∎ Hyperplasia :- fasciation ∎ Hypertrophy :- sarcody
∎ Stunting :- atrophy ∎ Etiolation :- excessive elongation
∎ Epinasty :- downward bending of petioles ∎ Abscission :- leaf drop
∎ Hydrosis :- water soaking ∎ Chlorosis :- albication
∎ Hypoplasia :- stunting ∎ Intumescence :- blistering
∎ Savoying :- leaf puckering ∎ Intumescence :- swelling of the tissue
∎ Sooty blotch :- photosynthesis ∎ Necrosis :- death of cells
∎ Phyllody :- transformation of floral organs
 Damping off and seedling blight :- mobilization of stored food
 Root and foot rot :- absorption of water minerals
 Leaf curl and witches’ broom :- meristematic activity
 Head smut and ergot :- storage and reproduction
Phytoanticipins with their hosts :-
 𝛼 − tomatine :- in tomato and potato
 𝛼 − chalconine and 𝛼 − solanine :- in potato
 Avenacin :- in oats
 Benzoxazolinone :- in maize
 Acetophenone :- in carnations
Inhibitory substances present in plant cells:-
∎ Arbutin :- Pear ∎ Avenacin :- Wheat
∎ Tuliposide :- Tulip ∎ Chlorogenic acid :- Potato
∎ Isopimpinellin :- Citrus lime leaves
Phytoalexins with their host plants:-
∎ Orchinol and Hircinol :- Orchids ∎ Medicarpin :- Alfalfa
∎ Phaseolin :- French bean ∎ Pisatin :- Pea
∎ Glyceollin :- Soybean
 Laboratory and Analytical Techniques
 Generally the duration and temperature used for autoclaving is 15 min. at 121 0C.
 The pressure attained at 15 min. at 121 0C during autoclaving is 1.1 kg/cm2 or 15 p.s.i.
 Autoclaving may results in change in the pH of the media sterilized, partial hydrolysis of
carbohydrates in culture media and change in nature of proteins.
 Antibiotics, acidified agar, vitamins and hormone should not be sterilized using autoclave
or moist heat.
 Sterilizing agent is in autoclave is moist heat.
 Flame sterilization is generally used for sterilizing is inoculation needles, forceps and
cork borers.
 Filter sterilization can restrain fungal spores and bacteria.
 Sporulation in culture medium is favoured by exhausting of nutrients in the media.
 Propylene oxide gases are used for sterilization of plant material to be used in media.
 pH of the culture media is generally adjusted before autoclaving.
 Excess of CO2 and NH2 gases can inhibit growth of fungi in culture.
 Obligate fungi can be maintained for long time by regularly re-inoculating them on their
hosts.
 Dimethyl sulfoxide and 10 % glycerol act as cryo-protectants for storing fungal cultures
in liquid nitrogen.
 Lyophilization essentially involves reduction moisture content of spores to 2 – 3 % by
high vacuum drying, storage in absence of oxygen water vapour.
 Picric acid is a acidic dye which can form salts with bases which are yellow coloured.
 Microtitre plate is used for ELISA test for virus detection method.
 The basic chromophore contain Azo group, Azine group and Indamines group.
 Feulgen stain is specific for DNA.
 LOPAT tests are used to identify Fluorescent pseudomonads bacteria.
 Viruses can detected by ELISA, PCR and ISEM.
 ELISA :- Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay.
 RIA :- Radio-immuno assay
 In radioimmuno assay procedure, anti – antibody is one of the radio – labeled.
 Potato dextrose agar media falls in to semi-synthetic media.
 King B media falls in to synthetic media.
 Baiting technique can be used to isolate fungi and bacteria.
 ELISA, Ouchterlony double diffusion test and ISEM are virus detection techniques is
based on serology.
 Laminar flow chamber has HEPA filters.
 Laminar flow chamber may have horizontal or vertical air flow, HEPA efficiency is
generally up to 99.997 % at 0.3 microns, it has a UV-C germicidal lamp.
 Pure cultures of fungi are generally obtained from single spores and hyphal tips.
 Fungi usually grow best in slightly acidic medium.
  Silver staining after electrophoresis can be done for polyacrylamide gels.
 ELISA reaction can be visualized spectrophometrically.
 PCR amplification product is visualized by gel electrophoresis.
 Ideal sequence of addition of different components in master mix for PCR :- Sterile
water, Primers, MgCl2, Polymerase Buffer, Taq polymerase.
 Steps of PCR :- Initial denaturation, Annealing, Extension, Final Extension.
 Return PAGE techniques is used for detection of viroids.
 A medium whose all chemical constituents are known as synthetic medium.
 Cotton plugs for culture tubes should be made of non-absorbent cotton.
 Culture media is generally sterilized in autoclave.
Methods used for sterilization:-
 Glass rods :- Dipping in 70 % alcohol and flaming
 Inoculating loops and needles :- Flame until red hot
 Working surface :- Swabbing with 70 % alcohol
 Laminar flow chamber :- Ultraviolet radiation
 Heat unstable liquids :- Filter sterilization
Components of Gram’s staining with their function:-
 Primary stain :- Crystal violet
 Trapping agent :- Iodine solution
 Decolorizing agent :- 95 % alcohol
 Counter stain :- Safrarin
 Fixing :- Flaming
Equipment with their usage:-
 Ultracentrifuge :- Isolation of Virus
 Autoclave :- Sterilization of media
 Hot Air Oven :- Sterilization of glassware
 Laminar flow :- Isolation of culturable organisms
 Spectrophotometer :- Detection of chemical reaction
Important tests :-
 Western Blotting :- Detection of specific protein
 Northern Blotting :- Detection of RNA
 Southern Blotting :- Detection of DNA
 ELISA reader :- Detection of virus
 PAGE :- Detection of different proteins.
 Taxonomy

 Arthropods have evolved during Cambrine period.

 Arthropods are schizo coelomates.
 Insects have originated during Devonian period of Paleozoic era.
 Connecting link between Annelida and Arthopods is Velvet worms (Peripatus sp.) or
Walking worms (Onychophorans).
 Japygidae is considered as an evolutionary link between insects and millipeds.
 Order Zoraptera of Orthopteroid group act as a connecting link between Orthopteroid and
Hemipteroid group.
 The earliest known fossil insect, Rhyniella precursor, a collembolan form Devonian
period of Scotland, discovered by Hirst and Maulik in 1926.
 Alpha taxonomy : Characterization and naming.
 Beta taxonomy :- Arrangement of species.
 Gamma taxonomy :- Intra specific population to understand speciation, evolution rates
and trends.
 Holotype :- type of a specimen on which the original description of species is based.
 Allotype :- opposite sex of the holotype.
 Paratype :- specimen other than the holotype aviable with the author at the time of
describing new species.
 Neotype :- specimen selected to replace the holotype.
 Topotype :- specimen form the type locality of a species.
 Species :- a group of interbreeding natural population, which are reproductively isolated
from other such groups, but morphological distinguishable.
 Insect order absent in India :- Grylloblattodea and Zoraptera.
 Diplura, Protura & Collembola have endognathous mouth parts whereas Thysanura and
Pterygota posses ectognathous mouth parts.

Orders :-

Phylum Arthopoda :-

 Bilateral symmetry
 Open circulatory system
 Skeletal msucles are striated (except onychophora)
 Myriapoda : Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Symphyla and Pauropoda
 Mandibulata :- Myriapoda, Hexapoda and Crustacea.

1. Subphylum Trilobita :- marine fossils only.

 Body divided into head, thorax and pygidium.

 A pair of antennae, compound eyes and 4 pairs of biramous appendages.
2. Subphylum Chelicerata :- Chelicera & Pedipals

 Lack of antennae
 Body divided into cephalothorax and abdomen. Legs are uniramous.

Class : Merostomata :-

i. Order : Xiphosurida (king/horse shoe crab)

ii. Order : Eurypterida (sea scorpions), fossils only

Class : Pycnogonida : sea spiders

Class : Arachnida :-

 Lack of antennae and compound eyes. Simple eyes present.

 4 pairs of legs
 Respiration by air tubes or book lungs.

i. Order : Araneae :- spiders

ii. Order : Scorpionida :- Scorpions

iii. Order : Acari :- mites & ticks

3. Subphylum Crustacea :- Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimp, Isopods, Water fleas etc.

 Primitive aquatic insect. Body divided into Cephalothorax and Abdomen.

 2 pairs of antennae.
 Crustacea :- Respiration organs : Gills; Excretory organs : Green glands.

Class : Branchiopoda :- Fairy Shrimp, Brine Shrimp

Class : Maxillopoda : Copepods

Class : Malacostraca :-

i. Order : Isopoda :- Sow bugs

ii. Order : Amphipoda : Side swimmers, Scuds

iii. Order : Decapoda : Crabs, Lobsters, Crayfish, True Shrimp

4. Subphylum Uniramia :-

i. Class : Chilopoda : Centipedes

 One pair of legs on every segment.

  Have poison claws.

ii. Class : Diplopoda : Millipedes

 Each segment bear 2 pairs of legs.

 No poison claws. Ability to roll.

iii. Class : Symphyla : Green house centipedes

iv. Class : Pauropoda : Pauropods

v. Class : Insecta/ Hexapoda :- Insects

 Chitinous arthropods, body divided into head, thorax and abdomen.

 Most of having 3 pairs of legs and 2 pairs of wings.

vi. Class : Onychophora

 Cilia or nephridia present.

Insect order :-

I. Exopterygota (Hemi metabola) :-

A. Palaeopteran orders :-

1. Ephemeroptera (Plectoptera) :- Mayfly

2. Odonata :- Damselflies, Dragonflies

 Nymph :- Naiads
 Adults are terrestrial while nymphs are aquatic.
 Both nymphs & adults are predator.
 Nymphs with prehensile labial mask and with rectal or caudal gills.
 Capable of flying in forward and backward.
 Zygoptera & Anisoptera are suborder of Odonata.

B. Polyneopteran / Orthopteroid orders :-

 Mandibulate mouth parts

 Hind wings bearing large anal lobe.
 Presence of cerci.

1. Plecoptera :- Stone flies.

 Plecoptera (stone flies) :- indicator of water purity.

2. Grylloblattoidea

3. Orthoptera :-

 2 sub order 7 (i). Caelifera :- short horned grasshopper and locust. Short antennae and
ovipositor. Stridulation by hind femur. Tympanal organs present on first abdominal
segement. Family : Acridoidea; (ii) Ensifera :- long horned grasshopper, crickets and
katydids. Stridulatory organs on tegmina. Tympanal organ on fore tibia. Family :
Gryllidae, Tettigonidae

4. Phasmida :-

 Phasmida :- Autotomy (power of regeneration), male genetalia asymmetrical.

5. Dermaptera :-

 Dermaptera :- unjointed forceps like cerci present. Eg. Earwigs.

6. Embioptera :-

 Embioptera :- male have 2 pairs of wings but female wingless. Web spinning legs
present. Cerci unsymmetrical in males.

7. Dictyoptera :-

8. Isoptera :-

 Polymorphism is seen.
 Physogastric abdomen present in queen termite.
 A frontal gland (in head) is present in soldiers.

9. Zoraptera :- Zoraptera is smallest insect order.

 Angel insect belongs to Zoraptera.

 Order containing only single genus.

C. Paraneopteran / Hemipteroid orders :-

 Piercing & Sucking type.

 Absence of anal lobes.
 Presence of minimum number of malphigian tubules.

1. Psocoptera :- Book lice

  Psocoptera : Presence of pearmans organs on hind coxa which act as stridulatory organ.

2. Mallophaga

3. Siphunculata/ Anoplura :- Head louse

4. Hemiptera :-

Homoptera
1. Head is deflexed.
2. Beak arises from posterior part of head.
3. Bases of forelegs touch the head
4. Fore wing of uniform texture harder than
hind wing
5. Wings held roof like over the back and
wings do not overlap.
6. Honey dew secretion common.
7. Wax glands present
8. Families : Membracidae, Cicadellidae,
Delphacidae, Lophopidae, Aleyrodidae,
Aphididae, Cercopidae
Heteroptera
1. Head is horizontal.
2. Beak arises form anterior part of head.
3. Bases of forelegs do not touch head
4. Fore wing heavily sclerotized at base
and apical half is membranous
(hemelytra)
5. Wings are held flat over back at rest
and left & right side overlap on the
abdomen.
6. Honey dew secretion uncommon
7. Odori-ferous or scent glands present
8. Families : Gerridae, Reduvidae (assian
bug), Tingidae, Miridae, Coreidae (leaf
footed bug), Pyrrhocoridae (red bug)
Pentatomidae (stink bug), Lagaeidae
(chinch bug)

Cicadellidae :- Hind tibia with double row of spines.

Delphacidae :- Hind tibia with an apical large movable spur.

Membracidae :-

 Pronotum is prolonged backwards into a distinct elevated hood or horn lying over the
abdomen.

5. Thysanoptera :-

 An exopterygote insect order with a pupal instar in its life cycle.

II. Endopterygota (Holometabola) :-

D. Panorpoid complex or Oligoneopteran orders :-

1. Neuroptera :-

2. Mecoptera :-

3. Lepidoptera :- Moth & Butterfly

 Larvae is eruciform/ polypod

 Pupa of moth : cocoons
 Pupa of butterfly : chrysalis

Families of Lepidoptera :-

i. Papillionidae :- Swollen tail butterfly

ii. Nymphalidae : Brush footed and emperor butterfly

 Short tibiae are covered with long hairs. Have only 4 functional legs.
 Forelegs are reduced & vestigial, folded on thorax.

iii. Gelechiiae :- labial pulpi are long and upcurved.

iv. Arctiidae :- Tiger moth

v. Noctuidae : Army worms, cutworms, borer

vi. Saturnidae :- Tasar silk moth

vii. Sphingidae :- Hawk moth

viii. Pyralidae :- Snout moth

 Female moth possess a tuft of hairs at caudal extremity.

ix. Hesperiidae :- Skippers

 Hind tibia with 2 pairs of apical spurs

x. Lycanenidae :- Blue coppers

4. Diptera :-

 Wing beat frequency is high in Diptera.

 Hind wings modified into halters.
 Structurally more specialized order.
Families of Diptera :-

i. Cecidomyidae :- Gall flies

ii. Tachinidae :- Tachnidae flies

iii. Culicidae :- Mosquito

iv. Agromyzidae :- Leaf miner flies

v. Syrphidae :- Hoverflies

vi. Muscidae :- True flies

vii. Tabanidae :- Horse flies

viii. Tephritidae :- Fruit flies

ix. Anthomyiidae :- Shoot flies

x. Asilidae :- Robber flies

 Head is hollowed out in between compound eyes.

5. Hymenoptera :-

 Highly evolved insect order.

 Married wings :- Hymenoptera.
 Tenthredinidae : true sawflies
 Vespidae : Social wasps
Symphyta (Chalastogastra)
1. Abdomen broadly joined to thorax.
2. Larva is caterpillar and are eruciform.
3. Stemmata present.
4. Both thoracic and abdominal legs present
5. Ovipositor is saw like
6. Phytophagous eg. Tenthredinidae
i. Tenthredinidae :- fore tibia with 2 apical spurs.
Apocrita (Clistogastra)
1. Abdomen is petiolated.
2. Larva is grub and apodus/eucephalous
3. Stemmata absent.
4. Absent
5. Ovipositor is not saw like
6. Parasites eg. Ichneumonidae

ii. Ichneumonidae :-

 Ovipositor is long than the body. Fore wing has 2 distinct recurrent cross veins.
iii. Braconidae :- only one recurrent vein in fore wing.

6. Coleoptera :- Beetles and Weevil

 Divided into 4 sub orders :-

i. Polyphaga :- phytophagous

ii. Adephaga :- predacious

iii. Myxophaga

iv. Archostemata : wood, not in India.

Families of Coleoptera :-

i. Chrysomelidae :- Flea beetles

 Beetles with thickened and toothed hind femur.

ii. Curculionidae :- Weevil

 An elongated rostrum is formed due to prolongation of frons and vertex.

 Largest family of order Coleoptera.
 Labrum is absent.

iii. Bruchidae :- Seed Beetle, pygidium exposed.

 Hind femur thickened and toothed beneath is characteristic feature.

iv. Scarabaeidae :- Dung beetle

v. Cerambycidae:- Long horned beetles

 Tibia with 2 spurs, antennae is extremely large.

vi. Coccinellidae :- Lady bird beetle

vii. Bostrychidae :- grain/ furniture/ bamboo borer

 Head concealed in hood.

 Trochanter joined obliquely to femur.

viii. Carabidae :- Ground beetle

ix. Elateridae :- Click beetle or wireworms

x. Dermestidae :- Khapra/ Carpet beetle

7. Trichoptera :-

 Thyridium sense organ is present in the wings.

8. Siphonaptera :-

9. Strepsiptera :-

 Forewing are halters and hind wing are fan shaped. Completely parasitic insect order.

 Biggest insect order is Coleoptera, follows by Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera.

 Largest family of order Coleoptera is Curculionidae.
 Exclusively apterous insects are :- Mallophaga, Siphunculata, Siphonaptera.
 Nymphs are aquatic :- Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Odonata.
 Mantophasmatodea :- reported in 2002, includes gladiators, heelwalkers and
mantophasmids.
 Ephemeroptera :- nymphs are aquatic and long lived. Adults are terrestrial and short
lived. Last nymph moults into sub imago than sub imago to imago. Paired gonopore.
Adult undergoing metamorphosis.
 Insects whose blood contain haemogobin belong to chironomidae (blood worms).
 Leaf hopper or jassid run side - ways.

Families

 Aleurodidae :- whitefly, vasiform orifice present, eggs are stalked.

 Cercopidae (Spittle bug or Frog hopper):- hind tibia has a crown of large spines at the
distal end.
 Agromyzidae (Leaf miner flies) :- fore femur has ventral spine or bristle.
 Lampyridae (fire flies) :- light producing insect. Fire fly have luminous organs on 6th &
7th abdominal segment. The enzyme luciferase act on the luciferin, in presence of Mg
ions, ATP & O2 to produce light.
 Buprestidae :- metallic sheen of the elytra in adult beetles.
 Reduviidae (Assian bugs) :- fore legs bear adhesive pads on tibia.
 Coreidae (leaf footed bugs) :- both hind femur and tibia are leaf like.
 Pterophoridae :- deeply divided wings.

Some Important Facts :-

 First edition of “Systema Naturae” :- 1735

 10th edition of “Systema Naturae” (biological nomenclature) :- 1758
 Bombay natural history society :- 1883
 Fauna of British India Series :- 1892 (G. Hampson)
 Internation Commission on Zoological Nomenclature :- 1895
 Plant Quarantine Act :- 1912
 DIPA Act :- Feb, 1914
 Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata :- 1916
 Agricultural Produce (Grading & Marketing) Act :- 1937
 Entomological Society of India :- 1938
 Locust Warning Organization (LWO), Jodhpur (1939)
 Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine & Storage (DPPQ&S), Faridabad, Haryana
(1946).
 Prevention of Food Adulteration Act :- 1954
 National Plant Protection Training Institute, Hyderabad (1966)
 Convention on Biological Diversity :- 1972
 Wild Life (Protection) Act s:- 1972
 AICRP on Biological Control of Crop Pests & Weeds :- 1977
 National Centre for IPM, New Delhi (1988)
 National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects/NBAII (named in 2009), Earlier
known as Project Directorate of Biological Control/PDBC, Bangalore (established in
1993).
 World Trade Organization :- 1995
 Transgenic crops commercially grown for first time in the World :- 1996
 Protection of Plant Variety & Farmers Right Act :- 2001
 Bt Cotton is commercially released in India by GEAC of Ministry of Environment and
Forestry :- 2002.
 Biodiversity Act :- 2002
 Plant Quarantine (Regulation for Import into India) Order :- 2003
 National Food Safety & Standard Act :- 2006 (Prevention of Food Adulteration Act of
1954 is replaced).

Important Institute :-

 Indian Institute of Natural Resins & Gums (earlier known as Indian Lac Research
Institute, 1925) :- Namkum, Ranchi.
 Central Insecticies Laboratory, Faridabad.
 Institute of Pesticide Formulation & Technology, Gurgoan, Haryana
 Central Bee Research & Training Institute, Pune
 Indian Institute of Toxicology, Pune
 National Institute of Plant Health Management, Hyderabad
 International Institute of Biotechnology & Toxicology, Padappai, TN
 International Centre for Insect Physiology & Ecology, Kenya
 International Centre for Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology, New Delhi
  Central Agmark Laboratory, Nagpur
 Forest Research Institute, Dehradun

Important Scientists :-

 Koening :- first time start regular work on Indian insects.

 Lional De Niceville was the first Govt. Entomologist appointed in 1901.
 Father of modern applied entomology in India :- S. Pradhan
 Pesticide umbrella :- S. Pradhan
 Father of modern bee keeping in India :- A.S. Atwal
 Father of insect pathology :- Steinhaus
 Insect morphology :- Snodgrass
 Classic mosaic theory of insect vision :- Muller (1829)
 DDT synthesis by O. Zeielder (1874)
 Insecticidal properties of DDT given by P.H. Muller (1939)
 BHC synthesis by Michael Faraday (1825)
 Insecticidal properties of BHC given by Dupite, Raucourt and Slade (1942)
 Insecticidal action of organophosphorus compounds given by G. Schrader (1942)
 Insecticidal properties of ethyl bromide given by Goupil (1932)
 Cross resistance given by Grasyson & Cochran (1968)
 Allelochemical :- Whittaker (1970)
 Phase theory of Locust given by Uvarov (1966)
 Paleoentomologist :- M.S. Mani
 Pheromones :- Karlson & Butenandt (1959)
 Lac insect : Kerr
 Antixenosis term given by Kogan & Ortman
 Bee language :- Karl Von Frisch
 Malaria :- Ronald Ross
 Bio meter & pusa bin :- S. Pradhan
 3rd generation pesticide :- Prof. Williams
 First plant protection advisor of Govt. of India :- Hem Singh Pruthi
 Founder president of Entomological Society of India :- Afzal Hussian
 Agostino Bassi (1835), isolated white muscardine fungus (B. bassiana) form silkworm.
 ETL & EIL term given by Stern et. al. (1959)

Books :-

 Agricultural Pests of India & South East Asia :- A.S. Atwal

 Indian insect life; Indian insect pest :- Maxwell Lefroy
 The origin of species :- Charles Darwin
 Insect structure and function :- R.F. Chapman
 Biological control by natural enemies :- Paul DeBach.

Morphology

 Sclerite :- hardened integumentary plate surrounded by membranous area or sutures.

 4 axillary sclerites are found in Hymenoptera and Orthoptera.
 Axillary sclerites are absent in Ephemeroptera and Odonata.
 Pteralia, the sclerites present at wing base for joining thorax.
 Sutures :- external grooves of fusion between two distinct plates of head.
 Eruciform or polypod larvae is found in caterpillars of butterfly and moths.
 Telson is the primitive body segment in some primitive arthropods.
 In Hymenoptera (Apocrita), first abdominal segment is completely fused with the
metathorax forming “Propodeum” and the rest of the abdomen forms “Gaster or
Metasoma”.
 Crochets are hook like structures or claws at the tip of prolegs of Lepidoptera larvae.
 Crochets are absent in the larve of Sawfly.
 Verson’s gland is the moulting glands of caterpillar.
 Meconium is reddish fluid ejected by a member of Lepidoptera after emerging from
pupa/chrysalis.
 Frontanelle is a small depressed, pale spot on the form of head between eyes of termite.
 Muller’s organs are associated with Tympanal organ.
 Gula is present in Coleoptera.
 Weisman’s ring is present in larvae of Cyclorrhapa Diptera.
 Johnston’s organs are found in pedicel part of antennae of all insects except in
Collembola and Diplura.
 Cornea is the outer surface or lens of an ommatidium.
 The longitudinal optic rod of retina is called “Rhabdom”.
 Visual organs in larval Lepidoptera :- 6 Stemmata.
 For liquid preservation of larvae, nymph and soft bodied adult insect are best stored in 75
– 80 % ethyl alcohol.
 Intima is the culticular lining of the trachea, foregut and hindgut.
 Paedogenesis is common in Cecidomyiidae.

 Cockroach :- Anal cerci on 10th segment (male & female), anal styles on 9th segment of
male cockroach.
 16 eggs present in each ootheca of Cockroach.
 Number of chamber in heart of cockroach :- 13
 Colleterial gland of Cockroach help in the formation of ootheca.
 Last segment in abdomen of cockroach, in addition to cerci will have a pair of paraprocts.
 Workers bees have wax glands on 4th to 7th abdominal segments.
  Wriggler is larvae of mosquito.
 Triungulin is an active, first instar of blister beetle that undergo hypermetamorphosis.
 Pigment responsible for bright fluorescent colour of butterfly wings is pteridine.
 Ribaga’s organ/ Berlese’s organ is a sac like organ for receiving spermatozoa on ventral
surface of abdomen of female commonly seen in Bed bug (Cimax).
 Fundatrix :- the first wingless female aphids of a season.
 Fundatrigeniae :- parthenogenetic female off springs of the fundatrix.
 Alicicolae :- parthenogenetic viviparous females.
 Migrantes :- migratory winged female produced by parthenogenesis.
 Sexuparae :- winged female produced parthenogenetically.
 Sexuales :- normal sexual males and females.
 No. of stylets :- 0 in Mallophaga; 3 in head louse; 4 in plant bug; 6 in mosquito.
 Palmens organs related tracheal system.
 Schwan cells related to neurons.

WING

 Tegmina :- fore wing of Coleoptera and Dermaptera

 Corium is the main part of forewing of heteroptera. It is divided into embolium (dorsal
costal narrow strip) and cuneus (triangular apical region).
 Sempers organs related to wing vein.
 Hick papillae related to halters.
 Primitive type of wing coupling present in Mecoptera.

Physiology :-

 Sir Vincent B. Wigglesworth :- father of insect physiology.

 Schmidt’s layer present between epidermis and endocuticle.
 Procuticle is divided into 2 parts, outer part hard and rigid (tanned or sclerotized) called
as exocuticle and inner undifferentiated part known as endocuticle.

Metamorphosis :

1. Ametabola :- Collembola, Diplura & Protura.

2. Holometabola :- 4 stages in life (egg, larva, pupa & adult).

 Eg. Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera.

3. Hemimetabola :- 3 stages in life. Immature stage is known as nymph.

 Exopterygote insect orders. No pupual stage in life.

i. Paleometabola :- nymph & adult can be differentiated by lack of secondary nymphal character.

a. Epimetabola :- apterous insect with very little metamorphosis. Similar to ametabola.

 Eg. Protura, Thysanura.

b. Prometabola :- nymphs are aquatic with abdominal gills.

 Sub imago stage with wings which develop into mature winged adult.
 Eg. Ephemeroptera.

ii. Heterometabola :- earlier instar appear as larvae & later as nymphs.

a. Archimetabola :- nymphs are aquatic with tracheal gills. Eg. Plecoptera & Odonat.

b. Paurometabola :- Eg. Orthoptera, Dictyoptera.

 Nymphs are terrestrial with wing pads. Adult characters appear only in last moult.

iii. Neometabola :- Degeneration of parts and no considerable metamorphosis.

a. Homometabola :- wing rudiments appear only in last nymphs.

 Eg. winged female of Chermisidae & Phylloxeridae

b. Remetabola :- Eg. Thysanoptera.

 Wingless nymphal stages follows by pronymph & 1 or 2 nymphal stages with wing pads.

c. Parametabola :- eg. Male Coccidae

 Males do not feed. Larval stages are capable of feeding without wing rudiment.
 Development is followed by pronymph & nymphal stage.

d. Allometabola :- Eg. Aleyrodoidea (whitefly)

 4 apterous depressed larval stage of which first alone is free larva.

4. Hypermetabola :- more than 4 stages in life.

 Eg. Blister beetle, Bombilidae (sub imago)

Larvae :-
A. Oligopod Larvae :- hexapodous with well - developed head capsule.
 Mouthparts similar to adult. No compound eyes.
 i. Campodeiform larvae : well developed sclerotized. Eg. Neuroptera, Trichoptera,
Strepsiptera.
  ii. Scarabaeriform larvae :- poorly sclerotized. Eg. Scarabaeoidea and some Coleoptera.
B. Polypod larvae :- abdominal prolegs in addition to thoracic legs. Poorly sclerotized.
Eg. Lepidoptera, Mecoptera & Tenthredinidae of Hymenoptera.
C. Apodous larvae :- no legs, poorly sclerotized.
 i. Eucephalous: sclerotized head capsule. Eg. Nematocera, Buprestidae, Cerambycidae.
 ii. Hemicephalous :- reduced head capsule. Eg. Brachycera, Tipulidae
 iii. Acephalour :- withour head capsule. Eg. Cyclorrhapha.
Pupae :-

Decticous :- presence of articulated mandibles. Eg. Mecoptera, Neuroptera, Trichoptera.

Adecticous :- Absence of articulated mandibles. Eg. Strepsiptera, Siphonaptera, Coleoptera.

Exarate :- appendages are free. Eg. Coleoptera.

Obtect :- appendages close to the body & encapsulated. Eg. Lepidoptera, Nematocera,
Brachycera

Coarctate : pupa is encased in harden cuticle i.e. puparium. Eg. Cyclorrhapa

Pre pupa :- Thysanoptera and male coccidae.

Chrysalis :- Butterfly. Eg. Nymphalaidae & Pieridae.

 A spine like structure found at the tip of the abdomen of a chrysalis is called as
Cremaster.

Digestive system:-

 Insect alimentary canal divided into 3 main parts :-

1. Foregut / Stomodeum :- ectodermal in origin.

 Include mouth, pharynx, oesohagous, crop and proventriculus/ gizzard.

2. Midgut / Mesentron : endodermal in origin.

 Main site of digestion and absorption of food.

 Peritrophic membrane present in solid feeders.
 Filter chamber present in homoptera insects.
 Gastric caecae/ Heptic caecae present in midgut, which incresea area of gut.
 Absence of cuticular lining.

3. Hindgut / Proctodeum :- ectodermal in origin.

  Pylorus, ileum, rectum and anus.
 Ileum is pouch like in wood feeding insects like termite.
 Main function : house symbionts and water absorption.

Circulatory System :- open blood system.

 Dorsal vessel :- continuous tube posterior end (heart) is closed and anterior (aorta) end is
open.
 Heart act as pumping organ, while aorta act as conducting vessel.
 Every swollen portion of heart is called as ventricle.
 A slit like opening found at base of each lateral lobe (2 in number) which is known as
Ostium (ostia), from which blood from haemocoel enters the heart.
 Posterior heart is perforated by incurrent and excurrent openings (ostia).
 Incurrent ostia :- Diastole, blood enter
 Excurrent ostia :- Systole, blood enter
 Dorsal diaphragm :- above alimentary canal. Have pericardial sinus, heart, pair of alary
muscle.
 Ventral diaphragm :- above nerve cord. Have perineural sinus, nervous system.
 Between dorsal & ventral diagphragm, perivisceral sinus present.
 Plasma is slightly acidic in nature.
 Prohaemocytes give rise to other type of haemocytes.
Heart beat :- 3 phases
1. Systole :- contraction of muscles of heart.
2. Diastole :- relaxation of muscles of heart.
3. Diastasis :- heart rest in expanded condition.
 Control of heart beat is neurogenic when supply of nerves and when nerve is cut off, it is
myogenic.
Respiratory system :-

 Trachea are ectodermal in origin.

 Trachea present a ringed appearance due to thickening of intima known as “Taenidia”.
 Taenidia prevent the collapse of trachea.
 Spiracles are hydrophobic due to presence of peristigmatic gland.
 Spiracles present on pleura of thoracic and abdominal segment or between terga & sterna.
  Tracheal system is liquid filled in a newly hatched insect, the process in which liquid is
replaced by gas is known as pneumatization.
A. Polynuestic :- at least 8 functional spiracles present on each side of body.
1. Holopneustic :- 1 + 1 + 8 = 10 (Prothorax + Mesothorax + Abdomen).
 Eg. Diptera & Hymenoptera.
2. Perineustic :- 1 + 0 + 8 = 9 (present in 1 prothorax and 8 in abdomen)
 Eg. Cecidomyid larvae, larvae of Hymenoptera, many Coleoptera.
3. Hemipneustic :- 1 + 0 + 7 = 8 (1 in prothorax and 7 in abdomen)
 Eg. Neruoptera, Mecoptera, Lepidoptera.
B. Oligoneustic :- 1 or 2 functional spiracles.
1. Amphipneustic :- 1 + 0 + 1 = 2 (1 in prothorax and 1 in abdomen), Eg. Larval Diptera.
2. Propneustic :- 1 + 0 + 0 = 1 (1 in prothorax only). Eg. Pupa of Diptera.
3. Metapneustic :- 0 + 0 + 1 = 1 (1 in abdomen only). Eg. Larval Diptera.
C. Apneustic :- absence of spiracles. Eg. Collembola, Protura, Parasitic Diptera.
Reproductive system :-
Male R.S. :-
 Accessory glands : ectodermal in Coleoptera & mesodermal in Orthoptera.
Female R.S. :- ovarioles have following parts :
1. Terminal filament
2. Germarium :- most active site of oogenesis.
3. Vitellarium :- largest part of ovariole. Have large no. of growing oocytes in linear fashion.
4. Pedicel : stalk of ovariole.
Spermatheca :- ectodermal in origin, formed as an invagination of 8 th sternite.
Accessory glands :
 Secrete material used for synthesis of egg coat, hence called as collateral gland.
Nervous System :-
 The entire nervous system is separated from hamolymph by nerve sheath.
 Basic functional unit of nervous system is neuron.
 Sensory / afferent neuron :- transmit stimuli form site of perception to CNS (Central
N.S.).
 Motor /efferent neuron :- convey response from CNS to muscles.
I. Central Nervous System :-
1. Brain/ cerebral ganglion/ supra oesophageal ganglion :- above oesophagous.
i. Fore brain/ protocerebrum :- innervates compound eyes & ocelli.
ii. Deutocerebrum :- innervates antennae.
iii. Tritocerebrum :- it is intercalary gaglion. Innervates Labrum.
2. Sub oesophageal ganglion :-
 Fusion of ganglion of mandibular, maxillary and labial segments.
 Innervate mandibles, maxillae, hypohharynx, labium and neck.
3. Ventral nerve cord :-
 Formed from 3 thoracic ganglion and 5 or 6 abdominal ganglion.
 Prothoracic ganglion innervate legs muscles.
 Meso and Meta thoracic ganglion innervate wings.
II. Visceral / stomato- gastric / sympathetic nervous system :-
1. Anterior Sympathetic nervous system :-
 Contain frontal, hypocerebral and ventricular ganglia.
 Innervates stomodeum and dorsal vessel.
2. Posterior Sympathetic nervous system :- also known as ventral nervous system.
 Innervate spiracles, alary muscles.
3. Caudal Sympathetic nervous system :- last abdominal ganglion.
 Innervates reproductive system, hind gut, malphigian tubules, caudal part of dorsal
vessel.
III. Peripheral nervous system :-
 It consists of nerves radiating form ganglia of central and sympathetic nervous system.
Excretory system :-
 Malphigian tubules is main excretory organ in insects.
 Malphigian tubules, distally these are free but in some insect the distal ends of the tubules
are closely applied to hindgut, this condition is known as cryptonephridial condition.
 Cryptonephridial condition present in Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera larvae, Neuroptera.
 Main function of cryptonephridial condition is to conserve water by withdrawing
moisture from faeces.
 Primitive number of malphigian tubules :- 6
  Malphigian tubules absent in Collembola and Aphids.
 Malphigian tubules are derived from mesoderm.
 Malphigian tutules have 1/3 proximal region (brush border) and 2/3 distal region (honey
comb border).
 Uric acid : main excretory product of insect.
 Ammonia :- main excretory product of aquatic insect.
 Allantoine :- main excretory product of blow fly larvae and red cotton bug (Dysdercus
sp.).
Sense organ :-
A. Chemo receptors :- highly developed in insects.
 Smell :- olfactory organs; Taste : Gustatory organs.
 Secrete by trichogan and tormogen cells.
i. Sensilla trichoidea :- hair like, gustatory in function.
ii. Sensilla basiconia : peg/ cone like. Present at maxillary palp of Lepidoptera larva.
iii. Sensilla coeloconia :- pig – peg organs.
 Present on antennae of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera
iv. Sensilla placodea :- present on antennae of Aphis.
B. Mechanoreceptors :- sense of touch.
i. Trichoid sensilla :- also known as tactile spines/hairs. Present on cuticle, antennae, tarsi, cerci
ii. Campaniform sensilla : dome is present. Present at base of halters of Diptera.
iii. Scoloparia/ Chordotonal organs :- compound structure.
 In legs, subgenal organs on tibia.
 In antennae, Johnston’s organ on 2nd segment or pedicel.
C. Auditory organs :- sense of sound.
i. Tympanal organs :-
 Acridoidea :-present on each side of first abdominal tergum. Internally having muller’s
organs.
 Tettigonidae & Grylloidea :- present on base of each fore tibia.
ii. Auditory hairs; iii. Johnston’s organ
D. Visual organs :-
Most adult insects and larval hemimetabolous insects have a pair of compound eyes and 3 single
lens eyes called dorsal ocelli.
Larval homometabolus have one or more single lens eyes known as stemmata/ lateral ocelli on
either side of head.
Compound eyes :- have ommatidia.
 Holoptic condition of compound eyes present in anisoptera of Odonata.
 Diurnal insects :- Apposition eyes.
 Nocturnal insects : Superposition eyes.
 Parts of ommatidia :- cornea, corneagen layer, crystalline cone cells/ semper cells,
ratinula (8 in number, microvilli is visual pigment), primary iris cells and secondary iris
cells.
 Eucone :- ommatidium have hard, refractive, conical body. Eg. Odonata, Orthoptera,
Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera.
 Pseudocone :- cone cells filled with transparent viscous liquid. Eg. Brachycera &
Cyclorrhapa (Diptera).
 Acone :- cone cells do not secrete any refractive material. Eg. Dermaptera, Coleoptera,
Nematocera.
 Exocone : crystalline body is replaced by a cone shaped extension of inner surface to the
cornea, lying distal to the unmodified crystalline cone cells. Eg. Dermestidae.
Insect Nutrition :-
 10 essential amino acids are phenyl alanine, lysine, leucine, arginine, tryptophan,
histidine, threonine, isoleucine, methionine and valine.
Artificial diets :-
1. Holidic diet :- ingredients can be represented by chemical formulae. It is defined diet.
 Contain agar, protein (casein), vegetable oil, starch, cellulose etc.
 Used for nutritional studies.
2. Meridic diet :- one or more unrefined substance form plant, animal or microorganism.
 Pure or refined substance.
 Used for laboratory rearing of insects.
3. Oligic diet :- made up of crude material.
 It is natural foods with all required nutrients.
  It is more economical diet.
 Used for mass rearing of insect.
Insect Integument :-
Insect integument have 3 layers :-
1. Cuticle :- secreted by epidermis/hypodermis.
i. Epicuticle :- outré region, it is non – chitinous layer. It have 4 layers, which are following :
a. Cement layer :- secreted by dermal/verson’s gland in Lepidoptera. Absent in honey bee.
b. Wax layer
c. Poly phenol layer
d. Cuticulin layer
ii. Procuticle :inner region, it is chitinous. Also contain resilin. It have 2 layers :-
a. Exocuticle :- hard & rigid, tanned & sclerotized.
b. Endocuticle :- inner undifferentiated part.
 Between two layers there is a region of hardened but not fully darkened layer known as
mesocuticle.
2. Epidermis / Hypodermis :-
 Epidermal cells secrete secretions for formation of cuticle layers.
 Each dermal gland is formed by a group of 3 epidermal cells, the median cell constituting
the body of gland known as trichogen cell, while the remaining cells constitute duct of
the gland known as tormogen cells.
 Have peristignmatic gland responsible for hydrofuge properties of the cuticle.
 Ooenocytes of blood are produced from epidermal cells.
3. Basement membrane :- epidermal cells stand on basement membrane.
Cuticular appendages :-
A. Non- cellular :- lack basic articulation. Eg. spines, ridges, microtrichia.
B. Cellular :- present basic articulation.
i. Unicellular :- Macrotrichia (setae). Eg. clothing hairs, glandular hairs, etc.
ii. Multicellular :- eg. Spines (immovable), Spur (Movable)
Insect Head :-
 The endoskeleton of insect head is known as tentorium.
 Insect head is made up of 6 segments :-
1. Preantennary segment bearing protocerebrum.
2. Antennary segment bearing antennae/deutocerebrum.
3. Intercalary segment bearing tritocerebrum.
4. Mandibular segment bearing mandibles.
5. Maxillary segment bearing maxillae.
6. Labial segment bearing sub oesophageal ganglion.
Types of Insect head :-
1. Hypognathous :- Hypo : below; gnathous : jaw.
 Orthopteroid type
 Long axis of head is vertical, it is at right angles to the long axis of body.
 Mouth parts are ventrally placed and project downwards.
2. Prognathous :- Pro : infront; gnathous : jaw.
 Coleopteroid type.
 Long axis of head is horizontal.
 It is line with the long axis of body.
 Mouth parts are directed forward.
3. Opisthognathous :- Opistho : behind; gnathous : jaw.
 Hemipteroid type.
 Head is deflexed.
 Mouth parts directed backwards and held in between forelegs.
Insect Antennae :-
 Insect antennae comprise scape, pedicel and flagellum.
 Scape is basal part of antennae.
 Pedicel is second segment of antennae, in which Johnston’s organ present.
Modification of insect antennae :-
S. Type of Antennae Example S. Type of Antennae Example
No. No.
1. Filifrom (thread like) Grasshopper, 7. Lamellate (leaf like) Scarabaeid
ground beetle beetle
2. Moniliform (bead Isoptera 8. Serrate (saw like) Buprestid
like) (Termite) beetle
3. Geniculate Honeybee 9. Setaceous (bristle Cockroach,
like) Leafhopper,
Odonata
4. Bipectinate Silkworm 10. Stylate Horse fly,
Robber fly
5. Aristate (with a House fly 11. Whorled Male mealy
bristle) bug of Mango
6. Clavate (clubbed) Butterfly 12. Plumose Male
mosquito
Pectinate Pilose
Capitate (knobbed) Nitidulid beetle

Insect mouth parts :-

Parts of insect mouth parts :-
 Labrum :- upper lip of insect.
 Mandible :- jaws, one pair
 Maxillae :- second pair of jaws, one pair.
 Three parts : cardo, stipes and palpifer. Distally 2 lobes, outer is galea
and inner is lacinia.
 Labium :- lower lip of insect.
 Distal prementum and proximal post mentum.
 Hypopharynx
Modifications of insect mouthparts :-
1. Biting and chewing type :- primitive type of mouth parts.
 Found in Apterygota, Paleoptera, Dictyoptera, Orthoptera, Coleoptera.
 Present in solid feeders.
2. Piercing and Sucking type :- Cicadas and Aphids.
 4 stylets present in Aphids and Cicadas.
 6 stylets present in Mosquito.
3. Chewing and Lapping type :- Honey bee
 Labrum and mandibles act as chewing
  Maxillae and labium act as lapping tongue.
4. Rasping and Sucking type :- Thrips
 Asymmetrical, absence of right mandibles in Thysanoptera.
 Absence of left mandibles in Collembola.
5. Siphoning type :- Adult Lepidoptera (butterfly & moth)
 Mandibles absent.
 Siphon is elongation of galea of maxillae.
6. Sponging type :- Housefly
 Mandibles absent.
 Sponge like structure known as labellum present.
Insect Thorax :-
 Insect thorax is 3 segmented, which is known as prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax.
 Sometimes meso and metathorax fused together is known as “Pterothorax”.
 Insect thorax has 3 pairs of legs and 2 pairs of wings.
 Legs present in each thoracic segment.
 Wings are present on meso and meta thoracic segments.
Tergum :- dorsal region of insect thorax.
 In some insect, it is undivided and known as “Notoum.
 Divided into pronotum, mesonotum and metanotum.
Sternum :- ventral region of insect thorax.
 Divided into eusternum (presternum, basisternum & sternellum) and spinasterum/
poststernellum (pag like apodeme called spina for muscle attachment).
Pleuron :- lateral region of insect thorax.
 Divided into propleuron and pteropleuron.
 Anterior part is episternum and posterior part is epimeron.
 Pleura of meso and meta thoracic segments bear a pair of spiracles.
 Legs articulate with pleura.
 Wings articulate with tergum & pleuron.
Insect Legs :-
 Typical insect segment is 6 segmented viz., 1. Coxa, 2. Trochanter, 3. Femur, 4. Tibia, 5.
Tarsus and 6. Pretarsus.
  Pretarsus have movable lateral claws, arolium or median bristle, empodium.
Modification of insect legs :-
S. No. Type of insect leg Examples
1. Ambulatorial (walking legs) Dermaptera (skin insect), ants
2. Climbing or Sticking (adhesive type of legs) Housefly
3. Corbiculate (pollen collecting legs) Tibia of hind legs of worker honey
bee
4. Cursorial (walking & running legs) Cockroach, Tiger beetle
5. Fossorail (digging legs), Forelegs of Gryllotalpids
Tibia & tarsi are flattened and shovel shaped
6. Natatorial (swimming legs) Aquatic Bugs, Beetles
7. Saltatorial (leaping/ jumping legs) Grasshopper, Crickets
Femur enlarged. Tibia strikes, so jump possible.
8. Raptorial (prehensile legs) Fore legs of Mantids, aquatic bugs
Catch and hold prey between femur & tibia
9. Scandorial (clinging/ clasping legs) Head lice
10. Stridulatorial (sound producing legs) Crickets & male grasshopper
Femur of hind leg produce sound.

Insect wings :-
 Insect have 2 pair of wing on meso and meta thoracic segments.
 Leading edges in insect wings are C S R2 M2 C2 A2
 Where, C : costa (C); S : subcosta (Sc); R : Radius (R); R : Radial sector (Rs); M :
median anterior (MA); M : median posterior (MP); C : Cubitus anterior (CuA); C :
Cubitus posterior (CuP); A : Anal 1 A; A : Anal 2 B
 Region containing bulk of veins in front of claval furrow is called “Remigium”.
 Area behind the claval furrow is known as “Clavus”, except in hind wings this area is
expanded and is known as “Vannus”.
 There are 3 margins in insect wings (costal, anal, and apical).
 Leading edge of wing :- coastal margin
 Trailing edge of wing :- anal margin
  Outer edge of wing :- apical margin.
 There are 3 angles in insect wings. (apical, anal and humeral)
 Between costal and apical margin :- apical angle.
 Between apical and anal margin :- anal angle.
 At the base of wing :- humeral angle.
 Anterior margin of wing in some insects have pigmented spots is known as
“Pterostigma”. (present in Odonata).
Wing modifications :-
 Tegmina :- forewings. Eg. Orthoptera, Dictyoptera, Phasmida.
 Elytra :- forewings. Eg. Coleoptera and Dermaptera.
 Hemelytra : forewings. Eg. Heteroptera of Hemiptera.
 Halters :- hindwings. Eg. Diptera.
 Pseudohalters :- forewings. Eg. Strepsiptera.
 Fissured/ clofted :- both wings of Plume Moth.
 Fringed :- both wings of Thrips (Thysanoptera)
 Membranous :- both wings of Dragon flies, wasps, bees
 Scaly wings :- both wings of Lepidoptera (butterfly & moth)
Wing coupling :-
 Jugate wing coupling :- hindwing of Lepidoptera.
 Frenate wing coupling :- forewing of Lepidoptera.
 Jugo frenate wing coupling :- Micropterigidae.
 Hamuli wing coupling :- row of hooks on hindwings in Hymenoptera.
 Amplexiform wing coupling :- Butterfly
Insect Abdomen :-
 Primitive number of abdominal segments :- 11
 Collembolan has 6 abdominal segments.
 11th abdominal segments have 3 plates; one epiproct (dorsal to anus) and two paraprocts
(one on either side of anus).
 In Protura, there is tendency of addition of segment during development called
“Anamorphosis”.
A. Pregenital appendages :- segments prior to 8th abdominal segments.
  Ventral tube of adult collembolan :- first abdominal segments.
 Adult Protura & Diplura have pleuropodia :- first abdominal segments.
1. Styli form appendages :- common in apterygota.
 Protura :- present on 1st to 3rd abdominal segments.
 Diplura :- present on 1st to 7th abdominal segments.
 Thysanura :- present on 2nd to 9th abdominal segments.
2. Collembolan appendages :-
 Collophore :- adhesive organ, present on 1st abdominal segment
 Tenaculum/Retinaculum/Hamula :- help in springing process, present on 3rd abdominal
segment
 Furcula :- springing/leaping organ, present on 4th abdominal segment
3. Prolegs :- present in lepidopteran caterpillars.
 In caterpillar :- prolegs on 3rd to 6th and 10th abdominal segments (5 pairs prolegs).
 End of prolegs have curved claw or crochets and an adhesive planta.
4. Gill like appendages :-
 Present in aquatic Dytiscidae and Gyrinidae of Coleoptera.
 Present in larvae of Sialis (Neuroptera) on 1st to 7th abdominal segment.
B. Genital appendages :-
 In pterygotes, male reproductive organ on 9th abdominal segment and female reproductive
organ (ovipositor) on 8th and 9th abdominal segment.
 In Hymenoptera, female ovipositor converted into poison injecting organ known as sting.
 Ovipositor needle like in Cricket.
 Horny ovipositor in fruit fly.
 Pseudo ovipositor present in House fly.

C. Post genital appendages :-

1. Cerci :- present on 11th abdominal segment.
 Develop in between epiproct and paraproct.
 Long and many segmented cerci :- Mayfly
 Long and unsegmented cerci :- Crickets
 Short and many segmented cerci :- Cockroach
 Short and unsegmented cerci :- Grasshopper
 Cockroach :- Anal cerci on 10th segment (male & female).
 Asymmetrical anal cerci present in male Embioptera and act as clasping organ.
  Saw like anal cerci present in male Dermaptera.
 Swimming organ in nymphs of Ephemeroptera.
 Feeding organ in Japygidae.

2. Secondary copulatory apparatus :-

 Present in male dragonflies (Odonata) on 2nd and 3rd abdominal segment.

Ecology also known as environmental biology.

Autecology :- individuals

Synecology :- group

Ecosystem is basic functional unit of ecology.

Trophic Levels :-

Producers/Autotrophs

Primary consumers/Herbivores

Elton says that “key industry animals”

Secondary consumer or primary carnivores

Tertiary consumers or secondary carnivores

Decomposers :- micro-consumers/ saprotrophs / osmotrophs.

Transformers :- Clark recognize, last link in the food chain. Most of bacteria act as transformer.

Insects provide the best example of omnivores.

Life table :

Age specific Time specific

Also known as horizontal or cohort life table
Based on the fate of a real cohort
The members of a population belonging to a
single generation.
The population may be stationary or
fluctuating
Also known as vertical or current life table
Based on fate of an imaginary cohort.
Considerable overlapping of generations.
Stationary population. Age determination is a
pre-requisite for time specific life table
Exponential growth model Logistic growth model
J – shaped curve S – shaped curve (Sigmoid)
Resources unlimited Resources limited
dN/dt = rN dN/dt = rN (K- N/K)
where, N :- population size K :- carrying capacity
t :- time N = K :- growth rate become zero
r :- intrinsic rate of natural increase
Minimum death during early stage.
Biotic potential (given by R.N. Chapman, Population reach upper limit called carrying
1928):- maximum reproductive power. capacity (K).

Diversity studies in ecology :-

1. Alpha diversity ( ):-

 within a particular area, community or ecosystem.

 Species richness.
 Measured by counting number of taxa within ecosystem.

2. Beta diversity ( ) :-

 Comparing species diversity between ecosystems or along environmental gradients.

 Give quantitative measure of diversity.
 Total number of species that are unique between communities represented by :-

= (S1 – C) + (S2 – C)

S1 :- total number of species recorded in first community.

S2 :- total number of species recorded in second community.

C :- number of species common to both communities.

 Measured by :- i. Sorenson’s similarity index, ii. Whittaker’s measure

3. Gamma diversity ( ) :-

 Measure of biodiversity.
 Species richness over a large area.
 Product of alpha and beta diversity.
 = S1 + S2 – C
 Relationship :- = /

Classes of migration :- Johnson, 1969

Class – I :-

 Insect migrate from breeding site to disperse, oviposit and die.

 Life span limited to one season.
 Eg. Ants, Termites and Locusts.

Class – II :-

 Insect migrate from breeding site to feeding site, return after oogenesis or new breeding
site.
 Eg. Female mosquito

Class – III :-

 Migrate from breeding site to hibernation or aestivation site, return following year to
oviposit in original area.
 Eg. Spruce beetle, convergent lady bird beetle, monarch butterfly.

Important insect – pest of agricultural crops

Yellow stem borer of rice :- Scirpophaga incertulas,

 Family : Crambidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Monophagous pest of rice crop.
 Dead heart in young plant and White ear in older plant.
 Larvae bore into stem near nodal region.
 Larvae undergo hibernation.
 Cultural management :- clipping of seedling tip.
 ETL : 10 % dead heart or 1 moth or 1 egg mass/m2
 Release, Trichogramma japonicum @ 1 lakh/ha.
Rice gall midge :- Orseolia oryzae
 Family : Cecidomyiidae, Order : Diptera
 Cause silver shoot or onion shoot or Anaikomban.
 Gall is a modified leaf sheath.
 Elongation of leaf sheath due to cecidogen secreted by first instar maggot.
 Larval parasitoid :- Platygaster oryzae, Polygnotus sp.
Brown plant hopper (BPH) :- Nilaparvata lugens
  Family :- Delphacidae, Order :- Hemiptera
 Cause “hopper burn”.
 Vector of rice grassy stunt.
 Predator :- Cyrtorhinus lividipennis (all stages), Lycosa pseudoannulata
 Fungi used for management :- Beauveria bassiana, Metarrhizium anisopilae
Green leaf hopper (GLH) :- Nephotettix virescens, N. nigropictus
 Family :- Cicadellidae, Order :- Hemiptera
 Vector of rice tungro disease.
Rice Mealy Bug :- Brevennia rehi
 Family : Pseudococcidae, Order : Hemiptera
 Sunken oval or round patches in a crop.
 Distorted panicles with chaffy grains.
 Also known as “Soorai disease” in Tamil Nadu.
Rice Caseworm :- Paraponyx stagnalis
 Family :- Crambidae, Order :- Lepidoptera
 Damage to early transplanted crop.
 Leaf blade cut into small bits and tubular case is constructed by larva.
 Cultural management :- rope passed over young crop.
Rice leaf folder :- Cnaphalocrocis medinalis
 Family :- Crambidae Order :- Lepidoptera
 Sickly appearance with white patches in field.
 Pupate inside the leaf roll.
 Management :- use Bt. @ 1 kg/ha; Pseudomonas flourescens; Trichogramma chilonis.
Rice thrips :- Stenchaetothrips biformis
 Family :- Thripidae, Order :- Thysanoptera
 Pest of rice nursery.
Termite/White Ant :- Odontotermes obesus
 Family : Termitidae, Order : Isoptera
 Host plant :- polyphagous pest.
 Social pest; worker (80 – 90 %), soldier (3 – 5 %), king, queen, prince, princess
 Nuptial flight present. (also present in honey bee)
  Queen laid @ 1 egg/sec. or 70,000 – 80,000 per day.
 Female queen is also known as egg laying machine.
 Eggs are kidney shaped.
 Nymph & adult of worker damage crop.
 Ileum portion of termite is pouch like in which microorganism viz. bacteria, fungi or
protozoa present, which digest cellulose.
 Mutualism present between termite and microorganism.
 Seed treatment with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 4 ml/kg seed
 In standing crop, apply Chloropyriphos 20 EC @ 4 litre/ha.
Maize stem borer :- Chillo partellus
 Family :- Noctuidae, Order :- Lepidoptera
 Cause “dead heart symptom”
 Release, Trichogramma sp. (egg parasitoid) @ 1.5 lakh/ha.
Pink Stem borer :- Sesamia inference
 Family :- Noctuidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Cause “dead heart symptom”
Kharif grasshooper :- Hieroglyphus banian
 Family : Acridiidae, Order : Orthoptera.
 Host plant :- most of Kharif crops like maize, sorghum, peralmillet etc.
 Damage on leaves, sometime only remain midrib
 Damage at full leaf stage
White gurb :- Holotrichia consanguinea, H. serrata
 Family : Scarabaeidae, Order : Coleoptera
 Host plant :- Polyphagous. Groundnut, Pearl Millet,
 Also known as May beetle, June beetle or Cockchafer beetle
 Grub feed on roots
 Adult feed on leaves of host tree.
 Favorite host tree for adult is Ber.
 White grub is an National Pest
 Bacillus papillae (bacteria) used for management
 At the time of sowing, apply Phorate 10 G @ 25 kg/ha
Red Hairy Caterpillar :- Amsacta moorei, A. albistriga
 Family : Arctiidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Host plant :- most of Kharif crops (sorghum, pearl millet, soybean, groundut etc.)
 Feed on leaves
 Major pest of Kharif crops
 Trenching around field
 Trichogramma sp and Telenomus sp. (egg parasitoid)
Shoot fly :-
S. No. Name of crop Name of shoot fly species
1. Sorghum Atherigona soccata
2. Maize Atherigona orientalis; A. naqvii
3. Wheat Atherigona bituberculata; A. oryzae
4. Bajra Atherigona approximata

Sorghum shoot fly :- Atherigona soccata

 Family : Muscidae, Order : Diptera
 Maggot cause dead heart symptom
 Infected plant have more side tillers
 Damage mostly from germination to 28 DAS
 Early sowing, high seed rate, use of fish meal trap.
Sorghum Earhead bug :- Calocoris angustatus
 Family : Miridae, Order : Hemiptera
 Nymph and adult suck sap from grains.
 Chaffyness of grains
 Grains are small in size & black in colour.
 Reduviid bug, Reduviolus sp. is predaceous on it.
Sorghum Midge :- Contarinia sorghicola
 Family : Cecidomyiidae, Order : Diptera
 Maggots feed on the developing grains.
 Pupal case observed between infected grains.
Gall fly of sesame :- Asphondylia sesame
  Family : Cecidomyiidae, Order : Diptera
 Maggot cause damage
 Maggot feed inside the capsule, so malformation of pod without proper setting of seeds.
 Gall like of swelling on capsule due to attack of this pest.
Death Hawk/ Sphinx Moth :- Acherontia styx
 Family : Sphingidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Larvae is leaf feeder (defoliator)
 Egg larvae roll top leaves and later damage to capsule
Sesame leaf webber :- Antigastra catalaunalis; Family :- Crambidae; Order :- Lepidoptera
Sesame leaf hopper :- Orosius albicinctus; Family : Cicadellide, Order : Hemiptera
 Vector of sesame phyllody disease.
Safflower aphid :- Uroleucon carthami , Family : Aphididae, Order : Hemiptera
Sunflower thrips :- Microcephalothrips abdominalis, Family : Thripidae, Order : Thysanoptera
 Flower heads of sunflower are infested.
Castor shoot and capsule borer :- Dichocrocis punctiferalis
 Family :- Crambidae Order :- Lepidoptera
 Potential pest at flowering stage.
Castor whitefly :- Trialeurodes ricini, Family : Aleyrodidae, Order :- Hemiptera (Homoptera)
Castor thrips :- Retithrips syriacus, Family : Thripidae, Order : Thysanoptera
Girdle beetle of soybean :- Oberia brevis
 Family : Cerabycidae, Order :- Coleoptera
 Female prefer feed on xylem part of plant.
 Female make two holes on stem at 3 – 7 cm distance, in between holes make 3 holes and
lay eggs in middle hole.
 Grub feed inside the hole.
 Early sowing and high seed rate.
 Biological, Predator Chrysoperla carnea
 Chemical:- Quinolphos 25 EC @ litre or Trizophos 40 EC @ 1.25 – 1.50 litre/ha
Tobacco caterpillar :- Spodoptera litura
 Family : Noctuidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Caterpillar damage to leaves of plant
  Trap crop for tobacco caterpillar :- Castor
Mustard Aphid :- Lipaphis erysimi
 Family : Aphididae, Order : Hemiptera
 Sucking pest, secrete honeydew, development of sooty mould on leaves.
 ETL :- 40 – 50 % plant show honeydew appearance
Mustard Sawfly :- Athalia lugens proxima
 Family : Tenthredinidae, Order : Hymenoptera
 Feed on leaves, from margin of leaf to centre of leaf (midrib)
 One of Hymenopteran insect that cause damage to crop.
Red gram pod fly :- Melanagromyza obtuse
 Family : Agromyzidae, Order : Diptera
 Maggot feed on the seeds inside the pods.
 Also infest lady’s finger and safflower in which the maggots mine into stem and cause
wilting of plants.
 This pest completely hide inside the pod of pigeon pea.
Pod Borer :- Helicoverpa armingera
 Family : Noctuidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Caterpillar firstly feed on young leaves, then enter inside the pod, the half body inside the
pod and remaining half outside the pod, feed on the seeds of pod.
 major pest of gram.
 HaNPV @ 250 LE/ha
 Trichogramma sp. (egg parasitoid), not used in gram, because gram leaves have malic
and oxalic acid that is harmful for Trichogramma sp.
Pod / Blue Butterfly :- Lampides boeticus
 Family : Lycaenidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Feeds on flower buds and seeds of red gram, cowpea and Lab-lab niger.
 Larvae is pale green with a roughened skin and pupate on leaf, twig or pod.
Pod Bug :- Clavigralla gibbosa
 Family : Coreidae, Order : Hemiptera
 Inside the pod, adult suck sap from the grains.
 Infected grains smaller in size and turns black in colour.
  Insect infested seeds not used for seed purpose and for human consumption.
Plume moth :- Exelastis atomosa
 Family :- Pterophoridae; Order :- Lepidoptera
 Larvae feed on flower buds and seeds of pods by remaining outside.
Cutworm :- Agrotis ipsilon
 Family : Noctuidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Caterpillar cut the plant near soil surface.
 Minor pest of gram.
 Nocturnal pest.
 Cannibalism present
Root borer of sugarcane :- Emmalocera depressella
 Family : Pyralidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Cause dead heart.
 Rarely bore into the root.
 Only that part of the stem which is below the ground level.
 Only species of borer infesting the underground portion of sugarcane.
Top borer of sugarcane :- Scirpophaga excerptalis
 Family : Pyralidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Cause reddish brown charred “dead heart” and shot holes in the leaves and galleries in
the midribs.
 Formation of side shoots which give rise to a “bunchy top” is another symptom of top
borer infestation.
Sugarcane Shoot Borer :- Chilo infuscatellus
 Family : Pyralidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Larvae tunnels into the stem causing “dead heart”.
 Attacks 1 to 3 month old crop of sugarcane.
 Multiplication is favoured by high temp. & low humidity
Internode borer of sugarcane :- Chilo sacchariphagus indicus
 Family : Pyralidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Larva bores at the nodal region and enters into the stem.
 Its feeding cause the tissues turn red and the hole is usually plugged with excreta.
  Attack 1 to 3 internodes damags and mostly attack is seen in the top 5 internodes.
Sugarcane leaf hopper/ Pyrilla :- Pyrilla perpusilla
 Family : Lophopidae Order : Hemiptera
 Sucking pest.
 Secrete honeydew, on which sooty mold develop.
 Reduce quality of juice and yield of crop.
 Biological control, release ectoparasitoid, Epiricarnia melanoleuca (Lepidoptera) at
 4000 – 5000 cocoons or 4 to 5 lakh eggs/ha.
American bollworm of cotton :- Helicoverpa armigera
 Family : Noctuidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Caterpillar make large & irregular hole.
 Caterpillar feed inside the boll.
 Damage in standing crop as well as in storage.
 HaNPV @ 500 LE/ha
Spotted bollworm of cotton :- Earias insulana
 Family : Noctuidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 The moth of E. vitella has green forewing with white streak on each of them whereas that
of E. insulana are completely green.
 Make small and circular hole on pod.
 Enter inside the pod, the hole is surrounded by excreta of caterpillar.
 Important pest of Okra also.
 Flared square symptoms produce.
 Causes drooping and drying of the shoot.
 Lint from attacked bolls will not be clean.
 Lure : Gossyplure
Cotton Pink Bollworm :- Pectinophora gossypiella
 Family : Gelechiidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Larva enters the developing boll through the tip portion and the entrance hole gets closed
up as the boll matures.
 It feed on the seeds and move to adjacent locule by making a hole through the septum.
 Serious pest of cotton & Produce Double seed.
  Make pin size bore hole.
 Rosette shaped bloom
Red bollworm of cotton :- Rabila frontalis
 Family : Noctuidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Pinkish stout larva scoops out the contents of bolls.
 Pupates in the soil in an earthen cocoon.
Cotton leaf hopper :- Amrasca biguttula biguttula
 Family : Cicadellidae, Order : Hemiptera
 Nymph & adult suck sap from plant.
 Leaves shows “hopper burn” symptoms
 Yellowing, curling and bronzing of leaves.
Cotton Whitefly :- Bemisia tabaci & Cotton Aphid, Aphis gossypii
 Family : Aleyrodidae, Order : Hemiptera
 Nymph & adult suck sap
 Secrete honeydew on leaves, which leads to development of sooty mould.
Red cotton bug :- Dysdercus cingulatus
 Family : Pyrrhocoridae, Order : Hemiptera
 Medium – sized reddish bug having white bands on the abdomen & black markings on
wing.
 Nymph & adult suck sap.
 Also infest lady’s finger.
 Cause staining of the lint and make seeds unfit for sowing.
 Bacterium, Nematospora gossypii enters at the site of injury and stains the cotton fibre.
Ash Weevil of cotton :- Myllocerus sp.
 Family : Curculionidae, Order : Coleoptera
 Grub attack the roots of cotton plants and adult feed on leaves.
 Weevil is small and has greyish white elytra with dark lines.
Cotton stem weevil :- Pempherulus affinis, Family : Curculionidae, Order : Coleoptera
 Grub tunnels round the stem feeding on soft tissue and this results in the formation of gall
– like swelling at site of injury.
Cotton leaf roller :- Sylepta derogata
  Family : Pyralidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Leaves are rolled by the larvae which feed on green matter by scraping.
 Only one larva is seen in each leaf roll.
Cotton mealy bug :- Phenococcus solenopsis, Family : Pseudococcidae, Order : Hemiptera

Jute stem girdling beetle :- Nupserha bicolor postbrunnea

 Family :- Cerambycidae; Order :- Coleoptera
 Adult beetle girdles the stem at two levels before it starts oviposition.
Jute weevil :- Apion corchori
 Family :- Apionidae; Order :- Coleoptera
 Grubs tunnel into the pith.
 Due to damage a gall like swelling formed.
Brown leaf hopper :- Hishimonas phycitis, Family : Cicadellidae, Order : Hemiptera
 Transmit “little leaf of brinjal”.
Epilachna beetle /spotted leaf beetle :- Epilachna vigintioctopunctata, E. dodecastigma
 Family: Coccinellidae; Order: Coleoptera; Host plant:- brinjal tomato, bittergourd.
 The grown up grubs become voracious feeders, found in batches.
 Both the grubs and adults confine their feeding activities generally to the undersurface of
leaves.
 Damaged leaves presenting a lace like appearance as the green matter in between the
veins is eaten away (skeletonisation of leaves).
Brinjal shoot and fruit borer :- Leucinodes orbonalis
 Family: Pyralidae Order: Lepidoptera
 Caterpillars enter into the petiole, midribs and young shoots.
 During fruiting stage caterpillars enter into fruits make holes and feed inside.
 Initially, the entry hole is so small that it is not visible.
 Later, fruits bear large circular holes plugged with excreta.
Brinjal stem borer :- Euzophera perticella
 Family: Pyralidae Order: Lepidoptera
 It does not attack fruits and leaves.
 It attacks only stem of more than pencil thickness.
  The entry of the caterpillar is near the ground level of the stem at leaf or branch axil and
covers the hole with excreta and frass.
Tomato serpentine leaf miner :- Liriomyza trifolii, Family :- Agromyzidae
 Maggot feeds on chlorophyll mining in between epidermal layers.
 Leaves with serpentine mines
 Drying dropping of leaves in severe cases.
Painted bug :- Bagrada cruciferarum, Family : Pentatomidae, Order : Hemiptera
 Bug lay barrel shaped brownish eggs.
Cucurbit fruitfly :- Bactrocera cucurbitae (Big size),
 B. dorsalis (Medium size) B. ciliatus (Cosmopolitan)
 Family: Tephritidae, Order: Diptera
 Only maggots cause damage by feeding near ripe fruits, riddling them and polluting pulp.
 Maggots bore in to the fruit and feed on pulp forming lesions.
 Fruits decay due to secondary bacterial infection.
 “CUE LURE” is an effective attractant being used to trap cucurbit fruit fly.
 Poison baiting with malathion 100 ml + sugar/jaggery 100 g as saturated solution + water
1 litre distributed in earthen lids.
Pumpkin beetle :- Raphidopalpa foveicollis, Aulacophora cincta, A. intermedia
 Family: Galerucidae, Order: Coleoptera
 Host plant :- bittergourd, snakegourd, melons, pumpkin, coccinia etc .
 Beetles are more destructive. They bite holes on leaves and also feed on flowers.
 Beetles injure the foliage, flowers and cotyledons by biting holes into them.
Diamond back moth (DBM) :- Plutella xylostella
 Family: Plutellidae, Order: Lepidoptera
 Host plant :- cruciferous plants of Brassica sp. cauliflower, Brassica oleracea var.
capitata , turnip Brassica rapa etc .
 Caterpillars feed on undersurface of leaves and bite holes in leaves
 Holes on leaves.
 Withered appearance of affected leaves. Skeletonised leaves.
 Transplanting 2 rows of mustard as a trap crop for every 25 rows of cabbage to attract
moths to mustard.
  Larval parasites Apanteles ruficrus, A. plutellae and pupal parasite Brachymeria
excarinata suppress population.
Cabbage borer :- Hellula undalis
 Family: Pyralidae, Order: Lepidoptera
 Caterpillars web the leaves and bore into stem, stalk or leaf veins. Webbed leaves.
 Holes in cabbage head with faecal matter.
Onion thrips :- Thrips tabaci, Family : Thripidae, Order : Thysanoptera
 Cosmopolitan species well known as a pest of onion and garlic.
 Infestation causes pale silvery white blotches on leaves and get distorted from tips
downwards.
 Wilting and drying of crop.
Potato tuber moth :- Phthorimaea operculella
 Family: Gelechiidae, Order: Lepidoptera
 Caterpillar acts as a leaf miner in field, boring into petiole and main shoots and at later
stages attacks underground tubers.
 In storage, the damage ranges from 30-70% under improper storage.
Sweet potato weevil :- Cylas formicarius; Family : Apionidae, Order : Coleoptera
 Weevil slender, ant like with a long stout.
 Whitish grub is apodous and has a brown head.
Mango hoppers :- Family : Cicadellidae, Order : Hemiptera (Homoptera)
 Idioscopus niverosparsus :- slightly smaller, 3 spots on scutellum. Prominent white band
across its brown wing.
 Idioscopus clypealis :- smallest, 2 spots on scutellum. Dark spot on vertex.
 Amritodus atkinsoni :- largest. 2 spots on scutellum.
 Abundance :- Nov. – Feb. with flowering of mango.
 Monophagous on mango and occur as regular pests.
 Presence of black sooty mould on floral and other tender plant parts.
Mango stem borer :- Batocera rufomaculata
 Family: Cerambycidae, Order: Coleoptera
 Grub bores and tunnels through the bark of branches and stem feeding on the inner
contents.
  As a result of feeding, the affected branches start drying up.
 In severe cases of attack the whole tree dies.
Mango nut weevil or stone weevil :- Sternochetus mangiferae
 Family: Curculionidae, Order: Coleoptera
 It is monophagous and is considered most serious pest of mango.
 The newly hatched grub immediately tunnels in a zig- zag manner through pulp,
endocarp and seed coat until it reaches cotyledons and the seed coat hardens afterwards.
Mango fruit fly :- Bactrocera dorsalis
 Family: Tephritidae, Order: Diptera
 It also infests guava, peach, citrus, ber, banana, papaya etc.
 Damage to semi ripe fruits is caused by both maggot and the adult.
 The oviposition punctures made by the female serves as entry for fermenting organisms.
 Maggots feed on the pulp and convert the pulp into bad smelling discolored semi liquid
mass, unfit for use.
 Post-Harvest Control (Heat treatment techniques):
i. Hot water treatment: Submerging fruits in hot water at 43 to 46.7oC for 35- 90 min.
ii. Double dip method: Immersion of mango fruits in water at 40oC for 20 minutes, followed
by 10 minutes at 46oC to get 100 per cent mortality of Bactrocera dorsalis eggs.
Mango fruit borer :- Deanolis albizonalis
 Family: Pyralidae, Order: Lepidoptera
 Caterpillar bores into fruits at beak region, feeds inside reaching kernel causing
secondary infection.
 Bore holes are seen plugged with excreta.
Mango mealybug :- Drosicha mangiferae
 Family: Pseudococcidae Order: Hemiptera
 Nymphs and adults suck sap from inflorescence, fruit stalks, fruits etc. leading to flower
drop, pre mature fruit drop etc.
 They also excrete honey dew on which sooty mould develops and the fruit development
is hampered.
Citrus shoot and bark caterpillar :- I. tetraonis; Family :- Cossidae, Order : Lepidoptera
  Presence of winding galleries of frassy web on stem and near forks or angles of branches
indicate infestation by pest.
Citrus butterfly :- Papilio demoleus; Family :- Papilionidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Caterpillar in its early instar stage resembles bird dropping.
 Caterpillars feed voraciously on tender leaves right up to the mid ribs and defoliate the
entire seedlings or the tree leaving behind the only midribs.
Citrus psylla :- Diaphorina citri
 Family: Psyllidae, Order: Hemiptera
 The damage is caused by the nymphs which crowd on the terminal shoots and buds and
suck up the juice which results in curling and cupping of leaves.
 Defoliation and death of young shoot in severe infestation.
Citrus leaf miner :- Phyllocnistis citrella; Family : Gracillariidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Larva mines in between epidermal layers of the leaf in a zig-zig manner which results in
distortion of leaf lamina.
 Larva is apodous.
 Pupates inside the tunnel in silken web.
Citrus fruit sucking moths :- Eudocima materna, Eudocima fullonica, Eudocima ancilla
 Family: Noctuidae, Order: Lepidoptera
 Host plant :- citrus, grapes, apple, castor, ber, pomegranate, guava etc.
 This is the only group where the adult moths are harmful and damage the citrus fruits.
 Moth pierces the ripe fruit with its strong proboscis and sucks the sweet juice.
Banana rhizome weevil :- Cosmopolites sordidus
 Family: Curculionidae, Order: Coleoptera
 The adults also tunnel within the stem feeding on internal tissues during night.
 The grubs tunnel the rhizome, which is roughly circular and increases in size with the
growth of the grubs.
 Blackened mass of rotten tissue in which case the grub deserts the rhizome.
Banana pseudo stem weevil :- Odoiporus longicollis
 Family: Curculionidae, Order: Coleoptera
 Adult feeds on tissues of leaf sheath from its inner surface and also on decaying tissues.
  The larva bores into the pseudostem making tunnels within and cutting holes on the outer
surface.
Anar Butterfly :- Virachola isocrates; Family : Lycaenidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Anal segment of caterpillar can be seen plugging the bore hole.
 Fruits if screened with polythene or paper bags may escape infestation.
Spiralling white fly :- Aleurodicus disperses
 Family: Aleurodidae, Order: Hemiptera
 Host plants :- Guava, papaya, banana, flower plants, forest trees and weeds.
 Nymphs are covered with white cottony mass and suck sap from leaves.
 The leaves crinkle and turn to red colour.
 The honeydew excretion leads to formation of sooty mould that hinders the
photosynthetic activity.
Grape stem girdler :- Sthenias grisator; Family : Cerambycidae, Order : Coleoptera
 Beetle girdles at night the bark of stem.
 Main branches and stem should be swabbed with Chlorpyriphos 0.05 % emulsion for
prevent.
Grape stem borer :- Coelosterna scabrator; Family : Cerambycidae, Order : Coleoptera
 Female makes a slit on the bark of the trunk and branches.
 Frass and faecal matter fall form the hole on turnk and branches on ground, yellowing of
leaves.
 Oozing of resinous substance form hole.
Ber fruit fly :- Carpomya vesuviana, Family : Tephritidae, Order : Diptera
 Small fly with black spots on the thorax and dark bands on the wings.
 Cause 16 % loss.
 Maggots bore into the pulp forming reddish brown galleries
Ber fruit borer :- Meridarchis scyrodes
 Family: Carposinidae, Order: Lepidoptera
 The larva bores into the fruit feeding on the pulp and accumulating faecal frass within.
Sapota leaf webber :- Nephopteryx eugraphella
 Family: Phycitidae (Pyralidae) Order: Lepidoptera
  Larva constructs a tunnel of webs and frass and feed on the green matter of the tender
leaves. They also feed on buds, young shoot and tender fruits.
Woolly apple aphid :- Eriosoma lanigerum
 Family: Aphididae, Order: Hemiptera
 Purplish aphid covered by white cotton mass.
 Galls are produced on roots during winter.
 A parasite Aphelinus mali and a predator Coccinella septumpunctata suppress the pest.
Codling moth :- Cydia pomonella
 Family: Tortricidae, Order: Lepidoptera
 Host plant :- Apple, pear, peach, walnut.
 Caterpillar is pinkish, feeds on the leaves and then bores into fruits.
 Tunnels are filled with excreta. The holes are conspicuous.
Cardamom thrips :- Sciothrips cardamoni, Family : Thripidae, Order : Thysanoptera
 Formation of corky encrustations of pods resulting in their malformed and shriveled
condition.
Cashew tree borer :- Plocaederus ferrugineus; Family : Cerambycidae; Order : Coleoptera
 CO2 injected into bore hole and closed air tight.
 Swabbing of trunk with Chlorpyriphos 0.02 % emulsion or Carbaryl 0.25 % suspension.
Cashew shoot and blossom webber :- Lamida moncusalis,
 Family : Pyralidae, Order : Lepidoptera
 Larva webs inflorescence at the time of flowering and feeds on the floral parts.
 Apples and nuts are also covered with webs with the caterpillar scraping the upper green
layer of tender apples and nuts.
Tea mosquito bug :- Helopeltis antonii
 Family: Miridae, Order: Hemiptera
 Host plant :- Tea, Cashew, Grapevine, Guava, Neem etc.
 Nymphs and adults feed on petiole, tender shoots and leaf veins causing symptoms like
brownish black necrotic patches on foliage and elongate streaks and patches on shoots
 Resins exuding from the feeding punctures.
 Blossom blight and die back symptoms.
Coffee white borer :- Xylotrechus quadripes
  Family: Cerambycidae, Order: Coleoptera
 Grub bores into the bark and tunnels in all directions within the stem feeding on the
internal tissues. The stems and branches are killed.
 The stems swabbed with lindane 7 ml/l at monthly interval during April-May and Oct -
Dec.
Coffee berry borer :- Hypothenemus hampei, Family : Scolytidae, Order : Coleoptera
 Point of entry usually being the naval region.
 Lure :- methyl + ethyl alcohol (1 : 1)
Pollu beetle :- Longitarsus nigripennis; Family : Chrysomelidae; Order : Coleoptera
 Grubs bore into ripening berries and feed on the developing seeds.
 2 or 3 berries are damaged by a grub.
 Raking the soil and exposing pupating larvae and pupae.
Rhinoceros beetle :- Oryctes rhinoceros
 Family: Scarabaeidae, Order: Coleoptera
 Host plant :- coconut, oil palm, date palm, sugarcane, banana, pineapple, papaya etc.
 The beetle injures the trees by boring into the central shoots and petioles.
 A series of holes on the fronds when leaf opens out and fan like cutting
 Typical ‘V’ shaped clipping/ cuts on mature leaves, in partly damaged crowns
Coconut black headed caterpillar :- Opisina arenosella
 Family: Cryptophasidae, Order: Lepidoptera
 Caterpillar feed gregariously on the surface tissues of the leaflets scraped out from their
lower surface.
 The leaflets are reduced to papery tissues.
 The larva constructs a gallery of silk and frass and lives and feeds under it.
 The attacked leaflets turn brown in colour and dry up.
 Root feeding technique: The cut end of the root is kept in polythene bag containing 10 ml
of monocrotophos mixed in 10 ml of water for plants having 15 feet height. Allow the
root to absorb the chemical for 24-48 hours.
Red palm weevil :- Rhynchophorus ferrugineus
 Family: Curculionidae, Order: Coleoptera
 Host plant :- coconut, oil palm, date and other species of Palmae.
  Grub tunnels inside and lives in any part of young palms but prefers to concentrate at or
near the growing points in trees older than 5 years.
 The grub feeds within the stem tissues in large numbers making tunnels.
 Presence of circular holes on the stem with brownish black viscous fluid oozing out from
the holes.
Coriander aphid :- Hyadaphis coriandri
 Family: Aphididae, Order: Hemiptera
 Both nymphs and adults infest terminal shoots and inflorescens and suck sap.
 They also excrete honeydew leading to sooty mould formation and making the foliage
sticky.
Rose thrips :- Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus
 Family: Thripidae, Order: Thysanoptera
 Both nymphs and adults infest leaves and flowers as a result, leaves turn sickly, crinkled
and malformed and flower buds fail to open, become deformed.
Rose scale :- Lindingaspis rossi, Aonidiella aurantii
 Family: Diaspididae, Order: Hemiptera
 Red scales completely cover the stem.
 Both nymphs and adults suck sap causing drying and death of plants.
Jasmine stink bug :- Antestiopsis cruciata
 Family: Pentatomidae, Order: Hemiptera
 Nymphs and adults suck sap from flowers, tender plant portions causing heavy damage to
flowers and yellowing and drying of leaves.
Jasmine bud worm :- Hendecasis duplifascialis
 Family: Pyralidae, Order: Lepidoptera
 Greenish caterpillar attacks two or three buds and buds are webbed together by silken
threads.
 Petals are eaten away by larva resulting in buds with bore holes, webbings soiled with
excreta. Pupation is in soil.
Chrysanthemum black aphids :- Macrosiphoniella sanborni
 Family: Aphididae, Order: Hemiptera
  Nymphs and adults infest tender shoots sucking sap and causing yellowing and drying of
tender shoots, devitilization and stunted growth.
Jatropha Inflorescence and capsule borer :- Pempelia morosalis; Family : Pyralidae
 Webbing and feeding on inflorescences and later stages boring into the capsules.
Hibiscus mealy bug :- Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Family : Pseudococcidae, Order : Hemiptera
 It is the causal organism of the disease “Turka” in all mulberry growing areas of the
country.
 Cause “Bushy top” symptoms in plant.

Diseases and Their Vectors

S. Name of disease Causal organism Vector

No.
1. Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Horse flies, Tabanus striatus
2. American Leishmaniasis Leishmania brasiliensis Sand fly,
Phlebotomus intermedius
3. Leishmaniasis/ Kala Leishmania donovani Sand fly,
azar/ Dumdum fever/ (Protozoa) Phlebotomus argentipes
Black fever
4. Bubonic Plague Yersinia pestis Ratflea, Xenopsylla cheopsis
5. Filariasis/ Elephantiasis Wuchereria bancrofti Mosquito,
Culex quinquefasciatus
6. Gambian sleeping Trypanosoma gambiens Tsetse fly,
sickness/ African Glossina palpalis
trypanosomiasis
7. Chagas dis. / American Trypanosoma cruzi Assian bug/ Reduvid bug,
Trypanosomiasis Rhodinus prolixux, Triatoma
infestans
8. Endemic Typhus Rickettsia prowazeki Rat flea, Xenopsylla sp.
9. Epidemic Typhus Rickettsia typhi Human lice, Pediculus humanus
10. Malaria Plasmodium sp. Female Mosquito, Anopheles sp.
11. Typhoid Fever Salmonella typhi House fly, Musca sp.
12. Yellow Fever Virus Female mosquito, Aedes aegypti
13. Dengue Virus Female mosquito, Aedes aegypti
14. Tuberculosis Myobacterium tuberculosis House fly, Musca sp.
15. Carrion’s disease Bartonella bacilliformis Sandfly, Phlebotomus nogouchi

Important viral diseases and their insect vectors

S. No. Name of disease Causal organism Vector

1. Wheat streak mosaic Wheat streak mosaic virus Mite, Aceria tulipae
2. Rice Tungro Rice tungro bacilliform virus Green leafhopper,
and rice tungro spherical virus Nephotettix virescens
3. Rice grassy stunt Rice grassy stunt virus Brown plant hopper,
Nilaparvata lugens
4. Cowpea mosaic Cowpea mosaic virus Aphids (Aphis craccivora),
bean leaf beetle
5. Pigeonpea sterility Pigeonpea sterility mosaic Mite, Aceria cajani
mosaic virus
6. Bean mosaic Bean common mosaic virus Aphids, Aphis fabae, Myzus
persicae
7. Soybean mosaic Soybean mosaic virus Aphids, Aphis glycines
8. Soybean yellow Soybean yellow mosaic virus Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci
mosaic
9. Mungbean yellow Mungbean yellow mosaic Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci
mosaic virus
10. Ragi mosaic Ragi mosaic virus Aphids and leafhopper
11. Groundnut bud Peanut bud necrosis virus Thrips, Thrips palmi,
necrosis Franklinelli schlutzi
12. Groundnut stripe Peanut stripe virus Aphids, Aphis craccivora
13. Groundnut rosette Peanut rosette virus Aphids, Aphis craccivora
14. Sugarcane mosaic Sugarcane mosaic virus Aphids, Aphis gossypii
15. Cotton leaf curl Cotton leaf curl virus Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci
16. Citrus tristeza Citrus tristeza virus Aphid, Toxoptera citricidus, T.
aurantii
17. Papaya mosaic Papaya mosaic virus Aphids, Aphis gossypii, Myzus
persicae
18. Papaya leaf curl Papaya leaf curl virus Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci
19. Banana bunchy top Banana virus I or Musca virus Aphid, Pentalonia
I nigronervosa
20. Banana mosaic Cucumber mosaic virus Aphid, Aphis gossypii, Myzus
persicae
21. Yellow vein mosaic Yellow vein mosaic virus Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci
of Okra
22. Chilli leaf curl Chilli leaf curl virus Thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis
23. Chilli mosaic Tobacco mosaic virus Aphids, Aphis gossypii, Myzus
persicae
24. Tomato leaf curl Tomato leaf curl virus Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci
25. Tomato spotted wilt Tomato spotted wilt virus Thrips, Frankliniella
occidentalis
26. Katte diseae of Cardamom mosaic virus Aphid, Pentalonia
Cardamom nigronervosa
27. Tobacco streak Tobacco streak virus Thrips, Thrips tabaci,
disease Scirtothrips dorsalis,
Frankliniella shultzei,
28. Tobacco leaf curl Tobacco leaf curl virus Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci
29. Tobacco mosaic Tobacco mosaic virus Aphid, Myzus persicae
disease
30. Cucumber mosaic Cucumber mosaic virus Aphids, Myzus persicae
 Fungal diseases and their insect vector

S. No. Name of disease Causal organism Insect vector

1. Cotton wilt Fusarium vasinfectum Grasshopper, Melanoplus
differentialis
2. Sooty Mould Capnodium sp. Aphids, Leaf hopper, Mealy bugs
& Whitefly

Bacterial diseases and their insect vector

S. No. Name of disease Causal organism Insect vector

1. Wilt of corn Xanthomonas stewarti Flea beetles, Chaetocnema
(Stewart’s disease) pulicaria, C. denticulate
2. Potato blackleg Erwinia carotovora Seed corn fly, Hylemya platura
atroseptica
3. Citrus canker Xanthomonas campestris Citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri
pv. citri
4. Cucurbit wilt Erwinia tracheiphila Beetle, Diabrotica vitata, D.
undecimpuntata

Mycoplasma diseases and their insect vector

S. No. Name of disease Causal organism Insect vector

1. Sesamum phyllody Phytoplasma aurantifolia Leafhopper, Orosius albicinctus
2. Rice yellow dwarf Phytoplasma oryzae Green leafhopper, Nephotettix sp.
3. Brinjal little leaf Phytoplasma trifolii Leafhopper, Hishimonus phycitis
4. Citrus greening Spiroplasma citri Citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri
5. Sugarcane grassy Phytoplasma oryzae Aphids, Aphis sacchari, A. maidis
shoot
6. Coconut root wilt Phytoplasma palmae Lace bug, Stephanities typicus
7. Witches’ broom of Phytoplasma trifoli Leafhopper, Hishimonus phycitis
potato

Plant mites

 Order : Acarina, Class : Arachnida

 Mite life has 3 stages : egg, nymph and adult.
 Tetranychidae family : 3 nymphal stages : Pronymph (3 pairs of legs), deutonymph (4
pairs of legs) and tritinymph (4 pairs of legs).
 Eriophyidae family : vermiform body. Divided into cephalothorax and abdomen. 2 pairs
of legs and 2 nymphal instar.
Important mite pest of different agricultural crops
S. Name of mite Zoological name Nature of damage
No.
1. Sorghum mite Oligonychus  Spines delicate webs on lower
indicus, surface of leaf and live inside the
Tetranychidae web.
 Injured leaf shows red spots.
2. Rice mite Oligonychus  Inhabits under surface of leaves in
oryzae, nurseries and transplanted crop.
Tetranychidae
3. Rice tarsonemid Steneotarsonemus  Mites found between stem and leaf
mite spinki, sheath, cause sterility and
Tarsonemidae deterioration of rice grains.
 Damage parenchymatous tissue of
rice.
4. Red spider mite Tetranychus  Punctures leaf tissue and oozing
neocaledonicus, plant sap is sucked.
Tetranychidae  Formation of white blotches.
5. Sugarcane mite Schizotetranychus  Under surface of leaves cause
andropogoni, discolouration.
Tetranychidae  Also found on sorghum.
6. Citrus leaf mite Eutetranychus  Upper surface of leaves and cause
banksi, white spots.
Tetranychidae
7. Citrus rust mite Phyllocoptruta  Wedge shaped, worm like.
oleivora,  Pinkish brown blotches on fruits.
Eriophyidae
 8. Coconut eriophyid Aceria  Feeding results in warts and
mite guerreronis, numerous longitudinal fissures on
Eriophyidae the husk of developing nuts.
 Fungi for management : Hirsutella
thompsoni
9. Coconut red mite Raoiella indica,  Red in colour.
Phytoptipalpidae  Damage on under surface of leaves.
10. Jasmine eriophyid Aceria jasmini,  Cause “Felt like” white hairy
Eriophidae outgrowths.
11. Sweet potato rust Oxypleurites  Cause rusting of leaves which turn
mite convolvuli, pale brown.
Eriophyidae
12. Tea mites :- 5 species :-
i. Red spider Oligonychus coffeae, Tetranychidae
ii. Scarlet mite Brevipalpus californicus, Tenuipalpidae
iii. Purple mite Calacarus  Mite dark purple to pink in colour
carinatus, with characteristic white ridges
Eriophyidae running along back.
iv. Pink mite Acaphylla theae, Eriophyidae
v. Yellow mite Phytotarsonemus  Mites infests terminal & axillary
latus, shoots & cause deformed, twisted &
Tarsonemidae crumpled shoots & also bunched up
appearance with reduced leaves.

Storage pest

 Insect-pest cause damage from field to godowns are rice weevil, pulse beetle, grain moth,
groundnut seed beetle etc.
 When moisture content is reduced (less than 8 %), all insect will die except Khapra
beetle, Trogoderma granarium.
 Storage mite :- Acarus siro.
 Methyl bromide is widely used for plant quarantine and food processing facilities.
S. Name of storage Scientific name Family & Damage symptoms
No. pest Order
A. External feeder :
1. Khapra Beetle Trogoderma Dermestidae;
granarium Coleoptera
2. Rice Moth Corcyra Galleridae; Webbing of rice grains.
cephalonica Lepidoptera
3. Rust Red Flour Tribolium Tenebrionidae; First case of insecticide resistance
Beetle castaneum; T. Coleoptera in India in stored grain pest.
confusum Powdery grains and foul smell.
4. Indian Meal Moth Plodia Phycitidae; Damaged grains and webbing of
interpunctella Lepidoptera grains.
5. Almond Moth Ephestia Phycitidae;
cautella Lepidoptera
B. Internal Feeder:
1. Rice Weevil Sitophilus Curculionidae; Making irregular hole in the
oryzae Coleoptera grains.
2. Grain Moth Sitotroga Gelichiidae; Grains covered by scales.
cerealella Lepidoptera Infested grains give out
unpleasant smell.
3. Groundnut Seed Caryedon Bruchidae;
Beetle serratus Coleoptera
4. Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Bruchidae; Circular hole or exit holes.
chinensis, C. Coleoptera
maculatus, C.
analis
5. Almond Moth Cadra cautella Pyralidae; Larvae tunnel into food material
Lepidoptera and feeds.
6. Lesser Grain Rhizopertha Bostrychidae;
Borer dominica Coleoptera
7. Sweet Potato Cylas Apionidae;
Weevil formicarius Coleoptera
8. Potato Tuber Phthorimea Gelechiidae;
Moth opercullela Lepidoptera
C. Secondary Pest:
1. Flat Grain Beetle Cryptolestes Cucjidae;
minutus Coleoptera
2. Saw Toothed Oryzaephilus Cucjidae;
Grain Beetle surinamensis Coleoptera
3. Long Headed Latheticus Tenebrionidae;
Flour Beetle oryzae Coleoptera

Apiculture/ Beekeeping

 Honey bee : family : Apidae, order : Hymenoptera

 Geniculate type of antennae present in honeybee.
 Royal jelly is secretion of “Hypopharyngeal glands”.
 Royal jelly is produced by worker.
 Worker bee is sterile female.
 Sting in worker bee is a modified part of ovipositor.
 At 15 days (second week) worker honey bee start to produce royal jelly.
 In honey bees, the queen substance is secreted by mandibular glands.
 Honey stomach is also called as “Proventriculus”.
 Bee venom (acid glands) is used for curing pains at joints.
 Round dance indicates the source of food is less than 50 m.
 Wag tail dance indicate that source of food is longer distance.
 Karl Von Frisch awarded noble prize in 1973 for work on communication of honeybees
(round and waggle dance of honeybee).
 All India Beekeeper’s Association, 1939 at Pune. Start “Indian Bee Journal”.
 Removal of honey crop in spring season.
  Period when good number of plants available is called honey flow period.
 The period when no honey flow is called dearth period.
 Fully ripened honey contains the highest amount of fructose.
 Place colonies @ 3/ha for Italian bee and 5/ha for Indian bee.
 Artificial comb was first introduced by L.L. Langstroth in 1851 in America.
 Size of Langstroth/ American hive :- 42.1 x 31.1 cm. It is suited for Italian bee.
 Father of modern beekeeping in India is A.S. Atwal.
 Complete desertation of the bee hive by the honey bees is called absconding.
 The replacement of old queen by new daughter queen is known as “Supersedure”.

S. Name of bee Scientific Important characteristics

No. name
1. Little honey bee Apis florea,  Southern Asia.
A.  Make very small vertical comb.
andreniformis  Produce 0.5 to 1 kg honey/comb.
 Due to high absconding tendency, they cannot be
kept in artificial bee hive
2. Europena/ Apis mellifera  Originated from Italy.
western/  Most commonly domesticated species.
common honey  Production : 50 – 60 kg honey/hive.
bee  Swarming tendency is very less.
 It has revolutionized bee keeping in India.
3. Indian honey Apis cerana  Easily domesticated.
bee indica  Distributed all over the country.
 Make parallel combs on trees & rocks.
 Swarming tendency is very high.
 Production : 8 – 10 kg honey/hive
 Swarming tendency very high.
 Susceptible to wax moth and absconding is
common.
4. Rock or giant Apis dorsata  Most ferocious and make largest hives.
 bee  Cannot be kept in artificial hive.
 Make nest in trees, rocks and roof of building
 Production : 35 – 40 kg honey/ comb
 Efficient pollinators of crops.
 Swarming tendency is very high.

Insect enemies of honeybee:-

S. No. Name of insect Zoological name Damage symptoms

1. Death’s Hawk Acherontia styx  Enters the bee hive at night & drinks up
Moth honey.
2. Greater Wax Galleria mellonella  Caterpillars make tunnels through near
Moth the midrib of a comb during stress.
3. Lesser Wax Achroia grisella  Caterpillar make tunnels through near the
Moth midrib of a comb.
4. Ants Dorylus labiatus,  Take away honey & brood. Weaken
Componotus destroy the bee colony.
compressus
5. Predatory Vespa magnifera,  Prey on bees.
Wasps V. orientalis
6. African Small Aethina tumida  Lives in bee hives comb slimed by hive
Hive Beetle beetle larvae & drive out bee colonies.

Disease of honeybee :-

S. Name of Causal Place of Disease symptoms Management

No. disease organism infection
1. Acarine Acarapis woodi Trachea & Adult stage infected. Cotton soaked in
disease / (parasitic mite), body fluid Feed on hemolymph of methyl salcilate.
Isle of wight first bees
(1904)
2. Nosema Nosema apis Stomach Adult stage infected. Sterilization of
disease (microsporidium) Nosemosis & dysentery. brood box &
3. Amoebic Malphigamoeba Malphigian Adult stage infected. frame with glacial
disease mellifera tubules Causes dysentery. acetic acid & 40 %
formalin
4. American Bacillus larvae Gut Larvae stage infected. Use of antibiotics.
foul or Paenibacillus Infected larvae darken & Dusting comb
brood/ larvae spp. die. Foul smell. with
dreadly larvae sulphathiazole
disease powder.
5. European Bacillus pluton, Midgut Larvae stage infected. Use of antibiotics
foul Mellisococcus Foul smell. like Terramycin.
brood plutonius Tracheal system visible. Shook swarm
diseaes (Bacterium) technique.
6. Chalk Ascosphaera apis Gut Larvae stage infected. Transfer healthy
brood (fungi) White & chalky bees.
disease appearance.
7. Stone Aspergillus Alimentary Larvae and adult infected. Sterilization of
brood niger, A. flavus, canal Dead larvae turn black. hive with
disease A. fumigatus Larvae covered with formaldehyde
powdery fungal spores. fumes.
8. Sac Morator Skin Adult stage infected. Destruction of
brood aetatulas (virus) No characteristic odour. affected hive.
disease Bee becomes blackish.
9. Colony Stresses, Colony Worker bees move form Follow organic
collapse malnutrition, colony. bee keeping
pathogens & GM practices.
crops

Sericulture
 The origin of silk glands :- ectodermal
 Antennae of silkworm :- Bipectinate
 Approximate weight of single cocoon of silkworm is 1.67 gm.
 An Indian silk bale is 50 kg.
 Largest producer of silk in the world is China.
 Largest consumer of silk in the world is India.
 Silk filament is composed of two fibroin filaments held together by a cementing layer of
sericin.
 Fibroin and sericin accounts for about 75 and 25 of the raw silk by weight, respectively.
 Amino acids abundant in silk fibroin :- Alanine, Glycine and Serine.
 To overcome hibernation, silkworm eggs are treated with Hot HCl.
 Hook like structure at prolegs of silkworm larvae is crochets.
 A larva starts producing silk during late 5th instar.
 Newly hatched silkworms are called kegs, ants, chawki or kengo.
 The process of killing the pupa in the cocoons before they metamorphosis into moth is
called “Stifling”.
 The process of unwinding of silk form cocoons is called “Reeling”.
 Number of kg of cocoons required to produce 1 kg of raw silk yarn is measured in
“Renditta”.
 In India, over 95 % of the commercial silk being produced is from multivoltine female x
bivoltine male parent (cross breed).
 Silk reared in indoors :- Mulberry and Eri silk
 Silk reared outdoors :- Tasar and Muga silk
 India produces all the five types of silkworm.
 Central silk board, Bangalore, Karnataka
 Silkworm Seed Technology Laboratory, Bangalore, Karnataka
 Seri – biotech Research Laboratory, Bangalore, Karnataka
 Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre, Hosur (TN)
 Satellite Silkworm Breeding Station, Coonoor (TN)
 Central Tasar Research and Training Institute, Ranchi, Jharkhand.
  Central Sericultural Research and Training Institutes at Mysore (Karnataka), Berhampore
(WB) and Pampore (J & K).
 Central Muga Eri Research and Training Institute, Lahdoigarh, Assam

1. Mulberry Silk :- Bombyx mori, Family : Bombycidae

 White or creamy in colour.
 Moults 4 times.
 Host :- Mulberry plants, Morus alba, M. indica, M. latifolia, M. serrate.
 Producing states :- Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh.
2. Tropical Tasar Silk :- Antheraea mylitta, Family : Saturniidae
 Copperish in colour.
 Bivoltines with pupal diapause.
 Host :- Asan, Terminalia tomentosa; Arjun, Terminalia arjuna; Saal, Shorea robusta;
Ber, Zizyphus jujuba.
 Producing state : Jharkhand, Orissa, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, WB, AP
3. Oak Tasar (Temperate) :- Antheraea proylei, A. roylei, A. perneii; Family : Saturniidae
 Host :- Oak, Quercus sp.
 Producing state : Sub Himalayan Belt
4. Eri Silk / Endi or Errandi :- Samia cynthia, S. einthia; Family : Saturniidae
 White or brick red colour.
 It is cheap, hence called “poor man’s silk”.
 Host :- Castor, Ricinus communis
 Producing state :- NE states, Bihar, WB, Orissa
5. Munga Silk :- Antheraea assama; Family : Saturniidae
 Polyphagous, semi – domesticated.
 Multivoltine, 5 – 6 overlapping generations.
 Golden yellow in colour.
 Host :- Som, Persia bombycina; Sualu, Litsea polyantha
 Producing state :- Assam
 India has monopoly in the production of munga silk.
Bivoltines :-
  Only two life cycle in a year.
 Life cycle of hibernating & non- hibernating eggs.
 More profitable, more neatness and cleaness.
 Posses longer filament length.
 India : Kalimpong, KA, NB – 7
Multivoltines :-
 5 – 6 generations in a year.
 Develop non – hibernation eggs.
 Multivoltines cocoons are hard.
 Yield poor.
 Mysore multivoltine race :- Karnataka, TN, AP
 Nistari multivoltine race :- WB
Important Insect – Pest of Silkworms :-
1. Uzi Fly :- Exorista sorbillans;
2. Beetle :- Dermestes cadeverinus
3. Ants :- Hymenoptera
4. Lizards, Birds, Rats & Squirrels :- feed on silkworms.
Diseases of Silkworms :-
1. Pebrine :- causal organism : Nosema bombycis (sporozoa)
 Susceptible stage :- all stages (egg to adult)
 Symptoms :- pepper like black spots, dead eggs produced and transovarial transmission.
 Management :- sterilization of eggs with 2 % formalin.
 Disease managed by mother moth examination.
2. Flacherie :- causal organism : Bacillus bombysepticus (Bacteria)
 Susceptible stage :- larvae
 Symptoms :- emission of foul smell.
 Management :- proper incubation of eggs and proper rearing conditons.
3. Grasserie :- causal organism : Virus (NPV)
 Susceptible stage :- Larvae
 Symptoms :- swelling of segments and easy rupture of skin.
 Management :- avoid injury.
4. Muscardine :-
 White muscardine :- Beauveria bassiana, green muscardine : Spicaria prasina; yellow
muscardine : Iscaria farinosei
 Stage susceptible :- larvae, pupa & adult
 Symptoms :- body become too hard, mummified larvae vomit, diarrhea.
 Management :- proper rearing conditions and sterilization.

Lac culture/ Lac insect

 Laccifer lacca; Family : Lacciferidae; Order :- Homoptera.

 Secrete a resinous byproduct which is marketed as shellac.
 Emergence of nymphs/ crawlers is called “Swarming”.
 Lac secreted by dermal glands by nymph.
 Lac insect moult thrice.
 Agani & Baisakhi are main crop.
 Lac obtained from kusumi strain is considered superior because of light colour.
 Leading producer of lac in world is India.
 In India, 80 – 90 % lac production obtained from Rangeeni strain of lac insect.
 Resin glands are distributed all over body except mouth parts, two breathing pores and
anus.
 Female insects are the chief producers of lac.
 Ovoviviparous type of reproduction present in lac insect.
 In propagation of lac insect, brood lac sticks or twigs be cut when ovisac turns half
orange and half red.
 Molemma : dust like material separated from seed lac & contain 70 % shellac.
 Kiri :- dirt & refuse inside the cloth bag after recovering molten mass contain 50 %
shellac.
 Passewa :- boil, cloth bag after remove kiri, contain 20 % shellac.

Lac strains :- both strains have 2 generation/year.

A. Kusumi strain :- host plant : Kusum, Schleichera oleon

i. Jethwi :- June/ July to January/February (6 month duration)

ii. Agani :- January/February to June/July (6 month duration)

B. Rangeeni strain :- Host plant : Butea, Ziziphus, Shorea etc.

i. Katki :- June/July to October/November (4 month duration)

 ii. Baisakhi :- October/November to June/July (8 month duration)

Enemies of lac insect :-

A. Predators :- 3 important predator

1. Larger white lac moth :- Eublemma amabilis, Family : Noctuidae

2. Smaller black lac moth :- Holocerca greeni, Family : Gelechiidae

3. Lace wing fly, Chrysopa sp.

B. Parasite :- Chalcidae of Hymenoptera.

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Animal Husbandry
Special Point:-

 First in world :- Cattle > Goat

 First in India :- Cattle > Goat
 First in Rajasthan :-Goat > Cattle
 Cow Improvement and Breeding Centre – Bassi (Jaipur)
 Seeman Bank – Bassi
 Buffalo breed improvement briding center :- Vallabhnagar (Udaipur)
 State Livestock management and Tranning institute :- Jaipur
 Briding Centre of cattle in Rajasthan:-
 Gir :- Jhalawar
 Rathi:-Hanumangarth
 Hariana :- Bharatpur
 Jersi :-Bassi (Jaipur)
 Tharparkar :- Suretgarth (Ganganagar)
 Mewati/ Koshi :-Alwar
 Sheep Breeding Centre – Fatehpure (Sikar)
 Goat Improvement and Fooder Resarch – Ramsar Dist (Ajmer)
 Goat Breeding Institute – Mathura (UP)
 National Dairy Development Board:- Ananad (Gujrat) 1965
 National Dairy Reserch institute :- Karnal (HR)1955
 Ananad Milk Union Limited (AMUL):- Ananad (Gujrat)
 Father of White revolution :- Dr. Vergis kurian
 Dr. Vergis kurian was awarded world food prize in 1989.
 Indian Vetanary Reserch institute :- Izetnagar Bareli (U.P.)1889
 Central Goat research institute :- Mukhdum (U.P.)
 Central Sheep and Wool research institute :- Avikanagar,Malpura tonk1962
 Central Avaian Reserch institute:- Izetnagar Bareli (U.P.)
 Central Buffalo Reserch institute :-Hisar (HR)
 Central Camel Reserch institute :-Jhorber (Bikaner)July 5,1984
 Central wool and Camel Development Board :- Jodhpur
 State poultry traning institute :- Ajmer
 India’s 70% population depended on agriculture occupation.
 India’s position first in Milk, Wool production, Buffalo population and total animal population.
 Musiuem of paracite called Sheep.
 Zoological Name of Rabbit – Orcetalegus cuniculus and Hourse – Eggus kabas
 Mohair obtained Angora breed goat.
 Angora wool obtained Rabit.
 Pashmina wool obtained Kahmiri Goat.
 Milk let Down harmone: - Oxytoxine.
 Milk secretine harmone :- Proletine.
 Adrinileine harmone are antagonist oxytoxine.
 Oxytoxine are secretine by pituary gland(Master gland)

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 Dry period in cow :- 60 Day.
 Average age of Buffalo and Cattle :- 20-23 year
 Smallest breed of cow is Venture it is known miniature cow.
 Attreactive breed of cow in world is Ayershaer.
 Sheep contain highest amount of fat among animal.
 Bigest mandi in Asia situated in Bikaner.
 Diseses transmited Egg to Chick in poultry :- Leukosis
 Disese transmited due to high Humidity :- Cocidiosis.
 Gestration period of camel :- 390 - 410 day
 Meat of Deer :- Venison
 Average weight of egg :- 58 gm
 Protine contain in egg : 11.8 gm
 Bed material in Poultry is known Litter.
 80 kg calories obtained an egg.
 94% part of an egg cover formed by CaCO3.
 Total milk production in India in 2016-17 :- 164 mt.
 Per capita milk availability in India in 2016-17 :- 351 gm/ per capita.
 Secondary agriculture Product is milk after Rice.
 Highest population of Sheep, Goat and Camel in rajasthan in india.
 19% income in rajasthan’s economy obtained by livestock.
 Retrachement – Separation of productive animal from unproductive aniamsl is called retrachement.
Livestock Population and density in Rajasthan :-
 Highest Population of livestock – Badmer
 Lowest Population of livestock – Dholpur
 Highest Density of Livestock – Dungarpur
 Lowest Density of Livestock – Jaisalmer
 Average density of Rajasthan – 169/km
 Highest Population of Buffalo – Alwar
 Lowest Population of Buffalo – Jaisalmer
 Highest goat and sheep population – Badmer
 Lowest goat and sheep population – Dholpur
 Highest Cow population – Udaipur
 Lowest Cow population – Dholpur
 Highest Camel population – Badmer
 Lowest Camel Population – Jhalawar
Some Animal Fairs in Rajasthan :-
 Shree Veer Tejaji Pasu Mela – Parbatsar (Nagaur) Oldest & Biggest)
 Baldev Pasu Mela – Merta City (Nagaur)
 Ramdev Pasu Mela – Manasar (Nagaur)
 Chendra Baga Pasu Mela – Jhalarapattan (Jhalawar)
 Gomatisagar Pasu Mela - Jhalarapattan (Jhalawar)
 Behrod Pasu Mela (Alwar)
 Puskar Pasu Mela (Puskar)
 Malinnath Pasu Mela (Tilwara Pasu Mela) – Badmer
 Raghunath Puri Pasu Mela – Sanchor (Jalore)

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 Savedia Pasu Mela – Ranivada (Jalour)
 Sivratri Pasu Mela – Karauli
 Jaswant Pasu Mela – Bharatpur

Information about animalh

SN Details Cow Buffalo Sheep Goat Poultry Pig

Gellus
Bos indicus / Bubeles Capra Sus domesticus
1 Name Ovis aris gellus/
tarsus bubelus hirucs /indicus
domesticus
2 Family Bovidae Bovidae Bovidae Bovidae Fasinide Suedi
3 Chr.No. 60 50 or 48 54 60 78 38
4 Group Herd Herd Flock Flock Flock Herd & Drove
5 Mating Serving Serving Tupping Serving Serving Coupling

6 Calving Calving Lambing Kidding Hatching Farrowing

Parturation
Buffalo
7 New born Calf Lamb Kid chick Piglet
calf
Buffalo Male
8 Young male Bull calf Male kid Cockrel Boarling
calf lamb
Young Female
9 Heifer calf Heifer calf Female kid Pullet Female piglate
female lamb
Buffalo
10 Adult Male Bull Ram Buck Cock Boar
Bull
11 Adult female Cow Buffalo Ewe Doe/ Neny Hen Sow
Bullock /
12 Casted male Bullock Weeder Buck Capon Hog or Stag
steer
Beef, Chicken
Buffen or Pork (Bacon:-
13 Meat Calf- Mutton Chevon Kdaknath:-
Cerabef with Salt)
veal Tendr
Gestration
14 281 310 147 /150 151 21 114
period

 Meat of Deer :- Venison

 Hen – Chiken (Kudaknath Hen – Tender Meat) also known white meat
Gasteration Period of Some Animals :-
∎ Cow – 281 days ∎ Buffalo – 310 days
∎ Goat – 150 days ∎ Sheep – 152 days
∎ Camel – 395 – 410 days ∎ Horse – 336 days
∎ Hen (Incubation period – 21 days ∎ Terky (Incubation period) – 28 days
∎ Bitch – 64 days ∎ Cat – 65 days
∎ Elephant – 18-22 months ∎ Donkey – 350 days
∎ Monkey – 165 days ∎ Mouse – 19-21 days
∎ Rabbit – 30-31 days ∎ Lion – 110 days
∎ Mosquito duck (Incubation period) -35 days FK∎ Deer – 222 days
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LCensus (2012)

S. No. Species of animal India (Milion) Rajasthan (Lakh) Position of Rajasthan

1 Cattle 190.9 133.24 5
2 Buffalo 108.7 129.76 2
3 Sheep 56.06 90.71 3
4 Goat 135.17 216.66 1
5 Camel 0.4 3.26 1
6 Pig 10.29 2.38 17
7 Poultry 729.2 80.24 18

Comperison 19th census B/W Raj.and Indian

S. No. Animal 2007 2012 Growth/Decrease

1 Cattle 1.21 crore 1.33 Crore Growth 9.94 %
2 Buffalo 1.1 Crore 1.29 Crore Growth 9.94 %
3 Sheep 111.89 Lakh 90.71 Lakh Decrese 18.66 %
4 Goat 215.02 lakh 216.66 Lakh Growth 0.76 %
5 Camel 4.21 lakh 3.26 Lakh Decrease 22.79 %
6 Poultry 49.93 lakh 80.24 Lakh Growth 60.69 %

Animal density ( 19th census)k

 Number of animal in one km area is known Animal density/.
 Highest animal density:- Dusa,Rajsamend(292/km2)
 Lowest animal density :- Jaselmer (83/km2)

Position of animal in Raj. k

 Highest cattle population :- Udaipur
 Highest Buffalo population :- Alwar
 Highest Goat,Camel and Sheep population :- Barmer
 Highest Pig population :- Bharetpur
 Highest poultry population :- Ajmer

Production of Livestock (2014-15) ½

S.N. Production India Rajasthan

1 Milk Production 145.73 M. ton 16.93 Thousand ton
2 Wool Production 48.5 Million ton 14.46 Tho.ton
3 Meat Production 6.73 Million ton 181 Tho.ton
4 Egg Production 78.48 Million ton 132 Million ton

NBAGRR
 National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (Karnal) Hariyana
 Main work of NBAGR is given breed information.
 169 breed till aug.4, 2017.
S.N. Animal Breeds no.

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1 Sheep 42
2 Cattle 41
3 Goat 28
4 Buffalo 13
5 Camel 9
6 Poultry 18

Animal % in Indiar
 Cow :- 37 % Goat :- 26 %
 Buffalo :- 21 % Sheep :- 12 %
 Others :- 4 %

Rajasthan Rank in India :-

 Buffalo – 3rd (Ist UP IInd MH)
 Goat – Sheep – 2nd (Ist AP)
 Cow – 6th
 Poaltry – 5th (Rajasthan Ajmer 1st) Lowest – Churu
 Camel – Ist

Classification of animals )
 There are three type animal based on stomach:-
1. Ruminant :-
 Stomach are devided into four part :-
 A.Rumen B. Reticulm C. Omesum 4. Abomesum
 Bigest part of stomach is Rumen,Which function is storage of feed.
 Smallest part of stomach is Reticulm, it have honey comb structure.
 It fuction is storage of waste material (screw,stone etc.)
 Abomesum is known true stomach,it function is secretin digective sap and enzyme.
 Eg.:- Cattle,Buffalo,Goat,Sheep,Deer,Nilgae,Zebra.

2. Non-Ruminant :-
 Non-Ruminant’s stomach are devided only one part.
 Eg.:-Horse,Pig,Dog,Monkey,Elephant,Donkey and Human
3. Pseudo-Ruminant :-
 Psedu ruminant ‘s stomach are devided in three part,Omesum is absent in stomach.
 Eg;-camel

Body Temperature of Animals )

S.N. Animal 0C 0F

1 Buffalo 37.5 100

2 Cow 38.5 101.5
3 Sheep 38.9 102
4 Goat 39.1 102.5
5 Poultry 41.7 107
6 Camel 42 107-108

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 Buffalo – 101oF (Summer) 98.5oF (Winter) Vegina temp – 39oC.

 Body temperature measure by put on thermometer on rectum.
 Pulsation rate of humanbeing:- 100beats per min.
 Respiration rate of humanbeing :- 12-20 breaths per min.
 Blood pressure:- 80-120 mm Hg.
Respirationand Pulsetion Rate of Animal :-
Respiration
S. Pulseation rate
Animal Rate
No. beats /min.
breaths/ min.
1 Cow 20 – 25 40 – 50
2 Buffalo 16 – 18 45 – 50
3 Sheep – Goat 12 – 20 70 – 80
4 Poultry 15 – 30 300
5 Camel 5-7 15-20
Pulse Rate in Some Animals :-
1. Cow – 40-50 per minute (measured at coxigeul
2. Buffalow – 40-50 / minute (measured at coxigeul auter)
3. Goat – 60-70/minute at Jugluar veins
4. Sheep – 60-70/ minute at Jugluar veins
5. Hen – 300 / min.
6. Horse – 30-35 / min.
7. Camel – 15-20 / min.
Respiration or Brath Speed in some animals :-
1. Cow – 12-16 / mint.
2. Buffalo – 14-18/mint.
3. Goat – 12-20/mint.
4. Sheep – 14-22/mint.
5. Hen – 40-50/mint.
6. Camel – 5-7/mint.

Respiration Rate)
 Stethoscope:- Determination of heart beat.
 Sphegnometer:- Determination of blood pressure.

Pulsation rater
 In cattle and Buffalo:-Coccygeal auter (Prsent in tail )
 In horse (30-40 bpm):- Maxillary sinuses (Persent in lower Jaw)
 In sheep and Goat 60-70:- Femoral artery/Juglur veins (Thigh of hind leg )

Care and management of new born calf :-

 Remove the mucus from the nose and mouth and clean it.
 If the calf does not start breathing, artificial respiration should be used by pressing and relaxing
alternatively, the chest walls with hands.
 Another method is to hold the calf by the rear legs and lift from the floor with the head down.

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 The navel cord of the calf is tied about 2.5 cm away from the body and cut about one centimetre below
the ligature. Apply tincture of iodine to the cut end and repeat it 2-3 days. This will prevent infection.
 Feed the Colostrum within 15 minutes of calving, the calf should be fed with colostrum at the
rate1/10th of body weight and buffalo calves at the rate 1/15th of body weight.
 This helps to protect the calf against various diseases as it contains antibodies.
 If muconium (first faecal matter) is not voided out, mild enema by dissolving soap in a liter of warm
water should be given.
Calf rearing methods :-
1.Suckling method:-
 In this method calf rearing with mother.
 It is most popular method.
2. Weaning method:-
 It is sientific method.
 Weaning Veening method is best method and it is suitable for dairy farm. and best for clean milk
production.
 The calf is separated from mother is 24-28 hrs. after birth in weaning method.

Castration)
 Remove testis in male animal so he can’t show sexual charcter.
 Catrated animal are used meatIdenti,drought purpose.
 Age of castration :-1 Year
 Three method of castration:-
1. Burdijo castreter
 Excellent and best method
 It is used in Buffalo and cattle.
2. Elastreter or Ruber Band method:-
 Painful method, Useed in Sheep and Goat
3. Surgerical method:- It is used in Pig.

Identificationa and Mariking in Animals )

1. Branding :-
 Branding is two type Cold and Hot method.
2. Tattooing:-
 The best method of permanent identification is by tattooing the inside of the ear with indelible ink.
Mostly used in Cattle and Buffalo.
3. Notching :-
 Ear is notched in V shaped used in Pig and Sheep.
4. Panting method :-
 Colour are used on the back of animal.
 Eg.:- Sheep
5. Tagging method :-
 Tag are used in ear.In this method metal and plastic tag are used.
 Metal ear tags or button with letters and numbers may be inserted in the ear.
6. Neck strap or neck-chain with a number plate attached, make an easy method of identification.It is used
in Sheep, Goat and hen.

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7. Ring method:- It is used for Birds identification.

Dehorning / Disbudding
Method of disbudding:-
1. Chemical method
 It is execellent method of disbudding.
 In this method KOH and NaOH rod are used for for disbudding.
 Best age for disbudding :-3-10 day.
2. Dehorner Method :-
 In this method 1000 oF hot dehorner instrument are put on Horn bud.
 It is used at 7-15day(1-2 week) age.
3. Elastretor/Ruber band method :-
 It is suitable only 10 cm long horn.
 It is used at 3-6 week age.

Determination of Animal Age

There are three method for determination of animal age.

1. Teeth method:-
 It is best method for age determination.
 When all teath are present in mouth thus is known full mouth.
 When one or more than one teath are broken in mouth thus is known broken mouth.
 When all teath are broken in mouth thus is known gummer mouth.
 Dental Ped :- It is hard layer of tissue present in lower jaw.
 Its function is cutting of Roughess.
𝐼+𝐶+𝑃𝑀+𝑀
 Dental Formulla :- ×2
𝐼+𝐶+𝑃𝑀+𝑀

No. of teeth in cattle, Buffalo, Sheep and Goat :-

 Temporary (0030/4030), Permanent (0033/4033)
 No. of teeth in Horse :- Temporary (3133/3133), Permanent (3130/3130)
Determination af age :-
 Ist pair of Incisor teeth came on :- 2 Year
 2nd pair of Incisor teeth came on:- 2.5 Year
 3rd pair of Incisor teeth came on:- 3.5 Year
 4th pair of Incisor teeth came on:- 4 Year
Types of teeth :-
A. Incisor :-
 It is Present in lower claw of ruminant animal. Eg-Cattle, Buffalo, Goat,Sheep and Camel.
 Present in Non- ruminant animal. Eg.- Dog, Cat etc.
 No. of incisor teeth :- 8 Teeth (4Pair)
B. Canine :-
 Only Present in Non- ruminant animal. Eg..Dog, Cat etc.
 Absent in ruminant.
 No. of canine teeth:- 4 teeth (2Pair)
C. Premolar :-
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 No. of premolar teeth :- 12 teeth (6pair)
D. Molar :-
 It came only one time in life.
 No. of Molar teeth:- 12 Teeth

2. By Horne:-
 In this method animal age are determined using by no.of ring on horn.
 First ring are formed on 3 year age after every year one ring are formed.
 Age = No. of ring on horn + 2
3. By showing physical condition and hoof of animal:-
 In this method age are determined based on physical condition of animal.

Determination of Animal Weight

 Body weight of the calf is recorded on a balance along with length, breadth and height for the
computation of milk allowance.
 Well fed cross bred calves on an average should gain 400 grams a day or 2.5 to 3 kilograms per week.
A. Shafer’s formula (In pond ) = Length(Inch) × Cheast animal hoop (inch)2

300

B. Agrwal’s formula(Ser) = Length (Inch) × Cheast animal hoop (inch)

 If cheast animal hoop is < 65 inch than A = 9.0

 If cheast animal hoop is 65-80 inch than A= 8.5
 If cheast animal hoop is > 80 inch than A= = 8.0
 1 Ser = 0.93 kg/930 gm

Selection Methods in Animal

1. Individual Selection :-
 In this method animal are selected its qulative and quantative charcters.
2. Parental/Pedegre Selection :-
 In this method animal are selected on it pedgre record.
 Animal are selected in small age.
3. Score card selection :-
 It is excellent and best method of animal selection.
 In this method animal are selected based on score card.
 In this method animal are selected when score card :- > 75 Marks
 Score card:-
 Normal body:- 30 Marks
 Dairy charcters :- 20 Marks
 Milk charcters :- 30 Marks
 Physical capacity :-20 Marks
Animal are devided into three category based on score card:-
 Good :- 0-50 Marks

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 Best :- 51- 75 Marks
 Better :- 76-100 Marks
4. Show ring selection :-
 Animal are selected by this method in fairs and demonstration.
5. Progeny test/Genetic/Genotype Selection :-
 This method are used for selection of male/ Bull animal.
 This mehod are more expensive and time consuming.

Reproduction)
 Average age of animal :-20-23 Year
 Age of animal for reproduction :-2.5 – 3Year
 Average weight of animal :- 250-300 kg
 Weight is more important than age.
Pubrity – Animal is eligible for pregnancy :-
 Indian Cow – 24 months
 Hybrid Cow – 18 months
 Buffalo – 30 months
 Goat & sheep – 12 months
Estrus period :– Female animal is interest for sex
Heat cycle :– Physical reaction b/w two estrus period.
Calving :– New born child is exit from hister ecotony
 Buffalo & cow is reestrus in 19-21 days
 Goat & sheep is reestrus in 16 days
 Buffalo & cow come in estrus after pastation – 60 days after
 Female aniamal pregnent after 12-18 hrs of estrus period (last period time)
 In goat & sheep estrus period is 2-3 days.
 Best time of animal pregnency (cow & buffalo) 3 years age or 300 kg weight.
 Before 6 week of delivery this aniamal diet is known as staming up diet.
 Down cover – Before 15 days of birth the animal is keep in child bed home or delivery home is known
as down cover.
 Animal is re-estrus after pasteuration – 60 days.
 Drying – Milking process is close before 60 days of pasteution.
 Extra deit of pregnent buffalo & cow for new born child is 2.5 kg but in goat & sheep extra diet are
mainly use minerals 250 gm/days.
 New calf per day increase in weight > 500 gm for 1 months
 Placenta is drop after 6-8 hrs. of calving
 Animal husbandry is started before 6000 years of Isa birth
 60-70% ditlit (expenditure) of total expenditure on diet & 30-40% expenditure on management in
animal reaning.
Gromming :- Main aim of growwming is best cerculation of blood.
Artificial Insemination :-
 Collection of Semen from a healthy & desired bull. A bull sperm collection can be pregnent 3000
cows.
 Age of the bull for seman collection – 5-8 years old.
 Season of the artificial seman collection – wintery

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 Temperature of artificial vigna is 39.5oC
 Storage of seman at 196oC temp. in liquid nitrogen.
 Artificial vigna angle from ground is set up at 45oC
 Rectogigenial Instrument – These are those instruments which is used for artificial insemination
Gestration Period :-
S.N. Animal Gestration Period
1 Cattle 282 Day
2 Buffalo 310 Day
3 Horse 340 Day
4 Goat 151 Day
5 Sheep 147 Day
6 Camel 390 - 410 Day
7 Pig 114 Day
8 Poultry (Incubation period) 21 Day
9 Muscovey Duck (Incubation period) 35 Day
10 Turkey (Incubation period) 28 Day

Reproductive stage in Animal:-

S.N. Animal Pubrty Oestrus Heat period
cycle
Cow 1-Deshi 36 - 40 Month 10 - 24
1 21 Day
2- Hybrid 22 Month (18)Hour
2 Buffalo 36 - 42 Month 21 Day 12–36(27) Hour
3 Sheep 12 - 18 Month 16 - 17 Day 24 - 36 Hour
4 Goat 15 - 19 Month 18 -21 Day 24 -48 Hour
5 Camel 36-48 Month 14 Day -

 Length of cervix in cow is 4 inch and diameter is 1 inch.

Cow)
Scientific Name :- Bos indicus (With Hump), Bos tarsus (Humpless)
According to National Animal Genetic Bearua registered breed of cow is 30.
Family :- Bovidie
Classification of Desi cow breed

Milch Dual purpose Draught

Sahiwal Hariana Amrit Mahal
Gir Kakrej Nagori
Sindi Rathi Malvi
Dheoni Tharparker Holiker
Mewati
Ongle

1. Sahiwal :-
 Origin place :-Ravi river near to montagameri of Pakisthan.
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 Best breed for Dairy purpose.
 Highest milk producing breed of cow in India (Indegenous breed)
 Sahiwal milk is sweet due to highest lactose content..
 Known Loola due to loose skin. In local areas also known Multani
 It tail is long and sweep like.
 Average Milk production :- 2000 – 2500 liter Fat :- 4-5%, Lactose:- 5%(Highest sweet)
2. Gir:- Origin – Gujrat
Dariy breed
Ear is like as leaf
3. Sindhi:-
B. Dual Purpose Breeds:-
1. Hariyana:-
 Origin – Haryana
 Dual purpose breed
 Tail long and end part black colour.
2. Kankrej :-
 Origin – Gujrat
 Dual Purpose breed
 Famous for "Sweichal"
3.Tharparkar :-
 Origin – Sindh Prant (Pakistan)
 Dual purpose breed of cow (best)
 Mainly found in Rajasthan dist- of Jaisalmer, Badmer & Jalor.
 Colour – White to brwon (In winter season dark brown)
 Also known as Border Breeds.
4. Rathi:-
 Origin – Alwar
 Highly found in Ganganagar & Bikaner
 Also known as Kamdhenu of Rajasthan
 Also known as poor man breed of cow.
 Colour lighten red
Drougt Breed :-
1. Nagori :-
 O.P.:- Nagore District of Rajasthan
 Used for Ag.Work
 Superior among drought breed
 Its ox are famous for high running speed.

2. Amrit Mahal :-
Drought breed
Found in S. India (Kerla, TN, Kn)
3. Malvi :-
Malva region of MP
Drought Purpose Breed

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Exotic Breeds of Cattle :-
1. Jersy :- Origin – France / England
Dual purpose (exotic) (Milk+Meat)
Required high management, Fat 5.25% (Highest in Exotic breed)
2. H.F.:- Origin – Holand
Fat – 3.5%
Colour white with black spot
6000 kg milk average per calving
Highest recoreded 63 kg milk / day
Weight male – 1000 kg, female 80 kg.
3. Brown Swiss :-
 O.P. Switzerland,Colour :- Brown Dairy breed
 Mainly found in Karnataka
5. Red-Den :- O.P. :- Denmark,Colour:-Red, Dairy breed
6. Ayer-shaer:- O.P.:-Scoteland
 Attractive and most beautiful breed of cow in world.,Dairy breed.

Hybrid breed of Cow:-

1. Karan Swiss:- Brown swiss × Sahiwal (Developed by NDRI, Karnal), Dairy breed.
2. Karan Frizz :- H.F. × Tharparker (Developed by NDRI, Karnal)
3. Jersind :- Jersi × Sindhi (Developed by Allahabad ag institute)
4. Freswal :- H.F. × Sahiwal (By Meret)
5. Sunendeni :- Brown swiss × Jersey × 𝐻. 𝐹. (Composit breed)
Other breed of Cattle:-
1. Veture:-.
 O.P. :- Veture of Demen district in South india
 It is known Miniture cow due to shortest breed in world.
 Height of veture 87 cm. It is recorded in Guinness Book.
2. Nari :-
 O.P.:-Sirohi district of Raj.
 Its horn is long and snag so easily faced dangerous animal of forest.
 It protects its honour.

3. Rath:- Alwar district of Rajasthan.

Special Point :-
 Highest heavy breed among Indian breed:- Kakerj.

Buffalo)
 C.N. – Swarmp – 48, Europian/Water – 54 / 50

Breeds of Buffalo :
According to NBAGR, Karnal (HR) 10 breed is registered to baffalo
1. Murrha :-
 Origin – Haryana and Punjab
 Best breed of buffalo in world

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 Highest milk producing buffalo breed
 Horn is rounded type
 Average fat 7.6%
 Hump is absent
 Colour – Jet Black
 Milk – 2000-2300 kg
2. Surati :-
 Origin :– Gujrat (Baroda)
 Horn is scikle type.
 Body is boat type
 This breed animal are mainly found in Dungarpur and Banswara dist. of Rajasthan state.
 Colour is almoned to black
 Also known as city breed
 Average fat 7.1%
 Milk – 1700 kg/ season
3. Bhadawari:-
 Origin – UP (Agra)
 Highest fat % - 13%
 Average milk production – 1200 kg.
 Most popular breed for ghee production
 Colour lighted red colour
4. Nili Ravi :-
 Origin – Montgamari (Pakistan)
 Found ball eye (white eyes)
 Pure breed are found in shore of Satlaj river.
 IInd milk producing breed after murha.
 Average milk production – 2000 kg./season
5. Zaffarabadi :-
 Origin – Gujarat
 Large size breed of buffalo so it is called mini elephant given by NDRI
6. Mehsana :-
 Origin – Gujrat
 Developed cross b/w Murrha x Surati
 Long time milking period in buffalo breeds
 Average milk production is 1850 kg.
7. Pratma :-
 First hybrid breed (in vitro breed) of buffalo
Other breeds :– Toda, Marathawara, Pandarpuri, Maghpuri etc

Goat)
 Z. N. :- Capra hirucus
 2n = 60
 Goat is known Poor man’s cow.

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Breed of Goat :-
I. Milch II. Meat III. Fiber IV. Exotic breed
1Bittle 1Black bangal 1Angora 1 Alpine
2 Jamunapari 2 Marwari 2 Gaddi 2 Sanen
3.Barberi 3Kashme 3 Chengthengi/Chengu 3 Togenberg
4 Jhekrana 4 Sirohi
5 Sureti 5 Sengmneri
6 Malber 6 Chengu
7 Jhalawadi
8 Osamavadhi
9 Mehesana
10 Kuchi
 Hybrid breed :- Angloneubian
1. Jamunapari :-
 Origin Place:- Etawa (U.P.)
 Romen nose
 Dual purpose and majestics breed.
 Pendulated curved long ear.
 Thick long hairs on hind legs.
 Average weight of male – 90 kg & female – 60 kg.
 Average fat – 3.5%
 Best pure breed found Chambel and Yamuna Source.

2. Beetul :- Origin : Somali (Africa)

 Origin :- Gurdaspur (Punjab)
 Roman nose and Dual purpose breed
 Presence of beard in male absent in female.
 Similar breed of Jamunapari but size is small.
 Horn is flat and bending on back side.
 Fat :- 4.5%

3. Sirohi :-
 Origin :- Sirohi (Raj.)
 Dual pupose and Brown colour breed

4. Marwari:-
 Marwar region(Jodhpur) of Rajasthan.
 Diseses Resistant breed.
5. Barbari:-
 Origin – Britise Somania
 Mainly usefull for cities areas and also known as city goat
 In 12-15 month calving is two times.
 Per calving time give two child is main characters of this breed.
6. Togenburg:-
 Origin – Switzerland
 It is dairy / milk breed

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 Per day give 5-7 kg. milk
 Found smooth hairs
 Colour chocklaty & brown.
 Milking period 305 days and production is 2613 kg.
 Average fat 3.5-7%
 Also known as milk champion in America.
 Horn less breed of goat
Exotic breeds :-
1. Sanen :-
 Origin – Switzerland
 Milk Queen in World.
 Dairy Breed
 Bread is found in make & female both.
2. Angora :-
 Origin – Turkey
 Dairy bread
 Mohair is obtain from angora.
 Goat breed like sheep
 Note : Angora wool obtain from Rabit
3. Pashmina :-
 Found in Jammu & Kashmir
 Morcco leather is obtain from pasmina.
 Note : Pasmina wool is obtain from cheengu
4. Cheengu :-
 Fond in hilly areas
 Pasmina wool obtained
5. Jakharaha :-
 Origin – Beharod (Alwar)
 Indigenous breed of goat
 Large size breed
6. Anglo-Nuvian :-
 Developed at England
 Cross b/w Jamunapuri x Nuvian
 Also known Jersy cow
7. Alpline:-
 Origin – Europe
 Dairy breed
8. Gaddi :– Hilly area suitable
9. Parbatsari and Kashmiri breeds are also goat.
10. Black Bengal :– Origin – West Bengal
 Best quality meat obtain.

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Sheep )
 Sheep :- Ovies aries, 2n = 54
 In world total 200 sheep breeds are found.
 In world total 40 sheep breeds are found.
 Central Sheep and Wool Reserch institute :- Avikanager (Tonk)
 Biggest breed of Wool in asia is situated in Bikaner.
 First clone of sheep is Dolly, it is developed by Eian Wilmut in 1996.
 Doging :- Killing of parasite inside the sheep body.
 Dusting :- Killing of parasite outside the sheep body.
 Sheep breed are classified into four categories according to climate by scientist Rite (1954).
 Right scientist classified sheep breeds in three classes according to climate.
Classification of sheep breed :-
1. Chokla:-
 Origin – Rajasthan (Churu, Jhunjunu & Sikar)
 Also known as marino of Rajasthan and in local language sekhawati or chhapar
 Found roam nose
 Best quality wool production in Raj. Sheep breed.
 Mouth colour is generally black in 10% mouth color is white.
2. Marino :-
 Origin – Spain
 Average wool production – 5-9 kg.
 Large size breed of sheep
 Female is hornless but in male horn is winding in backside.
 Best quality wool production in world
3. Malpura :-
 Origin – Tonk
 Main purpose of this breed is meat production.
 Wool is low category. Wool is used in gamely & galeebi making
4. Jaiselmeri :-
 Origin – Jaisalmer
5. Avivaster :-
 Developed at CSWRI-Tonk
 Cross b/w Marino X Chokla
 Main purpose wool Production
 Also known as Marino of India
6. Avikalin :-
 Developed at CSWRI-Tonk
 Cross b/w Marino x Malpura
7. Karaku :-
 Origin – Central Asia
 Purpose – Meat & Pelt production (Wool from new born baby)
8. Mazzuffnagari / Sahabadi :-
 Origin – UP
 Purpose – Wool Production
9. Nali :- Origin – Hanumangarh

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10. Pungal / Bikaneri :-
 Origin – Bikaner
 Body colour black & mouth white
 Main purpose of this breed is carpet wool
11. Magra :- Origin – Bikaner region
12. Mandya – Karnataka, Completely white colour breed
13. Sonadi :-
 Origin – Udaipur region
 Ear is large size
 Tripel purpose breed of sheed (Milk + Meat + Wool)
 Sheep breed like goat
14. Lohi :-
 Origin – Pakistan
 Large size ear is similar to leaf
 Main purpose of this breed is meat
15. Hissardali :-
 Cross b/w Bikaneri x Marino
16. Bhadarwal – Hilly areas suitable
Other breeds :– Daccani, Nillion & Rampur busair (Large size breed)

Camel)
 Family:- Camelidie
 Single hump camel Cemellus dromederius,arebian (In India)
 Two humpcamel :- Cemellus bacterians(In Ladak)
 Natioan camel Reserch institute :- Jhorbir (Bikaner)1984.
 Single hump are found in india.
 In India highest population of camel – Rajasthan
 In Rajasthan highest population – Badmer
 Lowest population – Jhalawar
 Camel is known Sheap of Desret.
 Must is known Breeding stage in camel.
 God of camel – Pabuji (Cast which mainly rear camel – Rebari/Rayika)
 Jack of all trade on camel skin – Hisamudddin
 Average weight of camel – male 700 kg Female 500 kg
 Open area for camel – 70-100 ft2
 Per day camel salt requirement – 75-150 gm
 Water requirement of camel – 18-36 liter / day
 Gestration period 390 – 395 days
 Most serious disease of camel – Sarrha
 Sarrha : -C.O. –Protozoa, (Tripenosoma ivansai)
 Discovered by – Gripthus Ivan
 Control – Magahol 205 I.V. Injection
 Best breeding time in camel – Nov.-March
 Average speed of camel – 3.5 – 4.5 km/hr.

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Feed management for camel (CCRI, Bikaner):-
Straw/Roughess
S.N. Age Graain (kg) Salt (gm)
(kg)
1 < 1 year 2 0-5 15
2 1 to 2 Year 4 1-0 25
3 2- 3 Year 6 1-5 35
4 >3 Year 8 2-0 45
5 Camel bull 10 2-5 50
Breeds of Camel :-
1. Bikaneri :-
 Origin – Bikaner (Raj.)
 Highest population of camel breed
 Beautiful breed in world
 Stock on skulls are main character of this breed
 Main purpose – Agrl work and transfer
 Average height – 10-12 feet Colour dark brown to black
2. Jaisalmeri :-
 Origin – Jaisalmer
 Average hight 7-10 feets
 Main purpose – to military and rider
 Colour – brown
3. Mewadi :-
 Found in Udaiur, Sirohi and Gujarat
 Origin – Punjab
 Down lips is over arch
 Mainly usefull for transfer
 Only rider tamous breed of camel is gomat
 Gomat breed is mainly found in Jodhpur dist.
Diseases in Animals )
S. Causol Organism Diseases
No.
1 Bacterial Disease H.S., Anthrax, Entrotoximiya,Black quarter, Mastitis, Diharia,
Brucellosis,Pneumonia,Tuberculosis,Typhoid,Cholera.

2 Viral Diseases Rinderpest/Plague,FMD, Swine fever, Pox, Blue tongue, Marek,

Ranikhet (New castle), Bronchitis
3 Fungal Diseases Aflatoxicosis
4 Protozoa Diseases Anplasmosis,Coccidiosis,Tripanosomiasis(Sura),Theileriasis,Tick
fever

5 Metabolic Diseases Milk Fever (Ca deficiency) or Hypocalcaemia, Acetonemia or

Hypoglycaemia (Ketosis)
6 Dietary Tympanites or Bloat impaction
7 Parasitic Ecto parasite : Tick, lice and mite
Endo parasite : Tape, Round

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Bacterial Disesase of Animals)

1. Anthrax :-
 Other Name:- Splenic Fever,Gilti, Jhere fever,Plia fever,Wishheri
 C.O. :- Bacillus anthresis (G+)
 Mainly in Ruminent in summer season, Most affected sheep.
 It is contagenious to man OR zootonic diseases.
 Bloody discharge from the natural body openings.
 Rise in body temperature (1070F) , Swelling lymph gland
 Wool sorter's disease (Acquire fatal pneumonia) in man is due to the inhalation of anthrax spores by
workers in the wool and hair industries.
 Treatment :- Anthrax spore vaccine(In July -Aug. month)
2. Hemorrhagic Septicemia (H.S.) :-
C.O.:- Pasteurella multocida (This bacteria are discovered by Boliger and Kit(1885) in Europe)
 Cow:- P.boviseptica, Buffalo:-P.buveliseptica
 Other Name: - Ghurka, Ghoteua, Navik fever.
 It is serious disease of ruminent specially Buffalo in 2 to 3 year age.
 Mortility rate 80 to 95%.
 Symptoms: - i. Acute form : Septicemia ii. Sub acute form : edematous swelling iii.Chronic form :
with pulmonary infection
 Acute High temperature 106oF rapid and Difficult breathing with stretorous sound, discharge from
nostrils and watery faeces dehydration, prostration and death.
 Swelling in the throat.
 Incubation period 1-2 day.
 Treatment : injection of sulphadimidine
 Prevention : Vaccination (Galgotu composit vaccine) once 1 year before rainy season
 H.S.vecine (May-June)
3. Black Quarter (B.Q.) :-
 C.O. :- Clostridium chauvoei (G+)
 Other Name :- Black leg,Farrya
 Young stock mostly affected 6months to 2years disease out break which the onset of rainy season.
 Symptom : Animals may die with out showing symptom obvious sign – crepitant swelling in hind and
fore quarters which crackles when rubbed due to gas in the muscle.
 Lameness Fever twitching of muscle affected region is hot and painful but becomes cold and painless.
 Skin over affected area dry, hard and dark, affected part is black or dark red - characteristic rancid
smell.
 Mainly in Cattle,Buffalo, Sheep and Goat.
 Prevention : vaccination – before onset of rainy season – 5ml –polyvalent s/c (clostridium sp.).
4. Mastitis :-
 Causaal Organism :- Mainly Streptococus agalactiae, E-coli, Staphylococcus (In India), Coryne
bacterium ( In non-milking animal)
 Transmission: Infection accurs via the teat canal contaminated environment, skin of udder, milking
equipment, milker etc.
 Major economical loss to dairy industry due to reduced milk production.
 Symptoms : Hot, Swollen, painful udder with purulent yellow secretion.

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 Inflammation of the udder – physical and chemical changes in milk
 Rise in body temperature enlargement of udder and cessation of milk secretion.
 Milk secretion becomes blood stained and may contain pus.
 Diognosis : early detection is important by physical examination (Strip cup test) of the udder.
 It is high milking animal diseases specially in Cattle, Buffalo.
 Vaccine :- Musti vek
 Feed selenium salt with vitamin.
11. Entrotoximiya :-
 It is contagenios diseases of sheep and goat.
 Enterotoxemia, also known as overeating or pulpy kidney disease, is a condition caused by the
absorption of a large amount of toxins from the intestines.
 C.O.:- Clostridium perfringens/belicie (types D)
 It is mainly sheep and goat diseases young animals are most susceptible. Sudden and high mortality
rates are concentrated in lambs and kids.
 In this diseases Waist show rainbow shape.
 Vaccine:- Entrotoximiya vaccine (Feb. - March )
12. Brucellosis :-
 C.O. :-Brucella avores
 Abortion after 6-9 month.
 In this diseases plecenta not removed.
 It is transmited in human.
 Vaccine :- Brucella vaccine (only in female)Foot and Mouth disease : Once in 4 months/9
 Viral Diseases of Animals)
1. Rinderpest /Cattle plague :-
 Causative organism : Sieveing type virus (Discovered by Nicole in 1902) Morbillivirus Family
paramyxoviridae
 X-Breed and Pure bred – Highly susceptible
 Incubation period of the disease 3-7 days
 Symptoms: - fever, loss of appetite, and nasal and eye discharges.
 Mortality rate :- 80 to 100 % animal are died.
 Death – 10th day after on set of symptom
 Prevention and Control
A. GTV (Goat Tissue Virus) :-
 Prepared by Adward (1926) in IVRI.
 Mostly useful in India.
 Immunity – 3 years 1 ml s/c – Neck
B. Lepinized Virus Vaccine :-
Mostly useful in China, Resistancy – 5 year, Prepared by Rabbit’s body
C. Bird Vaccine – Prepare – Hen egg, Resistancy 5 year .
Vaccine must be given at morning time in jan - fab Month.
Vaccine not use in pregnate female.
Animal plague eradication plan:- 1 oct,1954
Animal plague eradication plan By WHO :- 8 Aug.,2011
From may 26, 2006 provisionally declard free from Rinder pest by WAHO.
2. Foot and Mouth Disesase (FMD) :-

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 Causative organism: Virus, 1st time discovered by loflar and frosay in 1889.
 Virus A and O discoverd by Velly and Kerry and C is discovered by Waldmen and Tratven in 1926.
 Genus : Apthovirus family : Picornaviridae
 Seven type virus :- O,A,C Asia I, SAT 1,2,3
 In India :- A,O,C Virus
 Asia I, SAT 1,2,3 in South Africa and Asia.
 Virus D- Europian Country
 Transmission : Direct contact through water , manure, Pasture and cattle attendant
 Symptom: Incubation period 2 – 5 days , Temperature 40oC, Drooling of saliva,Lesions in foot and
mouth.
 Contraol – Poassium Permagnate 2% for foot wash
 Copper sulphate 1% for mouth wash
 Vaccination:- polyvalent (FMD vaccine) – twice in one year (Sept.-Oct and April-May)
 Apthization :- Transmitted of saliva from one to other animal.
2. Blue Tongue : Viral Disease Virus – Orbivirus – Reoviridae,Transmitted by Culicoides midges,
Mainly in Sheep.
Protozoan Diseases)
1. Tick Fiver :-
 C.O.:- Bevicia bijemina (In India)
 Transmitted by Ticks and Ecto paracite
 It is mainly cattle and buffalo diseases.
 Symptoms:- Dark coffe colour urine due to deterioration of RBC.
 Suddunly temperature decrease,80-90% animal death.
 High fever (107oF)
2. Sarrha :-
 Main diseases of Camel
 Other name :- Tiversa,Sda,Gltya.
 C.O. :-Trypanosoma evansai
 Transmiter:- Tabanus flies

Metabolic Diseases )
Milk Fever/Hypocalcemia :-
 Parturient paresis, metabolic disease in cows soon after calving.
 Cause :- Serum calcium levels fall in cows after calving as a result of failure to mobilize calcium
reserves and of the development of negative calcium balance in late pregnancy.
 symptoms: Disease flares up with in 72 hours of calving initially the cows show excitement,
incoordination of movement muscular tremors in limbs and head, lying in recumbent position with her
head directed towards flank.
 In final stages subnormal temperature, dilatation of the pupil, impalpable pulse, coma and death.

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 Diagnosis of the disease is based on the occurrence of milk fever in recently calved animals.
 Treatment & Control :
400-500 ml calcium borogluconate with Vitamin D3 injected intramuscularly.
2.Acetonaemia (Ketosis)
 Ketosis is a metabolic disorder that occurs in cattle when energy demands (e.g. high milk production)
exceed energy intake and result in a negative energy balance. Ketotic cows often have low blood
glucose (blood sugar) concentrations.

Other Diseases
Bloat :- (TYMPANY) :-
 It is a disease of ruminants in which rumen and reticulum is over distended with the gases of
fermentation.
 Cause : Excess intake of fresh legumes and feeding of high grain ration lead to frothy bloat.
Obstuction to normal expulsion of gases from rumen by choking the oestophageal passage by corncob,
turnip and sugar beet cause free gas bloat.
 Symptoms : Acute form of tympany results in sudden death before rendering any aid to the affected
animal. In acute cases, the distension of the rumen occurs quickly, the flank and the whole abdomen is
enlarged.
 On percussion the left flank produces a drum like sound, Initially the animal frequently gets up and
lies down, kicks at belly and even rolls.
 Breath becomes difficult and is evidenced by oral breathing, protrusion of tongue.
 Control and Treatment :-
 Puncture the rumen with a sharp knife or with a trocar and canula to expel the gases.
 Administer orally oil of turpentine 60 ml well mixed with one litre of groundnut oil or gingelly oil or
cocounut oil.

System of Housing )
 Types of Housing –
1. Single row – Less than 15 animals
2. Double row – More than 15 animals
a. Tail to tail system b. Head to head system
 Advantages of tail to tail system
 It is best method of housing. No of animal is 36.
1. All animals get fresh air.
2. Spreading diseases through respiratory system is minimum
3.Supervision of animals are easy (60% of the time is being devoted on the hind quarters)
4.Cleaning is easy
 Disadvantages of tail to tail system
1. Spreading of diseases through digestive and reproductive
system is high
2. Drainage channel is not exposed to sunlight.
3. Feeding of animals is laborious
 Head to head system
 No.of animal is 28.
 1. Advantages and disadvantages – vice tail to tail system

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Manger length per animal

 Cow – 20-25 inch
 Buffalo pregnent cow & bull – 25-30 inch
 Calving Box – Size – 100-150 fit2
Floor space requirement per animal

S.N. Animal Closed space(feet) Open space(feet)

1 Calf (3 month) 10 – 12 40 – 50
2 Calf (3-6month) 15 – 20 50 – 60
3 Heifer 25 – 35 120 – 150
4 Cow 20 – 30 80 – 100
5 Buffalo 25 – 35 80 – 100
6 Milking animal 60 - 70 80 – 100
7 Pregnant cow 100 – 120 180 – 200
8 Bull 120 – 150 200 – 250
9 Camel 70-100

Floor space requirement per animal (m2)

S.N. Animal Covered area ( m2) Open area(m2)

1 Cow 3.5 7
2 Buffalo 4 8
3 Pregnant cow 4 8
4 Bull 12 12

Feed Stuff )
A. Roughage B. Concentrate C .Feed Suppliments D. Feed Addatives

Mineral Not nutrient

Less nutritive More nutritive)
CF :- > 18 % C.F. :- < 18 % Vitamin Eg.-Harmone,Antibiotic
TDN :- < 60 % TDN :- > 60 %
More bulky less bulky

 C.F. :- crude fibre

 T.D.N. :- Total digestable nutrient

Livestock Nutrition
 Straw/Roughes – Required high amount and leis degestible, Crud fibre - >18%
 Roughes are two types :- Dry & Green
Sillage – Sillage are mainly maked from maize & sorghum

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 Airless palace used for sillage making is known as sylo.
 pH range of sillage – 4-4.5
 Highly obligestible in nature.
 Acidic in taste
 Main aim of sillage making is provide green roughes in off seasen to animals
 Maistise conent in sillage is 65-70% & dry part 30-35%
 In one squre fit (fit2) fill 12-18 kg. sillage
 Sillage is prepared in 90 days
 Digestible Protein – 0%
Hey : Prepared from berseem & grasses
 Moisture in Hey – 15-20% K day protein 80-85%
 Make in 3-6 days.
Concentrates :-
 Concentrates are mainly source of carbohydrate, protein & fat to animal
 Crude fibre < 18%
 Protein rich constrants > 18%
 A mature animal (weitht 400 kg) provide 250 gm minerals, 3 kg crude protein, 3 kg total digestible
protein.
Roughage)

1.Succulant Roughage 2. Dry Roughage

60 – 90 % moisture 10 -15 % moisture
i. Grasses i. Straw/Stover (Maize)
ii. Cultivated green fodder Lignin content high
a. Leguminous :- Berseem
b. Non-leguminous :- Oat, Maize, Bajra ii. Hay

iii. Tree leaves

iv. Silage
v. Root crops :

Vitamin :-
 Vit.-B complex (B1/thiamine, B2/riboflavin, B6/pyridoxine, B12/cyanocobalamin), Nicotinamide,
Pantothenic acid, folic acid, choline, biotin, Vit.-C
 Vit.-A (Retinol), Vit.-D2 (ergocalciferol), Vit.-D3 (cholecalciferol), Vit.-E (alfa tocopherol), K
(phylloquinie)
 Vit.-A :- i. cattle & pig :- skin conditions, xerophthalmia, ii. Poultry :- retarded growth and high
mortality.
 Vit.-D :- i. young animals :- Rickets, ii. Old animals :- osteomalacia
 Vit.-E :- most animals fail to reproduce, white muscle disease
 Vit.-K :- i. Chicks : delayed clotting time of blood, ii. Ruminants : sweet clover poisoining or bleeding
disease.
 Vit.-B1 :- human : beriberi disease
 Vit.-B2 :- i. pigs : eye disease, ii. Chicks : curled toe paralysis
 Nicotinic acid :- dogs : black tongue

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 Vit.-B6 :- pigs : anemia & convulsions
 Pantothenic acid :- pigs : goose step
 Folic acid : rare in farm animals but will cause anemia and poor growth.
 Biotin : dermatitis and weight loss
 Vit.-C : farm animals not require this vit. But deficiency in man, monkey & guinea pig produce
“Scurvey”.
8. Antibiotics:-
 Antibiotics spare protein, amino acids and vitamin.
9. Hormone:-
 Hormone Effect on both skeleton & protein metabolism.
 Anabolic :- somatotropin, thyroxine, androgens.
 Catabolic :- estrogen, glucocorticoids.
10. Other :-
 i. Arsenicals, ii. Tranquillisers, iii. Copper Sulphate (0.1 % in pig), iv. Live Yeast Culture

Poultry Breeds
 Ist egg producing state in India – AP
 1st egg Producing dist- In Rajasthan – Ajmer
 Rajasthan has rank 5th in egg production.
 Lowest egg production in Raj. – Churu
 Highest indegenous breeds in Raj. – Banswara
 Average egg prodution in exotic breed – 230-240 eggs/ year
 Average egg production in Indegeous breed – 80 eggs/ year
 Average weight of egg – 58-60 gm (18 gm yolk, 34 gm albumin)
 Protein in egg – 11.2%
 Fat in egg – 11.8%
 Energy in egg – 80 kg Cal/egg
 Storage capacity of egg – winter – 7 days, summer 3 days.
Breeds of Hen (Exotic Breeds)
1. White leg horn :-
 Origin – Italy (Meditterian region)
 Main purpose – egg production
 240-260 eggs in a year (Highest egg production)
 Small in size and like beautifull
 Production started in 5-6 months age
 Egg colour – white
2. Rod Iraland Red :-
 Origin – America
 Dual purpose breed (egg + meet)
 Egg colour – Brown
3. Red Karnis :-
 Origin – England
 Purpose – Meat production
 Meat taste is best

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 Body colour – Yellow
4. Plymouth Rock :-
 Origin – America
 Mainly used for meat production
 Famous breed of America
Indigenous Breeds of Hen
1. Ashil :-
 Origin – Lucknow (Up)
 Main purpose – Sports and fighting
 Average 60 egg / year production
2. Chatgaon :-
 Origin – West Bengal
 Egg production 100 egg/year
3. Kudaknath :-
 Origin – Banswara (Raj.)
 Egg production – 80 eggs/ year
 Body colour black and also meat colour black
 Egg hatching in one time 8-10 eggs.
4. Ghagas :-
 Dual purpose breed (meat + egg.)

Poultry Management
 Hatching of egg by the use of hen (mainly kudaknath) – Natural process
 Artificial method by incubater (2000-3000 egg in one time)
 Kandler (condler) is used for egg testing
 Egg coat made up of – CaCO3 (94%)
 Egg hatch in 21 days
 Egg trainster from incubater to hatch nursery after 19 days.
 Temperature of incubator – starging 100-100 of their after temp. decreases per week
Broading method of new born hen baby (Chick)
A. Natural brooding
B. Artificial brooding :- at brooder house know as brooding (1-4 week stage)
 4-8 weeks age rear in cags
 8-20 Weeks aged hen – Grower management
 (Highest egg production in this stage)
 In high moisture in poultry develop coceidious
Dibiking : Removal of picker after 20-25 weeks stage (1/4 parts of picker) by dibiker instrument
Capen – Some character transfer from female to male .
Egg distance b/w egg to egg at storage – 1 cm
In covered and per hen space 800-100 cm2 (1 fit2)
In a 5 x 5 m2 cage easly 500 chicks are rear.
Diseases of Hen :-
1. Ranikeht – C.O. – Virus / Peramixo/Tarturense virus
Most serious disease of poultry
Also known as "New kesal disease"

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All birds are conjoint on a place
Control one day age bird – RDF, Strain vaccine injection 8 week – RDM Vaccine injection
2. Fowl pox / Checkak
C.O. – Virus (Hen – Boreeota Avian , Turky – B. Meligrandis)
Fowl pox disease is only single time attack to hen in its complete life cycle (about affect at 8-12 weeks
age)
Fowl pox is mainly three types –
(i) Dry cheehak
(ii) Coriza Cheehak
(iii) Diptheria Pownfox
Control – At the age of 6-8 week injection with Pigeon pox vaccine.
3. Marak
C.O. – Virus – Blindness
Control – Marak vaccine (at one day age stage)
4. Coccidiosis
C.O. – Protozoa / High inoisture
Control – Supply salfa drug to bird

Vacination in Hen.k
Age of Hen or
S.N. Diseases Vaccine Name
Chick
1 One Day Rani-Khet F-strain or Lasota
2 Under one week Mereks Mereks Vaccine
Powl Pox of
3 Under 2-3 Week Powl Pox Vaccine
Hen
Powl Pox of
4 Under 6-8 Week Powl Pox Vaccine
Hen
R2 B strain or
5 Under 8-12 Week Ranikhet
Muketeswer
6 >12 Weeek Diaeria Diheria

Milk Production )
 According to ICMR (Indian council of medicinal Research, New Delhi) per day per person
requirement of milk is 280 gm.
 In World highest milk producing contrg is – India (16%)
 In India highest milk production state is UP > MH > Rajasthan.
 In Rajasthan highest milk producing district is Jaipur.
 All world 15% cows are found in India. and 57% buffalo in India.
 In India 45% milk product by cow & 52% milk is produce by baffalo and approximate 3% of milk is
product by goat & sheeps.
 Indodesia Project is started in Karnataka. According to this project the local breeds are improved by
Gir to redden male.
 Indogerman Project in H.P. & U.P. Brown swiss male x Local breeds.
 Indo-swiss – Patiyala (Panjab) Brown swiss x Sahiwal or Hariyana breeds.
 A cow give 25 child in 12-18 months by embryo tansfer technical method.

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 Average milk production of Indian cows is 611 kg./annuam
Some Dairies of Rajasthan :-
1. Padma Dairy – Ajmer (Oldest Dairy of Raj.)
2. Saras Dairy – Jaipur
3. Urmal Dairy – Bikaner
4. Gangmool Dairy – Hanumangarh
5. Varmul Dairy – Jodhpur
6. Amul Dairy – Anand (Gujrat – 1965 & NDDB)
(Price of Milk = 5.5 x fat% + 2)
 Sub stations of Amul Dairy – Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi, Colkata & Banglore.
 White revolution is related to milk production.
 Operation flood : Word meaning is highest milk production is produce.
 Operation Flood started in three steps.
(i) I-Step – July 1970
Object – Highest milk production
(ii) IInd Step – 1 July 1978 to 1 July 195
Object – Make National Milk Grid
(iii) IIIrd Step – 195
Object –Maintain of 1st & IInd Step Objective
Rajasthan Co-operative dairy fedration is started in 1965 and work done in 1977.
Rajasthan co-operative dairy fedration struture is tired system.
(1) Milk co-operative committee – base village & members is Ranchers.
(2) Milk co-operative Union – Base – District Level (1 president & 14 directore)
(3) Dairy Fedration – In Rajasthan dairy fedration office is located at Jaipur. Dairy fedration is is started at
state level- 1 president & 5 directors in this.

Milk )
 Milk is found in animal before 15 days of new baby born and after 5 days of baby born.
 Milk is the lacteal secretion of the mammary glands of animals obtained 15 days before or 5 days after
calving.
 Milk can be cooled to 4oC before transporting to the milk plant.
 In milk fat average 6% and 8.5% of SNF
 3% fat is present in tond milk
 1.5% fat is available in double tond milk
 0.5% fat is available in seprata milk
 0% fat in scamid (skimid) milk
 Note:- fatless milk is known as skemid milk.
 From milk fat is seprated by cream seprator machine.
Components of milk
1. Water :- 80-90% (depend upon bread of animal & type of animal)
2. Lactose :- It is milk sugar & milk carbohydrates. It is made up of two monosaccharide / glucose +
glactose)
1 gm lactose give 4 kilokallery energy.
It is found in solution from.

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It is lowest changeable compound of milk.
Unstable in nature
It is a disaccharide.
3. Fat :- It is found in suspesion stage / enulsion form
4.5% fat found (average) in Indian cattle
1 gm fat give 9.3 kilokallory energy.
7.6% fat found in urrha breed of baffalo.
The fat prize determinate by NDDB (Anand, Gujrat) – 1965
Fat prize is calculated by 5.50 x fat% in milk + 2
It is highly changing compound of milk
4. Protein :- It is found in colloidal form / payus from
Protein are mainly three types are present in milk –
(i) Casein – (80%) Note – Albumin & globulin proteins are found in clostrol
(ii) Lactoabumin 20%
(iii) Lactoglobulin
Milk white colour due to casein protein but cow milk is yellow in colour due to carotene protein.
Ptotein in cow milk – 3.5%, baffalo – 3.6%
Highest protein % is found in sheep milk (5.38%)
5. Vitamines :- Vitamines are two types –
(i) Fat soluble (A,D,E,K)
(ii) Water soluble (B,C)
Vitamines A is highest found in milk.
Vitamine C is lowest in milk.
6. Mineral Matter (0.70 – 0.90%)
High concentration of Ca & P minerals
Deficient in Iron content
According to Rajasthan condition the scientific value of cow milk fat is 3.5% & SNF is 8.5%, baffalo
milk 6.00 & 9.00%.

Standard value of SNF and Fat % :-

S.N. Name of Animal Fat % SNF
1 Cow 3.5 8.5
2 Buffalo 6.0 9.0
3 Goat and Sheep 3.0 9.0
Tond Value:-
S.N. Type Fat % SNF
1 Single Toned Milk 3.0 8.5
2 Double Toned Milk 1.5 9.0
3 Skimed Milk 0.5 8.5 - 9.0 (8.7)

 Average composition of milk in different mammals (in per cent) :-

Species Water Fat Protein Total SNF Lactose Ash

solids
Cow 86.61 4.14 3.58 13.19 9.25 4.96 0.71

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Buffalo 82.76 7.38 3.60 17.24 9.86 5.48 0.78
Goat 87.00 4.25 3.52 13.00 7.75 4.27 0.86
Sheep 80.71 7.90 5.23 19.29 11.39 4.81 0.90
Camel 87.61 5.38 2.98 12.39 7.01 3.26 0.70
Human 87.43 3.75 1.63 12.57 8.82 6.98 0.21

Milking Methods :-
A. By machine milking :-
 Milk removal is largely dependent upon the differential pressure across the teat canal.
 The total differential pressure created by the milking machine is approximately 352 mmHg, in the case
of cattle and 400 mm Hg.in the case of buffaloes.
 The pressure facilitates the expulsion of milk from the canal.
B. By hand milking :-
1. Fisting/ Full hand method :- best method of milking
 In this method the whole teat is held first with the thumb and the index finger encircling the base of
the teat. The base of the teat is closed by the ring formed by the finger, so that the milk that is trapped
in the teat canal cannot slip back into the gland cistern.
 Simultaneously the teat is squeezed between the hollow of the palm and with the middle, ring and
index finger. The process is repeated in succession.
 It is the best method of hand milking though most of the milkmen follow knuckling method.
2. Knuckling method :-
 Many milkers tend to bend their thumb against the teat canal and drag the milk out.
 This practice should be avoided as it is injurious to the teat.
3. Stripping :-
 This method is followed where the length of the teat is small; it is normally practiced towards the end
of milking in order to evacuate the milk completely.
 The last drawn milk is called stripping which is rich in fat content.
 The process of stripping should be done in quick succession otherwise the animal will become stripper
where the letting down of milk is delayed.

Grading of milk at collection centres :-

 Organoleptic tests may be used for grading of milk at the rural milk collection centre.
 Flavour : 45
 Sediment : 10
 Cleanliness of container and closure : 5
 Temperature : 5oC

Following equipment are used for chilling of milk :-

 Surface cooler : (Direct expansion type, ice bank and brine)-for handling up to 5,000 litre of milk.
 Plate cooler : This is suitable for handling more than 30,000 litre of milk.
Grading of milk at chilling centre :-
 Smell : 45 30 MBR test : 35 Temperature : 5oC
 Sediment : 10 Container/Closure : 5
Milk Quality Test

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Before sent of milk at dairy plant same test is done at dairy base is known as 'Pops Test' Pops tests are mainly
two types –
1. Sense Organ test – By seeing, tasting & snuffing
2. COB Test (with on boiling test) – Generally fresh milk acidity range is 0.14 – 0.16. If this milk is kept
for some time the acidity range will be change from 0.14 – 0.16 to change 0.32 by Streptoochus
Lactobacillus bacteria.
In this method use 15 ml size pippet. Add milk in pippet & boil it. If the milk is cloth than
understanding the colostrum is mix with milk or the milk is very precede time.
Milk Acidity Test
 Use 10 ml milk sample, Nl9 NaOH, phenophthalin indicator (1 ml).
 In milk quality test acidity can be judged when milk colour is permanent pink colour.
 Milk acidity = Use Nl9 NaOH x 0.01 / Quantity of milk sample x 100
 Note – Sample for fat – 10.75 l. COB – Test – 15 ml.
Specific Quality :-
 The ratio of water volume weight and milk at 27oC and 60oF temperature is called specific gravity.
 Specific gravity can be judged by lactometer.
 Lactometer rage – 0-40
 Method – In lactometer jar fill the milk sample (66%) lactometer intire in lactometer jar and after
check milk temperature by flating dairy thera meter
 Lactometer reading check and this reading is known as OLR (observed lactometer reading)
 Specific gravity is mainly effective by temperature so Specific gravity check after one hrs of milking.
 If milk temp is 58oF than 0.2 less from CLR reading.
 After this reading is known as LR (Lactometer reading)
 In LR reading add 0.5 (correction factor) After available reading is CLR (correct lactometer reading)
 Specific gravity = 1 + CLR/1000
 If add water in milk than specific gravity is decrease.
 If seprata milk is add in milk than specific gravity is increase.
Fat Test
Fat test is done byBatirometer. Batirometer range b/w 0-28.
Equipments used :-
1. Centrifuge garbur machine
2. Batirometer
3. Lock Stoper
4. Lock stoper key
5. Amil Alchohol (1m) & specific gravity – 0.91
6. Milk (10.75 ml.)
7. Sulphuric acid (10ml S.G. 1.825)
 First 10 ml. sulphuric acid fill in butirometer and after 10.75 ml. milk fill in butirometer and at lost
add 1 ml amil Alchohol.
 Than after butirometer mouth is close by lock stoper and approximate for two munute shake up by
hand and kept for 5 min. at 70oC water heat vapour.
 Butirometer set in Garber machine and rotate by handle at 1100 rounds/min for 5 min.

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Different test of milk :-
1. Detection of water :
 Water is a most common adulterant and its presence can be detected by testing the freezing point of
milk. A freezing point for normal milk of –0.550oC
 The presence of water can also be checked by the use of lactometer.
2. Detection of acidity and coloustrum in milk :-
 COB test; milk : 10 ml; indicator : phenolphthalein
3. Detection of rain water in milk :- Nitrate test
4. Detection of neutralizer in milk
 Difference in coagulation behaviors of milk in the presence of alcohol. Add 5 ml of distilled alcohol
(95%) to 5 ml of milk sample, mix the contents thoroughly by shaking and observe the coagulation
behaviour of the sample.
 Appearance of fine and uniform sized flakes indicates the presence of added neutralizers in milk
whereas appearance of bigger and unevenly sized flakes indicates their absence.

5. Rosalic acid test:

 Add 4 drops of freshly prepared alcoholic solution of 1% Rosalic acid to the above mixture and mix
gently.
 Appearance of pink colour at the junction of mixture and Rosalic acid indicates the presence of either
sodium hydroxide potassium hydroxide or calcium hydroxide added to milk, and that of rose red
colour indicates the presence of sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate.
 The appearance of brownish colour indicates the absence of any of these neutralizers.
6. Detection of starch :-
 Place in a test tube about 3 ml of well-mixed sample. Boil it by holding the tube over a flame. Allow
cooling to room temperature. Add a drop of 1% iodine solution.
 Presence of starch is indicated by the appearance of a blue colour that disappears when the sample is
boiled and reappears on cooling.

7. Detection of gelatin :-
 Gelatin produces a yellow precipitate with picric acid solution.
 While cloudiness shows smaller amount and yellow precipitate a large amount of gelatin in milk.

8. Detection of cane sugar :-

 To about 15 ml of milk in a test – tube add 1 milliliter of concentrated hydrochloric acid and 0.1g of
resorcinol and mix. Place the tube in boiling water-bath for 5 minutes.
 In the presence of cane sugar red colour is produced.

9. Detection of saccharin :-
 Curdle an aliquot of the diluted sample (about 25 ml) with dilute acetic acid. Shake well and filter.
Acidity the clear filtrate with 2 ml of concentrated hydrochloric acid and extract with 25 ml portion of
ether.
 Draw of adequate layers and wash the combined ether extract with 3 successive portions of 5 ml of
water.
 Evaporate the ether extract on water bath and add a drop or two of water, mix well with glass rod and
taste little.
 Characteristic sweet taste indicates the presence of the saccharin.

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10. Detection of glucose or monosaccharides (Barfoed’s test) :-
 The reagent is prepared by dissolving 6.5 of crystallized copper acetate in 100 ml of 1% acetic acid
solution.
 For the test heat 5 ml of Barfoed’s reagent in boiling water for 3 ½ minutes.
 Production of red precipitate of cuprous oxide indicates the presence of monosaccharides.

11. Detection of sodium chloride :-

 Take 2 ml of milk and add 0.1ml of 5% potassium chlorinate and 2 ml of 0.1 N silver nitrate.
 Appearance of red precipitate indicates the presence of sodium chloride.
12. Detection of urea in milk :-
 Take 2 ml of milk and add 2ml of p-dimethyl amino benzaldehyde reagent (1.6% in ethyl alcohol
containing 10% HCI). Development of distinct yellow colour denotes the presence of urea.
 The pure milk samples show a faint pink colour which should be ignored due to the presence of
natural urea (up to 50mg/100ml).

13. Detection of formalin :-

 Take 5 ml of milk sample in test – tube and add 5 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid containing traces of
ferric chloride.
 Formation of purple ring at the junction indicates presence of formaldehyde in milk.

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Detection of hydrogen peroxide :-
 The presence of hydrogen peroxide can be detected by an intense blue colour developed on addition of
2 drops of paraphenylene diamine hydrochloride to 10 ml of milk.

15. Detection of buffalo milk in cow milk :-

 The presence of buffalo milk in cow milk can be detected by Hansa test.
 A drop of supected milk after dilution with water (1:4) is treated with a drop of antiserum obtained by
injecting buffalo milk proteins into rabbits.
 The characteristic precipitation reaction indicates the presence of buffalo milk.

16. Detection of added colour :-

 The chief colouring materials which are considered here are some natural colouring material like
annatto, turmeric of coal-tar dyes.
 To detect annotto the milk fat is shaken with 2% sodium hydroxide and the mixture is poured on filter
paper. When the stain is treated with a drop of 40% SnC12 and dried, a purple colour indicated the
presence of annatto.
 Turmeric is detected when the colour adequous or alkali, extracted is treated with HCL. The resulting
orange colour is treated with H3BO3 crystals, a red colour indicates the presence of turmeric.

17. Detection of pulverized soap :-

 Soaps are generally defined as sodium and potassium salt of fatty acid.
 To detect the presence of pulverized soap, iodine value refractive index, fatty acid composition, salt
ratio and ash content are excellent methods.
 For example, in 10ml milk, 10ml hot water is added followed by 1-2 drops of phenol-phathlene
indicator solution. Development of pink colour indicates the presence of soap in milk.

18. Detection of vegetable fat :-

 In case of synthetic milk, the fat is extracted either by Rose-Gottleib method or fat extracted in butyro-
meter can also be used.

19. Fatty acid composition :-

 Milk fat is characterized by lower chain fatty acids. for example butric capric, capralic, etc. whereas
most of the vegetable fats do not contain these fatty acids.

 Therefore, the adulteration of the vegetable fat can easily be detected by analyzing the fatty acid
profile by gas chromatography.

20. Detection of vegetable oil :-

 The presence of sesame oil can be tested by Baudoin test.

Strip cup :-
 It is a device with four circular plates for each quarter which has the quantity of milk normally first
few strip of milk are drawn in the respective circles to asses the physiological status of the udder.
 If there is any change in color, consistency appearance, etc., the milk should be drawn at the end so as
to prevent spreading the disease from one quarter to other.

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Different categories of heat treatment :-

 The term pasteurization has been coined after the name of Louis Pasteur of France (1860) who
demonstrated that heating wine at 122 to 140oF (50 - 60oC) killed the spoilage organism and helped in
its preservation.
 Although Louis Pasteur pioneered studies of heat treatment for preservation, pasteurization of milk
was attributed to Dr.Soxhlet of Germany in 1888.

Treatments Process Temperature (oC) Time (seconds)

Pasteurization LTLT (low temperature long time) 63 1800
- HTST: high temp. short time(milk) 72 15-20
- HTST(cream) >80 15
Thermization - 57-68 15
Sterilization - 115-121 180-780
Ultra-pasteurization - 115-130 2-4
UHT - 135-150 1-6

Milk Preservaion
Milk is highly effective by bacteria.
Methods of milk preservation –
1. Pasteurization – Pasteurization word is given by Louis Pasteur.
In this method the 99% bacteria are deactive but bacteria spore are live.
Types of Pasteurization –
(i) Low Temp. long time (LTLT) – At 62.8oC (145oF) for 30 minute.
(ii) High Temp short time (HTST) – At 71.1 oC (160oF) for 15 second.
(iii) Flash method – at 80-82cC (175cF) for some time.
2. Sterlization :- In this method all the bacteria & spores are killed and this type milk can't make chhenna
& butter.
3. Chilling of Milk :- At 4cC temperature stop the growth of bacteria.
4. Homoziniation of milk :- Before packing of milk the fat is divided into micro-particles and after milk
is packed.

Colostrum ½
 Colostrum is available before 15 days of delivery & after 5 days delivery.
 Colestrum is yellow coloured due to carotene protein
 Colostrum found in liquid form.
 Specific gravity of colostrum is 1.04 – 1.08 (milk – 1.028 – 1.032)
 Water – 70-75%
 Natural acidity – 0.40-0.60
 Vitamines – A, B, C, D.
 Vitamines A protect from blindness disease in childs.
 Protein is available in colloidal from cow – 17% & buffalo – 21% protein (casein – 5.7%, Albumine,
globuline & carotene)
 Fat: fat is available in irregular size (5-7%)
 Collostrum is drink to new born baby 1/10 part of weight of baby.

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 Primary nutrient of new born baby is collostrum
 Colostrum taste is saline & smell is shriller.
 Colostrum is easily digestible & immunative type.
 It is develop disease resistant in baby.
 pH – 5.4, lactose – 2.19 – 2.30.
Composition of Colostrum:-
S.N Component Cow Buffalo
1 Water 75.28 % 70.90 %
2 Total Solid 24.72 % 29.10 %
3 Total Protein 16.42 % 21.60 %
Casein 5.08 % 6.70 %
4
Globuline 11.34 % 14.90 %
5 Lectose 2.19 % 2.30 %
6 Fat 5.10 % 4.10 %
7 Mineral 1.10 % 1.10 %

Creame
 It is aproduct of milk which contain atleast 18% fat.

S.N. Type of Cream Fat content (%)

1 Table cream 18 - 25 %
2 Whiping / medium cream 25 - 45 %
3 Densive cream >45 %
4 Plastic cream >60 %
 In market available cream have 40-50% fat is whiping cream
 Sapreta milk contain 0.1 -0.5% Fat.
Methods of Cream Sepration :-
1. Gravitational Force
(i) Dipth wok (wok-width – 8-12 inch & depth – 20 inch)
(ii) shallow wok (wok width – 18-42 inch & depth – 4 Inch)
(iii) Jersy cream method
(iv) Add water in milk
 In dipth wok & shallow wok method milk is kept for 24 hrs. at 10oC.
 In jursy cream method the double wall utensil is used.
2. Centrifual foce method :
 When cream are seprate by cream seprator machine than force is centrifugal force.
 Specific gravity of water – 1, fat-0.93, milk – 1.028 – 1.032 & separata milk – 1.037.
 It is wok on physical principle.
 Speed of cream seprator machine 2000-4000 round / minite
 Handle speed 45-60 round / min.
 Temperature of milk in centrifugal force method is 37oC
 Specific gravity of milk is determined at 27oC temp.
 Parts of cream seprator machin
1. Body
2. Milk Basin – Add milk in this part

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3. Milk Regulator – In this part milk is come from milk basin.
4. Milk Float – Milk float is present in milk regulator. It is lightened part of cream seprator machine and
mainly work to control of milk.
5. Bowl : It is known as heart of machine and its work to seprate of cream from milk.
6. Seprata milk spout –
(i) Top disc – 1
(ii) Middle disc – 16-44
(iii) Bottom disc – 1
7. Cream spout
8. Cream skrew : Mainly work of this part cream made thine & thick.
Seprata milk spout : exit of seprata milk
Cream spout – Exit of cream.
Curd )
 Milk is boiled at 101cC (100.17cC) and than cold at 21oC temp and mix starter in summer season 1-2%
& winter season 2-3% and kept at 22oC temp.
 Incubation period of Curd – 8-10 hrs (milk>Curd)
 Starters are three types :-
1. Natural starter – Milk is kept at natural temperature at 57-65cF (27-28cC) This is kept at natural
temperature at 57-65oF (27-28cC) This type Curd is not better bacus do not have natural aroma &
taste.
2. Artificial/ General Starter – In this method use before one day Curd. In this method streptococus
lactobacillus S. Acidofillus & Lactobacilus casei bacteria are change before in lactic acid. This type
Curd have natural aroma & faste and highly used in India.
3. Pure Culture (Laboratry Culture) – This starter is prepared in labratory. In this method sterlized milk
used fr prepare milk powder and add streptccuss lactobacillas becteria.
 Curd is stered at 5-10oC temp.
 Aroma in Curd & Ghee is due to Diacytile
Composition of Curd:-
S.N. Componenet Amount
1 Fat 5–8%
2 Water 85-90%
3 Protine 3.2 – 3.5 %
4 Lactose 4.6 – 5.0 %
5 Lactic acid 0.6 – 1.1 %
6 Calcium 0.12 – 0.14 %
7 Phosphorus 0.09 – 0.11 %
8 Minerals 0.70 – 0.90%
Ghee )
 Fat % - 99%
 Freedom fat – 0.5%
 Other – 0.05%
 Storage – 20cC Temp. (Liqid & semi liquid from)
 Fat is a combination of triglyceride.
 In India 28-80% of total milk production used for make ghee.

38
 Errorless
 If ghree is highly used by man is cause heart attack disease.
 Ghee is mainly source of Vit. A & difficient in Vit. B & C.
 Ghee are made Vit. B Complex in intestne.
 Ghee is produce energy in mind by phospholipids.
 Preparation of Ghee (Methods)
1. Local Method – Highly used in India.
2. By cream – Use at dairy plants) Tem 110-115oC heat cream.
3. Pre-startification method – It a new method of ghee making & developed at NDI branch Banglore.
 Ghee is mainly storage in Tin, Alumine & Steel (mainly) container.
 Ghee is not stored in Iron & Copper container.
Chenna )
 Chhena & Pannir : Chhena & Pannir are milk product.
 Hot milk is cloth by citric acid (1-2%) Milk is boiled at 80-82oC temp. Best quality chhena & panniv
is prepared by complete cow milk. Rive process is complete within 30 sec.
 Preparation of Chhena & Pannir at the time fat & SNF ratio (Fat – 4.5% & SNF 9%) is milk is 1:2.
 Average cow milk prepared chhena – 14% & from buffalo milk 20%
 Composition of Cheena & Pannir:-
S.N. Component Cow Buffalo
1 Water 53.38 % 51.60 %
2 Fat 28.80 % 29.60 %
3 Protine 17.4 % 14.4 %
4 Lactose 1.75 % 2.3 %
5 Minerals 2.0% 2.30%

 Sterlization of Dairy Container

1. Dry method – This methodis mainly useful in rural areas and those areas where water problems.
2. Scientific method – Mainly useful in dairy.
(i) Use of Normal water – First time milk container clean by normal water. If first time use hot
water for cleaning of milk contaner than protein is cloth and stick to container surface and
protein change to milk stone.
(ii) Use hot solution of Boda – Hot normal water at 50oC temp. and mix. 0.25 – 0.45% sodafor use
by hand. If use machine for washing than soda are use 0.5-1.8% con. solution.
(iii) Use Hot water
(iv) Sterlization of Container – By Cl – Solution, By heat vapour (15-20 min.)
If sterlization of dairy container is done by Cl – solution than after dairy container is clean by
normal water.
Classification of Elufration material
1. Alkalin elupration – Mainly used in dairy.
(a) Castic soda – useful in colourless container.
(b) Ashes Soda – useful in coloured container & aline water.
(c) Sodium Bi-carbonate – Best and most useful elufration in alkalin elufration.
(d) Tri sodium phosphate – Useful in bottle and tin container.
2. Acidic Elutration
(i) Tartnic acid
(ii) Citric Acid

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Errorless
(iii) Phosphoric acid
(iv) Gluconic acid
Acidic elutration are mainly useful in dairy equipment / instruments. Acidic elutration are resistant to
milk stone.
3. Complex Phosphate – 10% Tetra Phosphate change soline water to normal water.

40
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1Chapter 4 4
(Horticulture) )
 Horticulture ’derived from two word“Hortus” = enclosed area “Cultura” = Cultivation
(Horticulture) )

Pomology Olericulture Floriculture Spices Aromatic& PHT

Medicinal Plants
National Research Centres (NRC) )
 Litchi:-Muzaffarpur, bihar Cashunut :- Putter (KN)
 Citrus:- Nagpur , MH Mashroom:-Solan (HP)
 Pomegranate:-Solapur,MH Onion & garlic:- Nasik (MH)
 Banana :-Trichi, TNOrchids :- Gangtoke, Sikkim
 Grapes:- Pune, MH Seed spices- Tabiji, Ajmer
 Date:- Bikaner, Raj.

Important instituteu
 IIHR :- Indian Institute of Horticulture Research, Bangalore, Karnataka, 1968
 CISH :- Central Institute of Subtropical Horticulture, Lucknow, U.P.
 CIAH :- Central Institute of Arid Horticulture, Bikaner, Raj.
 CITH :- Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture, Srinagar, (J & K)
 IIVR :- Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varansi, U.P.
 CAZRI :- Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Raj.
 CRIDA :- Central Research Institute of Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, A.P. 1985

(Importance of fruit production) )

1- (Economic importance)
 More production per unit area
 More income per unit area

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 To reduce the problem of enemplyoment
 To gain foreign money
2.(Nutritional importance)
i. Minerals :-
 Calcium :- litchi (0.2 %)
 Maximum iron:- dry caronda (39%) date:-(10.6%)
ii. (Vitamins) :-
 Maximum vitamin A:- Mango (4800 IU) , papaya (2020 IU)
 Maximum vitamin B1 :- cashunut, walnut
 Maximum vitamin B2 :- bael
 Maximum vitamin C :- barbedas cherry, aonla (700 mg/100 gm), guava (300 mg/100
gm)
iii. Carbohydrates :-
 Resine (72 %), Datepalm (67.4 %), Banana (36.5 %)
iv. Protein :-Cashunut(21.2 ), Almond (20 %), Walnut (15.6 %)
v. Fat :-Walnut (64.4 %), Almond (59 %), Cashunut (47 %)
vi. Pectins :-Jackfruit (3.6 %), Guava (1.5 %)
vii. Enzymes :-Papaya, Jamun
viii. Fibre :-Guava
(Organic Acid)

Mallic acid Citric acid Tartaric acid

Apple, Carrot Citrus group, Guava, TomatoGrapes, Litchi, Tamarind
DO YOU KNOW
 Suitable grafting time in temperate fruit:- Dec-Jan
 Metazinia found in:- Bittergourd, Datepalm, Gucumber, Grapes
 Zeinia effect found in:- Maize
 Pollen Sterility:- Ber

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 Malformation in mango first observed in darbhanga , bihar
 ICAR First DG of Horticulture :- K. L. chadda
 Suitable fillar crop with mango:- papaya , phalsa, onion
 Element found in haemoglobuline :- Fe
 Blood clotting elements :- Ca, hormone, (Vit. – K), chemicals:- heparine,which is
secreated by Basophils (WBC)
ICMR :- Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi new data dena hai
 (Vegetables) :- 300 gm
 (Fruits) :- (120 gm)
 (Pulses) :- (80 gm)
 (Cereal) :- 475 gm
 (Milk) :- 280 ml
 (Protein) :- 60 gm (20 gm by animal product)

(Medicinal Importance of Fruits) )

vitamines Comman name symptoms source
A Retinol (carotene) Night blindness, Mango, papaya
B1 Thiamine Berry-berry cashew
B2 Riboflavin phytobhobia Bael, papaya
B3 Niacin,( nicotinic acid) pellagra
B5 Pantothenic acid Burnig feet syndrome
B6 Pyridoxine Skin disease
B9 Biotine Baldness
B12 Cyanocobalamine Anaemia
C Ascorbic acid Scurby Aonla, guava
D Calciferol ricketts Egg, fish
E Tocopherol Sterility Leafy veg.

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K Nephathoquanon Blood clotting Leafy veg.

(Fruit types) )

(Single Fruit) (Aggregate Fruit) (Multiple Fruit)

Etario of berries:- Custard apple

Etario of drupe:- Blackberry
Etario of achens:- Strawberry Syconus Sorosis

Fig , Banyan , Pineapple, Jackfruit, Mulberry

Dry fruit (nuts) Fleshy Fruit (Fleshy fruit)

Cashunut, litchi(Pome) (Berry) (Drupe)

AppleBanana, Papaya, Sapota, Grapes Mango, Ber , Coconut,

Pear Tomato, Brinjal, Potato, Arecanut Peach, Plum, Coffee, Cherry

Modification of berry

Balasta Hesperidium Pepo Capsule Amphisarca

Pomeganate Citrus group CucurbitsAonla, Opium, Castor, Bael, Wood apple

Beet, Cotton, Til, Jatropa
Turnip, Dathura,Okra

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Salt Tolerance fruit:- date, ber, pomegranate, aonla, guava, custard apple
acid tolerance fruot:- sreawberry , bael, fig, pineapple

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A. Climatric Fruit :-
 Trick :-sweet in taste
 Sharp increase in respiration rate at the time of ripening
 Mango, banana, sapota, guava, papaya, jackfruit, apple, pear, annona, fig,
B. Non-Climatric Fruit :-
 Trick :-sour and bitter in taste
 Gradual decline in raspiration rate at the time of ripening
 Litchi, citrus group, grape, pomegranate , pineapple, ber, cherry , strawberry,
 Cashunut etc.
Do you know
 Climactric fruit release more ethylene:- apple, sapota, papaya
 High respiration rate in fruits:-strawberry, mango, banana
 High respiration rate in vegetables:- palak, green pea, mushroom, broccali
 Herbaceous fruit:- banana, pineapple
 Shurbaceous fruit :- caronda, phalsa, pomegranate
 Persistant calyx found in solanace family
 True fruit:- formation of fruit from ovary
 False fruit:- formation of fruit other than ovary such as thalamus, bracts etc.
Eg:- apple, pear, strawberry
 MIDH :- Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture
 National Horticulture Mission (NHM) :- 2005
 National Horticulture Board (NHB)] Gurgoan, Haryana(1984)
 National fruits and king of fruit:- mango
 Queen of fruits:- mangosteen, litchi
 King of vegetables:- potato
 Queen of vegetables:- okra ( lady finger)

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
 King of flower:- rose , queen :- chrysanthemum
 State having maximum area & production under floriculture in india:- Karnataka
 Maximum area & production of floriculture in world:- netherland
 IIHR :- Indian Institute of Horticulture Research, Bengalore, Karnataka
 Sequence of mango propagation:- seed add karwana hai
 (Edible Part of Fruits) )
1. Pericarp) :- ber, date, custard apple
2. Mesocarp :- mango, papaya, sapota
3. Endocarp/ endosperm :- coconut
4. Endocarpic Juicy Hair) :- acid lime, orange, sweet orange
5. juicy testa:- pomegranate
6. Aril :-litchi
7. Thalamous :- apple, pear, strawberry
8. cotyledons& Pedicel :- cashewnut, almond, peanut
9. bracts perianths & seed:- jackfruit
10. pericarp& placenta:- guava
11. placenta :-bael, grapes perianthus :- mulberry

State first in fruit production in india;

Ø-
Fruits name State (first in production) indias world position
la-
1- Mango U.P china(1), India (2)
2- Banana T.N India(1)
3- Citrus A.P Brazil ,india (3)
4- Papaya A.P India(4)
5- Apple J&K China, india (5)

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6- Guava U.P / MH Brazil, india(6)
7- Grapes MH Itly india(2)
8- Pomegranate MH

District first in rajasthan ys

Ø-
Fruits name Distict
la-
1- Mango, papaya, opium Chittorgarh
2- Rose, marigold Ajmer
3- Pomegranate Jalore
4- Mandarine, pear Jhalawar
5- Ber, aonla Jaipur
6- Sweet orange, kinnow, grapes Ganganagar
7- Acid lime Bharatpur
8- Guava Sawimadhopur
9- Banana Banswara
10- Sapota Sirohi

(Plant) )

Monoecious dioecious
Male and female sex organ found Male and female sex organ
in same plantfound in different plant
eg:- cucurbits , mango, guava etc,eg:- papaya, date etc.add kar
(flower) )

(unisexual) (Bisexual)
Flower having single sex organ. Flower having both sex organ

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(Monocot) :- banana, date ,pineapple, coconut, arecanut, palm etc.
(Short Day Plant) :-strawberry, pineapple,coffee
(Long Day Plant):- banana, appple
(Day Neutral Plant) :- guava, papaya
Alternate bearing problem found in:- mango, date, plum, apple, pecanut .

(Propogation) )

Sexual asexual
(By seed )
papaya, caronda, acidlime, phalsa, jamun, mangosteen

(Cutting)(Grafting) Budding Layering

A. stem cutting

1.Hard Wood CuttingVinear Grafting)T/Shield BuddingStooling

Grape, pomeganatemango, cashu rose, orange, guava
Fig sweet orange,ber,

2.Semi H.W. CuttingTongue G.Patch B. Air Layering

Mango, guava, apple, pear bael, aonla, walnut litchi , guava
pomegranate
3. Soft Wood Cutting Epicotyl G./stone Ring B

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Other asexual method:-

1.Runners:- strawberry
2. Suckers:-banana (weight..500-750g) offshoots – datepalm (weight.12- 15 kg)
3.Stolon:- doob grass
4.Tuber:- potato
5.Rhizome:- turmeric, ginger
6.Corms:- gladiolus
7.Bulb:- onion, garlic slip – pineapple (weight-350g)

Infloresence)
Spadix:- banana, coconut, date, maize
Panicle:- mango, grapes, litchi, cashunut, paddy
Catkin:- mulberry, walnut, pecanut,
Hyponthodium:- pomegranate, ficus group,
Fascicle:- ber ,plum , cherry
Solitary (cymose) :- guava, citrus, phalsa, sapota,

Pollination)
1 Anemophily):-date, coconut, papaya, pomegranate, jackfruit, sapota, cashunut
2.Ornithophily:-banana, pineapple
3. Entomophily:- most of the fruit
Note: pollination in mango byhouse fly, in fig ( by wasp)and in oil palm (by weevil)
Sex form in fruit crop:-
Protogyny:-(female sex organ mature first) eg:- custard apple banana, fig, pomegranate
Protoandry:- ( male sex organ mature first) eg; sapota, walnut,

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(Self Incompability

Sporophytic S.I Gametophytic S.I

Mango, Aonla Ber, Pineapple, Loquat, Apple, Pear,
Heterostyle:-
a. Pin type:- litchi, sapota, pomegranate b.Thrum type:- almond, carambola
Hererodichogamy:- pecanut, pistachinut
Duodichogamy:-rare form of dichogamy found in chestnut
PSPD (porotogynous, diurnally synchronous dichogamy) found in avocado

Polyploidy ln fruits crop

(Aolotetraploid) :- mango
(Aolo octoploid) :-vellaicolumban variety of mango(2n=8x=80), strawberry (2n=56)
(Auto Triploid) :- banana (2n = 3x = 33), tahti lime
(Auto Tetraploid) :-bael (2n=4x=36), aonla( 28), phalsa(36), litchi(30), jackfruit (56)
(Auto Octoploid) :-
 gola & illachi variety of ber (2n = 8x = 96) where x= basic chromosome number(12)
(Parthenocarpy) :- formation of fruit without fertilization
1. (Vegetative Parthenocarpy) :-banana, fig, pineapple
2. (Stimulative Parthenocarpy) :-litchi, grapes varirty (black corianth)
3. (Sternospermocarpy) :-sindhu variety of mango (stone wt.=6.7g)

Root stock of fruits)

(Root Stock of Citrus Group Fruits) :-
1- Rough lemon:-Citrus limonia
 Best rootstock for mandarin and sweet orange
 Salt and tristiza virus tolerance
 Susceptible towards fruit rot

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2. Rough lemon:- Citrus jambhari
 Maximum used in Punjab (for kinnow)
 Suitable for arid region
3. Karna khatta:- Citrus karna
 Suitable for heavy soil
4. Trifoliate orange:-Poncirus trifoliate
 Dwarf rootstock, cold hardy, nematode tolerance
5.Flying dragon:-Most dwarf rootstock
6- Troyer citrange :- for HDP Kinnow.

Sapota:- Khirni/Rayan
Guava:- Pusa srijan:- dwarf rootstock 2. Chinise guava:-dwarf rootstock
Grape:- Salt crick , Dogridge :- Salt & nematode resistance
Mango:-Nekkare, Mubandan, Kurukun (Salt tolerance)
 Rumani,Cripper, Velaicolumban (dwarf rootstock)
 Velaicolumban and Olour (polyembryonic rootstock)

Diseases introduced fromS

1.Bunchy top of banana- Srilanka 2.Golden nematode of potato-Europe
3.Late blight of potato- Europe 4. Downey mildew of grapes- Europe
5.Smut of onion-Europe
Spacing)
Fruit name Spacing(m2)
1- Mango 10 x 10
2- Aonla ,date 8x8
3- Citrus 5-6 x 5-6
4- Papaya 2 x 2 (pusa nanha -1.25 x 1.25)

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5- Grapes 3x3
6- Banana 2x2

Classification of Fruits)

(Tropical)(Subtropical) (Temperate)
Mango, banana, Papaya, Ber , Aonla, Date, Pomegranate Apple, Pear, Plum,
Sapota, Pineapple, Jackfruit Caronda, Phalsa, Jamun, Peach, Cherry,
Citrus, Bael, Loquat, etc. Strawberry

Plant Hormone)
 Hormone is an organic substance
 Which is required minute in concentration.
 Discover by:- Julius Von Sachs
 Term phytohormone given by:- Thimman
 Term hormone:- Starling
 Translocation of hormone through phloem

Hormone movement

(Basipetal) (Acropetal)
Movement towards base from apex movement towards apex from base
Eg:-Auxin eg:- Cytokinine
1. Auxin :-
Discover by :-Frists Warmolt Went (F.W.Went)
Plant :- avena sativa (oat)
 Natutal auxin:- those auxin which synthesized in plant eg:- IAA

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 Artificial auxin :- whose synthesis out of plant eg:-IBA; 2,4-D; 2,4,5 T; NAA
 First discover hormone :- auxin
 Tryptophan (amino acid) is essential for synthesis of auxin
 Zinc also play an important role in bio synthesis of auxin
physiological effect & its application
 Apical dominance:- apical dominanates over the growth of laterial buds
 Shortening Internode elongation eg:- used in sugargane for sowing purpose
 To prevent crop lodging
 Helps in healing of wounds
 Promotes Root initiation eg:- commercial use of IBA
 To prevent Abcission
 Weedicide:-use of 2-4-D for broad leaf weed
 Thinning :- removal of plant or plant part from optimum eg;- NAA (most common)
 In Parthenocarpy:-formation of fruit without fertilization i.e obtained seedless fruit
 Promotes female flower
 Prevent fruit drop :- by using 2,4-D (mango, tomato) and NAA ( Grapes and chilli)
 TIBA (Anti- Auxin) :-sprayed on mature cotton field then cotton balls can picked
easily also help in nipping operation in gram.
2. Gibberellins
 First discover by in japan, (1920) in rice field
 Rice plant become thin,tall and pale yellow due to infection of gibberella fungus
confirmed by kurosawa.
 Foolish seedling disease/bakanae disease caused by fungus (Gibbrella fujikuroi)
 Yabuta and sumiki (1938) were the to extract a crystalline substance from the
gibberella,which they name as gibberellin (acidic in nature)
 Biosynthesis of gibberellin takes palace by mevalonic acid pathway.
 GA3 are Most common i.e representative of all gibberelline
Physiological effect & its application

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 Internode /stem elongation :- characteristic function of GA
Eg.used in sugarcane for enhance sugar production
 Prevent genetic dwarfism
 Substitution of chilling treatment or vernalisation
 Enhance fruit and flower size
 Promote seed germination (by activating alpha amylase enzyme)
 Induce male flower in cucumis spp.(cucurbits)
 Increase growth of yeast cell and height of sugarcane plant.
 Induced flowering in long day plant ,in short light duration
 Induced boltiong

3. Cytokinine
Discover by:- Millar & Skoog
Term given by:- Thimman
Natural cytokinine:- Zeatine (endogenous cytokinin of maize)
Term kinetine given by:- Skoog whereas discover by millar
Coconut milk behave as cytokinin
Cytokinin is a derivative of the purine base adenine
It is a part of t- RNA (Transfer RNA)
Most common synthetic cytokinin is benzyl adenine
Physiological effect & its application
 Cell dividon:- characteristic feature of cytokinin
 Morphogenesis:- definition
 In tissue culture :- kailash sr
 Kinetine and auxin induces cell enlargement
 Delay senescence:- senescence means the disappearance of chlorophyll and the
degradation of protein.

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 Richmond and lang(1957) reported that the senescence was delayed in the detached
xanthium leaves for several days when they were treated with kinetin
 Plastid formation
 Opening of stomata
 Induced flowering in short day plant
4. Abscisic acid (ABA)
 Discover by:-Frederick Addicott (1963)
 Growth retardant hormone
 Anti-transpiration hormone
 Stress Hormonemeans

Coldness Hotness Acidic Soil High Temp. High Rainfall

Eg. : Unfavourable environment
Dormin is a chemical which cause dormancy
Physiological effect & its application:-
 Promotes Abscission( natural detachment of parts of the plant )
 Promotes Senescence ( last phase of growth stage)
 Closing of stomato
 Reduced seed germination
 Increase proline synthesis
 Induced dormancy

5. Etylene :- C2H4
 Burg reported as a fruit ripening hormones
 Growth retardant hormone
 Fruit ripening hormone (Gaseous hydrocarbon )
Physiological effect & its application

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 Fruit ripening :-
 Degradation of chlorophyll
 Promotes abscission ansd senescence
 Triple response caused on pea seedling
 Inhibition of stem elongation
 Stimulation of radial swelling of stem
 Horizontal growth of stem (geotropism movement)
 Induced femalness in pineapple fruits
 Inhibits the polar movement of auxin
 Helps in root formation at water logging condition
 Recently ethophone/CEPA (Chloroehylel phosphonic acid) used as commercially for
fruit ripening

Hormone name Precursor

1- Auxin Tryptophane (element .zn)
2- GA3 Kurian
3- Gibberellins Adenine
4- ABA Carotene
5- bFkkbyhu Methionine

WMethods of Orchard Establishment)

1. Square Method :-
 It is simplest and most convenient method
 Tree are planted at corner of squars
 Distance between P-P=R-R
 Comman practices of orchard establishment
2. Rectangular Method :-
 Distance between P-P not equal to R-R
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 This method is very easy to layout in garden
3. Triangular Method :-
 It is used in high density planting (eg.amrapali)
 Trees are planted oblically
4. Hexagonal Method :-
 Triangles are equilateral
 It accommodates 15% more tree than square system
 Maximum permanent plant planted in this system
 Near city this method is highly adopted.
5. Diagonal /quincunx/fillar method
 Similar to square method with the addition of a tree in thecentre of each square as
fillar of intercrop or the same crop.
 It accommodates about 1.5-2.0 times or (89%) than square method.
 Maximum total number of plant (temporary & permanent) planted in this metod.
 In mango orchard papaya is taken as fillar crop (economically better)
6. Contour Method :-
 Used in hilly area.
 When slope exceeds 10% terraces are made to plant the tree.
7. Hedge row planting :-
Generally followed in high density planting of apple and pineapple
It is followed for mechanized fruit cultivation

Important cultural operationas

1Mulching:- strawberry
2.Tapping:- rubber, coconut
3. Roasting:- cashunut
4 Stalking:- tomato, cucurbits
5-Propping:- banana

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6 Bending :- guava (MH)
7. Caprification:- Fig
8. Mattocking:- banana
9. Smuding:- mango (in philipines )
10 Desuckering:- banana
11Notching:- fig
12. Disbudding:- chrysanthemum, rose
13. Pulsing:- rose
14.Root Purning:- rose, guava
15 .Scooping:- cauliflower
16. Stumping:- cabbage
17.Stackling:- radish
18.Lancing:- opium
19.Top Working:- mango
20.Double Working:- pear
21.Caging Technique:- mango
22. Rejuvenation:- mango
23.Bower System:- grapes
24. Bahar Treatment:- pomegranate, guava, citrus
25. Bagging:- pomegranate
26. Vapour Heat Treatment:- mango
Common names of the fruits:-
Mango Bathroom fruits, national fruits of india, king of fruits
Banana Adam’s fig, tree of paradise, apple of paradise
Phalsa Star apple
Guava Apples of tropics, poor man’s apple
Ber Poor man’s fruits, king of arid fruits, chinese fig,

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Papaya Melon tree
Jamun Indian black berry, black plum, java plum
Aonla Indian gooseberry, Malacca tree, myrabalan
Grapefruit Forbidden fruit, break fast fruit
Cocoa Food of god
Coconut kalpavriksha
Carambola Star fruit ,five corner fruit
Avocado Butter fruit
Cashewnut Plough crop, dollar earning crop,

Fruits name King/queen

Mango King of fruits
Mangosteen Queen of fruits
Walnut King of nuts
Pecanut Queen of nuts
Black pepper King of spice
Cardamom Queen of spice
Tea Queen of beverage crop

Important Information of Fruit Crops)

Fruits name Botanical name Family 2n

1. Mango Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae 40
2. Acid lime Citrus aurantifolia Rutaceae 18
3. Mandarine Citrus reticulate Rutaceae 18
4. Sweet orange Citrus sinensis Rutaceae 18
5. Ber Zizyphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae 48

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6. Date Phoenix dactylifera Arecaceae/palmae 36
7. Papaya Carica papaya Caricaceae 18
8. Pomegranate Punica granatum Punicaceae 18
9. Aonla Emblica officinalis Euphorbiaceae 28
10. Guava Psidium guajava Myrtaceae 22
11. Banana Musa paradisica Musaceae 33
12. Grapes Vitis vinifera Vitaceae 38
13. Bael Aegle marmelos Rutaceae 36
14. Lasoda Cordia myxa Boraginaceae 36
15. Caronda Carrisa carandas Apocyanaceae 22
16. Sapota Manilkara achras Sapotaceae 26
17. Pineapple Annanas comosus Bromeliaceae 50
18. Litchi Litchi chinensis Sapindaceae 30
19. Apple Malus domestica Rosaceae 34
20. Phalsa Fxzfogrewia subinequalis Tilliaceae 36
21. Jamun Syzygium cumunii Myrtaceae 40
22. Strawberry Fragaria ananasa Rosaceae 56
23. Tea Camellia sinensis Theaceae 30
24. Coffee Coffea robusta Rubiaceae 22
25. Cocoa Theobroma cocoa Sterculiaceae 20
26. Coconut Cocous nucifera Aracaceae 32

Origin Fruits name

1. India Caronda ,phalsa, acid lime, jackfruit, bael, lasoda,
2. Indo-burma Mango
3. China Litchi , mandarin, sweet orange, tea, loquat
4. Brazil Rubber , cashewnut, pineapple

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5. Tropical america Papaya , cuctard apple
6. Mexica Sapota , avacado
7. Peru Guava
8. south east asia Coconut
9. Iraq Date palm, fig
10. Iran Pomegranate
11. Man made hybrid Strawberry , kinnow

Mango)
 Botanical name:- mangifera indica family:- anacardiaceae
 Comman name:- bathroom fruit , king of fruit
 Chromosome number (2n):- 40(2n = 4x = 40, allo tertaploid )
 Origin :- (Indo-Burma)
 Fruit type:- drupe (mango, ber, jamun, coconut, coffee, peach, plum,)
 Polyembronic found in mango (also in jamun and citrus)
 Inflorescence :- panicle (paddy, mango, grapes, litchi)
 Pollination by house fly
 Pollinising variety :- Bombay green which content vit-C
 Flower bud differentiationin :- oct to dec.
 Spacing(m2):- 10x10 dwaef variety (amrapali):- (2.5x2.5) m2
 Optimum temperature fo growth :- 24-280c
 Mango is sensitive towards low temperature
 Fruit setting in mango flower only 0.1 %
 Storage temperature :- 8-100C, R.H:- 85-90%
 National mango research institute :- lucnow (U.P)
(Mango)

North indiasouth india

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Alternate bearing regular bearing
Monoembronic polyembronic

 Loose seed viability wihin :- 4 to 5 weeks (30 days)

 Potash is important nutrients in mango orchards.
 Hybridization works was first started by burns and prayag in (1911)at pune.
 Vapour Heat Treatment (VHT :- 43 0C) is recommended for disinfection of mango
against fruit fly and stone weevil.
 TSS in mango:- 200B
 Desaping related with mango fruits
 Caging technique given by R.N Singh which is related with pollination
 Tapka stage related to mango maturity
 Use of KNO3 and smudging to induced flowering in Philippines.
 Specific gravity of mango at maturity:- 1.01 to 1.02
 Flesh colour is controlled by additive gene action
 Control of fruit drop in mango by :- 2,4-D @ 10 PPM
 Control of malformation in mango by :- NAA @ 200 PPM
 BHT (Bottom Heat Treatment):- at 320C (helps in root initiation in cutting
Mango hybrid :-
Trick Variety Cross Tricks
1- M Mallika Neelum x Dasheri MND
2- A Amrapalli Dasheri x Neelum -
3- R Ratna Neelum x Alphanso RNA
4- A Arka Neelkiran Alphanso x Neelum -
5- S Sindhu Ratna x Alphanso SRA

 Seedless variety (sindhu) developed through sternospermocarpy in Dapoli, Maharastra

(konkan krishi vidyapeeth university) ,weight of stone :-7g, pulp:stone = 26:1
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 Arka aruna:- Baganpalli x Alphanso (AA - BA)
 Arka puneet:-:- Alphanso x Aaganpalli
 Arka anmol:- :- Alphanso x Janardan pasand (AA - AJ)
 Sai sugandha :- Totapuri x Kesar
Alphanso :-
 Most popular in india, susceptible to spongy tissue and has export quality
 Regular bearing grown in maharastra
Bombay green :-earliest variety of north india, content high vit-C
Chausa :-sweetest variety, late maturing of north india
Dashhari :-most popular variety of N.I , susceptible to malformation
Dashhari-51 :- regular bearing, free from malformation
Kesar :-having good processing quality
New Varieties :-pusa surya, pusa arunima, ambika, akshay(selection from dashehari)
Offseason varieties :- niranjan, madhulika( most precocious var.)
Regular bearing :-baganpalli ( famous in A.P), ratna , Gulabkhas (indeginous to bihar)
Himsagar,totapuri
Mutant variety:- rosica
Rootstock:
salt tolerance:- nekkare, moovandan, kurukkan.
Polyembronic rootstock:- olour, vellaikolumban (2n=8x)

BANANA
 Banana is rich source of dietary potassium (K) used in nervous impulses and good
source of energy.
 Tropical, herbaceous, monocotyledonous and monocarpic fruit.
 Calcifuge crop, calorific value high
 Edible banana belongs to Musa aceeminate
 Underground protien – Rhizome

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 Placentation – axile, ovary – trilocular
 In IN banana is specially grown for leaf production
 Two spray of KH2PO4 at fruit development stage increase the bunch weight
 Ripe banana fruit contain over 26% of sugar
 It is refered as a Kalpataru (a plant of virtues)
 A part from sword sccker cut rhizomes called 'Bits' and peepers are also used for
propagation
 In Guj and MH furrow method and In In-French method of planting is followed
 Seedlessness of banana is controlled by spray of 2, 4-D & 25 PPM
 Forest is major limiting factor of banana cultivation
 Waterlogging condition leads to more incidence of panama dilt
 K. deficiency – improper bunch filling
 Horn plantation of banana bears only female flower buds
 French plantation of banana bears only male flower buds
 In monthan variety only glucose sugar is found
 Staple food of south Africa
Scoring Technique
Given by simmonds and Spaphered
Ripening in banana due to – smoke treatment – in MH, 2-4-D – Chepest, Ethrel – at
commercial level.
Inter cultural operation in banana –
1. Desuckring – removal of unwanted suckers, done in 45 days
2. Denevelling – Removal of male part after completion of female phase,
3. Muttocking – Cut pseudostem near the ground level (0.6 m ht.from ground),
4. Bunch covering – Pratice for cavandish & silk group of banana to get attractive colour,
increase viced 15-20%
5. Mulching
6. Proping – For strong wind

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7. Inter cropping – Onions, Turmeric, Ginger

Papaya)
 Botanical name :- carica papaya family:- caricaceae
 Origin:-mexico
 chromosome number :- 18 (pomegranate, citrus group, cole crop)
 fruit type:- berry (banana, papaya, sapota, guava)
 inflorescence:- solitary cymose (sapota, phalsa, strawberry,citrus)
 edible part:- mesocarp
 yellow colour due to:- caricaxanthin
 dioecious in nature ( date, papaya, tall coconut,)
sibmating is reported in papaya (mating between close related species
 Leading stage – AP > GUJ
 India’s 1st rank in world banana production, (share 36% )
 Temperature is most important factor which determines the success of papaya
cultivation
 It is very much sensitive to frost, strong wind and waterlogging condition
 Commercially propagated by seed
 Gynodioecious varieties breed preferred by commercial growers
 Tissue culture or micropropotation are esecent technique for propagating papaya.
 Sowing – Seed rate – 400-500 g/h (Dioecious), 250-300 g/h (Gynodioecious)
 15-20 cm fall seeding become ready for planting in about 2 months
 Spacing – Most of the cultivars – 1.8 m x 1.8 m
 Note :- Pusa Nanha – 1.2 m x 1.2 m or (1.25 m x 1.25 m)
 Papaya + Tobacco = North Bihar
 10% male plans in papaya orchards for good pollination, where dioecious var. are
cultivated.

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 Earthing up should be done 30 cm in radius around the plant (vaoid waterlogging)
Gynodioecious Varieties
 Pusa Delicious – 100% productive
 Pusa Majestry – Better keeping quality, high papain yielders, tolerant to viral disease.
 Coorg honey dew – Selection from hony dew (Madhu bindu) Herma phrodite
 Sunrise solo – Pink flesh, pearshaped, exotic from Hawaii
 Taiwan – Blood used colours exotic variety
 Thailand – Deep red flesh, exotic
 Arka surya – By IIHR
 CO-3 – Tall variety preferred for dessert
Dioecious Varieties
 Pusa Giant – Suitable for footy fruity and candies used in canning industry
 Pusa dwarf for consumers stards bearing from 25-30 cm above ground
 Pusa Nanha – Extremely dwarf, suitable for HDP (Pot garden)
 CO-5 – Cultivate mainly for papain extation (papain yield 1500-160 kg/h)
 Hatras gold
Key Points
 Yellow colour of papaya due to pigment – Caricaxanthin
 Enzyme present in dried latex of papaya (papain) is pepsin , Papain contain 72.2%
protein
 Frost is most limiting factor in cultivation (in N.I.)
 It is polygamous plant, i.e three type of sex exhibits in papaya – (i) Staminate (mm) (ii)
Hermaphrodite (m2) (iii) Pistillate (mm)
 one gm contain -20 seeds of papaya
 Carpine obtained from papaya is utilized as a diuretic and heart stimulent
 Papaya is thermosensitive crop
 Damping off is most serious disease in nursery
 Rich in Vit-A after mango

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 Pusa dwarf and pusa Nanha suitable for HDP & Pot planting
 Carica quercifolio is the hardiest rootstock among all of the species
 Virus resistant rootstock – C. Cauliflora
 Frost resistant rootstock – C. candamarcensis(mountain papaya) and C. pentagona
 Sibmating is repeated for 7-8 generation.
GUAVA
Botanical name- psidium guajava family- myrtaceae
Origin- peru type of fruit- berry
Edible part- thalamus & pericarp 2n= 22
 Common name :- apple of tropics
 Guava is a good source of Vit- C & pectin, used for maling jelly
 TSS:- 8 – 10oB (Measured by- hand refrectrometer)
 pH 4.5 – 8.2
 Propagation:-
 Stooling(mound layering) – Easiest and cheapest (Commercial method)
 Storage temp- 8 to 10oC
 Spacing:- 6 x 6 m2
Bahar treatment/ Crop regulation:-
Bahar name Flowering time Fruit ripening
A Ambe bahar Feb-Mar. June-July
M Mrig bahar July –Aug. Oct-Nov. (best fruit quality)
H Hasth bahar Nov-Dec. Feb-Mar.
 The practice of taking winter crop instead of rainy season crop is known as crop
regulation .
 Fruit quality of winter crop(mrig bahar) is best, it escape the attack of fruit fly.
 Bahar treatment is achieved by the application of NAA@ 600 ppm or NAA @100
ppm + 10% urea.
 Bending operation in guava practices in MH

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 Meadow orcharding(eg. of ultra high density planting) used in guava cultivation
 HDP reduces TSS, sugars and ascorbic acid content but increase titratable acidity
Rootstock used –
1.Chinese guava – P. driedrichsthalianum (dwarfing & wilt resistant)
2. Pusa Srijan (Aneuploid-82) – Dwarfing rootstock, developed by IARI, tetrasomic (2n=26)

Varieties:-
 Lucknow 49(L-49) :- Sardar guava, seedling selection from Allahabad safeda
 Allahabad safeda:- cause large variation due to seed propagation
 Hafsi:- red fleshed guava
 Chittidar:- numerous red dot on fruit skin
 Lalit:- from CISH , high yielding variety
 Apple colour, Allahabad surekha,
 Aarka mridula:-dwarf variety (mridula is variety of pomegranate)
 Seed less variety:- behat coconut, Saharanpur seedless
 Hybrid variety:- arka amulya, kohir safed, safed jam

PINEAPPLE
 B.N. – Ananas Comosis L. Family – Bromeliaceae
 Origin – Brazil Type of fruit – Sorosis
 Edible portion – Bracts and Perianth 2n = 50, 75, 100
 It is also a source of Bromelin, a digestive enzyme
 Propagation :-By sucker (500-750g) and slips (300-400g)
 More important in cratoon crop
 Use of growth regulators – Applicatoin of NAA and NAA- based compound-Planofix
& celemone @ 10-20 PPM induces flowering in pineapple.
 Etheral (Ethephon) is used for inducing flowing
 Pineapple does not contain starch

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 Aluminium sulphate best N2 fertilizer for pineapple.
 CAM plant, Monocarpic, harbaceous plant
 Mealy bug is serious pest. It transmits virus which cause wilt
 Suncold, ultiple crown/ fasciation is physiological disorder
 D-leaf is best indicator of nutrient status of pineapple
Varieties –
1.Cayenne group – Kew, Gaint kew
2.Queen group – Queen, Mauritius, Jaldhup, lakhat
3.Spanish Group – Sugar loaf, Ruby, Red spinish, Singapore Spanish
 Kew – Leading commercial var. valued particularly for canning, late variety, TSS -12-
16 Brix
 Mauritius – Mid season var. of queen group, mainly grown in Kerala.
 Cayenne – Triploid var. Mainly in Phillipiness, popular canning var.
 Sugar loaf – Sweetest & Best flavoured fruit.

SAPOTA or Sapodilla
 B.N. – Manilkara achras /Achras sapota L. Family – Saptoceae
 Origin - Mexico (Tropical America) Type of fruit – Berry
 Edible portion – Mesocarp 2n = 26
 Popularly known as "Chiku" looking like Irish Potato
 Propagated through seed, &Inarching (Commercially used)
 Soft-wood grafting using rayan as rootstock gives 93% success in-situ. (July-Aug.)
Varieties
 Kirti Bharti – Popular in A.P., thick skin, good transport value
 Cricket ball – Famous in A.P.Kalipatti – Popular in MH
 Murrabba – Popular in MH
 Hybrids – CO-3 (Cricket ball x vavivalsa) suitable for HDP
Rootstock

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 Khirni (Manikara hexandra) or Rayan
 Adam's Apple

CUSTARD APPLE
 B.N. – Annona Squamosa L. Family – Annonaceae
 Origin – Tropical America Type of fruit – Etario of Berries
 Edible portion – Pericarp X = 7 2n = 14
 Contain 20% Sugar
 Cherimoya is considered to be best fruit of annonaceae family
 Commercially propagated by Inarching however veneer and softwood grafting are
better
A.squamosa (sitaphal or sharifa) – most important (Sugarapple / sweet sop)
A. Reticulata (Bullock's heat / ramphal / bull's heart)
A. Atemoya (Lakhshman phal)
A. Cherimoya (Hanuman phal)
A. Glabra (Pond apple)
A. Muricata (Sour spp or mamphal)
Annona reticulata is commonly used as a rootstock for most of the annonas
Hybrids
Arka Sahan Africa Pride – Cherimoya x custard apple

JACKFRUIT
 B.N. – artocarpus heterophyllus Family – moraceae
 Origin – india Type of fruit – sorosis
 Edible portion – bracts/perianths/seed 2n = 56
 Popularly known as the poor man's food in the eastern and southern parts of India.
 Nector is prepared from its pulp.
 Singapore variety starts yielding from third year

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 Cauliflorous bearing habit

SUB TROPICAL FRUIT

BER
 B.N. – Zizyphus mauritiana Family –Rhamnaceae
 Origin – india Type of fruit – Drupe
 Edible portion – pericarp 2n = 48
 Inflorescence:- fascicle cymose
 Common name:- chinese fig, king of arid fruit
 Maximum production in india- MP
 Maximum production in rajasthan – Jaipur
 Climate- it is extremely drought hardy plant, deep rooted system, xerophytic
 Ph- 8.5
 It is non-climacteric fruit
 Propagation- ring budding / T- Budding (july-august)
 Planting time- beginning of monsoon
 Spacing – 8 x 8 m2 (for irrigated area)
 Best time of pruning:- May-June
 Harvesting time- Feb- April (in North India)
 Ber shows stromgly gametophytic self-incompatability
 Pollen sterility found in ber
Rootstock:-
1.Ziziphus nummularia- it gives rise to inverted bottle neck disorder, dwarf rootstock, used in
HDP
2. Z.rotundifolia-better rootstock as compare to Z.nummularia
Varieties:-

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1.Early- (for extremely dry area)
Gola – auto octaploid (tolerance against salinity & alkalinity Seb
2. Mid variety – rashmi , mundia, banarasi
3. late variety- umran(tertaploid), illaichi (auto-octaploid), mehrun,
Other variety:- goma kriti, kethali,
Thar-sarika- CIAH, Bikaner (seb x kathha)
Sanuar-2-resistant to powdery mildew
Dodhia- resistant to fruit fly
POMEGRANATE
 B.N:- Punica granatum family:- punicaceae
 Origin:- iran type of fruit:- balasta
 2n= 18 edible part:- juicy testa
 It is non-climacteric fruit inflorescence- hypenthodium
 Protogyny found in pomegranate (also found in cole crop)
 Major producer in india –MH In rajsthan – jalore
 Sourness in pomegranate due to –tannin
 TSS:- 12.60B TSS/Acid ratio:- 70:1
 Pollination by wind (anemophily):- eg- date, papaya, sapota, cashew, beet, spinach
 It is useful for leprosy and cough patient
 Propagation:- by hard wood cutting (use IBA @ 3000 ppm for root initiation)
 Other method which is used recently :- air layering
 Spacing:- 6x6 m2
 Training:- by multiple stem method
 Climate:- subtropical fruit, soil- sandy loam ph- 7-9
 Yield:- 60-70 kh/plant
 Maximum demond of pomegranate in :- Ambe bahar
 Fruit splitting problem found in :-mrig bahar ,but in rajasthan region mrig bahar
considered as best bahar

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Variety:-
 Amlidana:- ganesh x nanha , developed by IIHR, suitable for HDP
 Ruby:-(by IIHR) Ganesh x Kabul x yercaud
 Jalore seedless:- developed by CAZRI, Jodhpur (suitable for alkaline soil)
 Jodhpur red:-
 Ganesh :- selection from alandi , famous variety of maharastra
 Bhagwa :- bright red in colour, famous in MH
 Jyoti:-
 G-137:- Clonal selection of ganesh
 Mridula :- (arka mridula, guava variety)
 Dholka:- famous variety of Gujarat
 Kandhari, alandi:- resistant towards fruit splitting

Date palm
 B.N:- Phoenix dactylifera family:- palmaceae/areceae
 Origin:- Iraq Fruit type:- single seeded berry
2n= 36(bael,phalsa)inflorescence:- spadix(banana, coconut, maize)
 Edible part:- pericarp
 It is C4- Plant ( amarenthus, jower, bajra, sugarcane, maize also)
 It is rich source of carbohydrate (68%)
 One kg date gives – 3150 calories energy
 Beverage product dibbis (drink of date palm)
 Arrack (popular in Iraq) –prepared from date
 It is dioecious plant,which required 10% male plant in orchard
 Ph- 8.5
 Spacing- 6 x 6 m2
 Propagation:-by off-shoot (weight-13 kg)

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 Muhabara:- its feet in running water and its head in the fire of the sky
 Heat unit:- 3300 hrs(variety required heat for full maturity)
 Metazenia effect found in:- datepalm (also in bittergourd, cucumber)
 Zenia effect in- maize, pollen sterility in- ber
 Salt tolerant plant:- datepalm, ber, pomegranate, aonla, karonda
 Alternate bearing problem found in datepalm (also in mango, plum, cashew).
 Pollination by wind (date, papaya, sapota, cashew, beet, spinach)
Harvesting stage:-
1.doka /gandora/ chirmi:- have 70-80 % Moisture, fully grown, yellow in colour
Processed to prepare chhuhara, harvesting stage in india
2.dang /rutab:- in other country harvested at this stage, softening, consumed as fresh eating
3. pind/ tamer:- fully riped and dehydrated
Variety:-
 Chuhharan making :- khadrawy, medjool, sharan
 Fresh eating:- halawy, barhee, khalas
 Pind khajoor:-zahidi
 Soft date(inverted sugar date)- khadrawy, halawy, medjool
 Dry date(bread type)- thoory
 Variety suitable for west rajasthan:- halawy

AONLA
 B.N:- Emblica officinalis/ phyllanthus emblica family:- euphorbiaceae
 Origin:- India Fruit type:- capsule
2n= 28 common name:- indian gooseberry
 Sporophytic self incompatability found in aonla
 Frost sensitive plant but salt tolerance
 Rich source of vitamin-C
 Flower bud differentiation in- Feb-Mar

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 Climate:- subtropical , ph- 6.5 to 9.5
 Propagation:- patch budding
 Spacing:- 8 x 8 m2
 Pruning in aonla:- modified central leader system
Variety

Chakaya Banarasi Fransis

NA-4 (Kanchan) NA-5(Krishna) NA-7(Amrit)
NA-6 (Best for candy making) NA-10
NA-8 NA-9(Neelum)
Free from necrosis best for preserve making sensitive to necrosis
Other variety:- Goma kriti :- developed by CIAH, Bikaner,Bhawani-sagar, Balwant

GRAPES
 B.N:- Vitis vinifera Family:- Vitaceae
 Origin:- Caspian sea Fruit type:- Berry
2n= 38 Inflorescence :- Panicle
 Edible part:- pericarp+ placenta Non -climacteric fruit
 Maximum production in world:- Itly In india :- Maharastra
 Maximum productivity:- in india in rajasthan:- ganganagar
 Cutin(wax layer) present on fruit raisin(kismis) contain moisture:- 17%
 Propagation :- hard wood cutting sugar % in grapes:- 20
 Tartaric acid found in grapes ideal time of planting:- october
 Optimum temp:- 28 to 320C spacing:- 3 x 3 m2
 Thompson seedless & its clones covers 55% area under grapes cultivation
 In grapes orchards:- Mg deficiency is most common
 Muscant flavour of grapes due to- methyl anthranilate

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 Pruning time :- Dec-Jan (In N.I)
Traning method:-
1.Bower system :- best economical method in india
2.Telephone system:- common in MH 3.Trellis method 4. Cordon method
 Grapes guard:- craft paper & potassium meta bisulphite
Growth regulators used in grapes cultivation:-
1.HCN:- Promotes bud-sprouting 3.NAA @ 50 ppm:- to prevent fruit drop
2.cycocoel(CCC):- Supress vine growth 4. MH:- Induced male sterility,
5. GA3:- increase berry size
Variety:-
 Bangalore blue, Sharad seedless, Perlete, Delight, Dilkhush, Black champa, beauty
seedless
 Arka Krishna, Arka sweta, Arka Majesti, anab-a-shahi
 Arkavati:- making raisin Arka kanchan:- late variety
 Arka Hans:- for making white wine
 Arka Neelmani;- for making red wine
 Pusa Navrangi:- Tenturier
 Thompson seedless (TSS-22-240B) & Pusa seedless:- covers maximum area
BAEL
 B.N:- Aegle marmelosin Family:- Rutaceae
 Origin:- India 2n= 36
 Fruit type- Amphisarka Common name- Golden apple
 Good source of Vit-B2 Acidic soil tolerance
 Propagation:-Patch budding ph- 5.5 to 7.5
 Spacing:- 8 x 8 m2 storage:- 90C
Variety:-
 Pant urbasi Gorakhpur, Mirzapur, Narendra bael,
 Kagzi gonad, Pant aparna, Pant sujata, Baranasi

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PHALSA
 B.N:- Grewia subanaqualis Family:- Tiliaceae
 Origin:- India 2n= 36
 Fruit type- multiseeded berry Highly perishable fruit
 Red colour for phalsa:- anthocyanin pruning time:- Dec- Jan
 Propagation by:- seed spacing:- 3 x 3 m2
 Yield:- 4 to 5 kg/plant
Karonda
 B.N:- carica karandus Family:- apocyanaceae
 Origin:- India 2n= 22
 Propagation by:- seed spacing:- 3 x 3 m2
 Yield:- 4 to 5 kg/plant
 Variety:-
 Pant manohar, Pant sudarshan, Pant swarna
LASODA
 B.N:- Cordia dycotoma Family:- Boragineceae
 Origin:- India propagation:- seed

CITRUS GROUP
MANDARIN ORANGE
 Most common among citrus fruit grown in India.
 Nagpur sangtra (Mandarin) is chiefly grown in satpura hills (Vidarbha region) of
central India.
 Susceptible to water logging.
 Propagation by budding – T-budding is the most common method of propagation.
 HPM – Degreening can control by application of ethrel (50 ppm) before harvesting of
fruit.

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 Rangpur lime – most promising rootstock for mandarin and sweet orange.
 Citrus is micro-nutrient loving plant
Varieties
 Coorg – Commercially grown variety of South India
 Segments 9-11, Seeds 14-3, matures – Feb-March
 Khasi – It is locally known as Sikkim or Kamala mandarin, Commercial var. of Assam,
Meghalaya and N.E. Sates
 Nagpur – Premies position among Indian Mandarin, Finest mandarin in the world,
grown in satpuda hills in MH.
 Satsuma (Seedless) – Commercial mandarin in Japan
 Emperor and Fuetrelles – Introduction from Australia
 Satwal – Introduced from Nepal
Hybrid –
 Known – King x Willow leaf (C – nobilis) x (C – deliciosa)
 First introduced in Punjab in 1959
 Developed by H.B. Frost (USA 1935)
 Segmens – 9-10
 Mature – mid Jan.
SWEET ORANGE
 Second largest citrus fruit cultivated in the country
 Maxm area – AP followed by MH and KN
 Avg. temperature for growth 16-20oC, can tolerate maxm temp. upto 32-40oC
 In Punjab Jatti Khata and Karna Khataa for Blood red and other varieties are most
commonly used rootstock
 Rangpur line is highly drough tolerant rootstock
For Scion Rootstock used
(i) Blood red - Jatti Khata, Karna Khatta (in Punjab)
(ii) Mosambi - Rangpur line (in MH)

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(iii) Satgudi - Rough lemon, nano Rangpur line (in A.P.)
Spcacing – 6 m x 6 m
Varieties
 Jaffa – Mid season
 Hamlin – Early season
 Pineapple – Mid season most successful in Punab
 Valencia – Late season (Feb-Mar)
 Main Variety (Cultivated in India)
 Blood red – Most popular in N.I., Best rootstock – Karnakhatta, Jattikhata
 Mosambi – Popular in MH – Rootstock (Rangpurline)
 Satgadi – Most popular in A.P. – Rootstock (Rough lemon)
 Shamouti – Seedless variety
 Washington navel – Develops a large fruit which lacks both Juice and quantity.
 Mudkhed – Bud mutant of Nagpur mandarin
Note :- Pineapple cucumber and Valencia – indicator of greening.
Degreening of citrus fruit is done by CaC2 (Calcium carbide)
Mosambi – from Mozambique
Pineapple – Florida (USA)
Citrumelo – Trifoliate orange x Pummelo
Varieties
 Pramalini – Canker tolerant
 Vikram & Tenali
 Chakradhar – Seedless strain of acidline / Kagziline, A thornless and seeless selection
in Kgziline
 Sai sarbati – Tolerant to tristiza and canker
 Jai Devi – Pleasant Aroma
 Classification of citrus given by tanka and Swingle (1945)

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 The bacterial canker (Xanthomon as campestris pv is the most serious disease of
acidlime
 Crop protetion technique is effective to check the fristeza virus in acid lime.
 Virus free planting material in citrus can be produced through – Chemo and thermo
therapy and shoot grafting (Micro – gradting)
GRAPE
 Deciduous crop natural habital is temperature climate.
 Rainfall during flowering and berry ripening causes enormous damage to grapes (berry
cracking and rotting)
 pH 6.5 – 7.5
 Use of growth regulator
 CCC (Cycocoel) GA and hydrogen cyanamide are commercially used in grape
 CCC – Suppress the vigour of vines and increase the fruitfulness of buds
 GA – Used in all seeded variety
 HCN (Dormex) – To hasten bud break at winter pruning also help in ripening in N.I.
 NAA (50 ppm) : To reduce post- harvest fruit drop
 MH – for induction of male sterility

Physiological Disorders)

Physiological
Causes Other important point
Disorder
Sex ratio, growth Most common in north india
habit, crop load, Control:- paclobutrazol @ 2-
1.(Mango) 1.alternate bearing
insect,pest, 5g/tree
disease,

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 Bombay green is highly
susceptible
Low temperature,
 Resistant var:-
2. malformation mangiferin,
Bhadauran,illachi
malformin
 spray NAA @ 200 ppm
in Oct.

Environmental
 maximum problem in april-
3.fruit drop factor,
may
Nutrients
 control:- 2, 4- D @ 20 ppm
 major problem of alphanso
 resistant var:- ratna, arka
4.(Spongy Tissue) Heat convection
puneet, arka anmol.
 Control by:-Mulching
 Due to smoke
of brick kilns  Control:- application of borex
5.(Black Tip)  CO, NO2, SO2 @
 Boron 0.6%
deficiency
 Zinc
6- (Clustering)
deficiency
 Boron
7.Internal Necrosis)  More prone to dashehari
deficiency
Improper bunch  Potash
2.(Banana)
filling deficiency
3. (Guava) Bronzing  Zn deficiency
4.(Aonla) Necrosis  Boron Susceptible var. :-

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deficiency francis/hathijhool
Chakaya var. free from
necrosis
 Boron
1.Hen & Chiken Common in perlette
deficiency
 Boron
2.millerandage
deficiency
Improper
3. berry or blossom
pollination &
drop
fertilization
5- vxwaj
Calcium
(Grape) 4.calyx end rot
deficiency
More prone in Thompson
5.pink berry
High temperature seedless
formation

Boron deficiency
and improper
7. short berry
pollination
 High
 Control:- by lime
temperature
1.Granulation)  more prone in:- mandarin,
 RH at the time
6. citrus sweet orange
of ripening
group
2.leaf motling Zn deficiency
3.Exanthema/dieback  Cu deficiency Use of copper sulphate
4.yellowing of leaf  Mo deficiency
Boron deficiency More problem in mrig bahar
7.Anar 1. fruit splitting
Lack of moisture Resistant var.:-alandi,

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khadrawi
Climatic factor,
2. internal necrosis
Boron deficiency

(Important Diseases of Fruits) )

Causal
Disease name Important point
organism
 Most serious disease (feb-mar)
Powderymilde Oidium
 Loss upto 30-90 %
w mangiferae
 Resistant var:- lal sinduri
(fungus)
 Control:- 0.1% karathane
1.Mango  Optimum temp:-24-320C
Colletotrichum
2.Anthracnose  Use hot water treatment.
gloesporoides

3.Bacterial  Management :- streptomycin or

Bacteria
Canker agromycin @ 2 %
4.red rust Algae

Fusarium  Soil borne disease (acidic soil)

1.Panama Wilt oxysporum  Resistant var:- poovan
(Fungus)  Immune var:- basrai dwarf
2.
 Control:- by lime
Banana
 First observed at Fiji (kerala) in 1891
Virus  Most serious disease
2.Bunchy Top
Vector:-  Management:- dimethoate (rogar)@ 0.3
AphidsPentalon %

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ia nigronervosa  Resistant var:- virupakshi

3.bract mosaic Virus Transmitted by aphids

4.moko disease Bacteria Bacterial ooze can be seen
Resistant clones:- ABB,
5.sigatoka leaf
Fungus Susceptible clones:-AAA
spot

1. Collar Pythium spp.  Soil borne disease

rot fungus
Pythium
 More comman in nusery.
2.Damping off aphanidermatu
3-
m (fugus)
Papaya)
 Vector:- white fly
3. Leaf Curl Virus
 Most prone in north india
4.Mosaic Virus Vector :- aphids
5.ring spot Virus
Fusarium  First reported in Allahabad 1935
oxysporium  More prone in alkaline soil
1. Wilt
var.psidi  Resistant var:-allahabad safeda
Fungus  Resistant rootstock:-chinese guava
4.Guava
Pestalotiopsis &
2.Canker psidii
Fungus
3.Anthracnose Fungus
Plasmopora  Most serious disease
1. downey
5.Grape viticola  Use Bordeaux mixture (CuSO4 + CaO +
mildew
Fungus Water : - 5 : 5 : 50)

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 Use sulphur in sep. month

2.Powdery Erysiphie sp.

 Use karathane @ 0.2%
mildew Fungus
3.Leaf spot Fungus &
4.pierce’s Bacteria  Temple is resistant rootstock
1. powdery Oidium jujube  Most serious disease of north india
mildew var.indica  Use karathane @ 0.2%
6.Ber
2.black leaf
Fungus &
spot
1.Leaf Spot Fungus  Use captan @ 0.2%
7- vukj 2.fruit rot Fungus
(Anar) 3.Bacterial  Popularly known as Telia disease in MH
Bacteria
Blight)  Nodle Blight
Ravenelia
8.Aonla 1.aonla rust Most serious disease
emblica
2.blue mould Fungus
9.phalsa brown spot Fungus
 Vector:-leaf minor
Xanthomonas
10.citru  Most serious disease of acid lime
1.Canker campestris
s group  Introduced from USA
pv.citri
 Resistant variety:- Tenali
3. Tristeza Vector:- citrus aphids
Virus
Disease Resistant rootstock:- rough lemon
Phythopthora
4.gummosis  Gum like material on plant
sp.
5.dieback Fungus

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6.ring spot Virus &

Vector)

S.
Name of Vector Name of disease
No.
1. Aphids
Beet mosaic, lettuce mosaic, turnip mosaic, potato
i. Myzus persicae
virus
Bean common mosaic, bean yellow mosaic,
ii. Acrythosiphon pisum
soybean mosaic, pea enation mosaic
iii. Pentalonia nigronervosa Bunchy top disesase of Banana
iv. Toxoptera citricidus Citurs tristeza
v. Aphis gossypii Papaya mosaic virus, ring spot of papaya
Mycoplasmal diseases are mostly transmitted by
2. Leaf hopper
leafhopper. Eg. Little leaf of brinjal
i. Circulifer tenellus Beet curly top
ii. Agallia contricta Potato yellow dwarf, purple top (MLO dis.)
3. Whitefly
Okra yellow vein mosaic, okra leaf curl, chilli leaf
i. Bemesia tabaci
curl, cotton leaf curl, papaya leaf curl
4. Thrips

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i. Thrips tabaci Tomato spotted wilt virus
ii. Scirtothrips dorsalis Chilli leaf curl
5. Mealy bug
i. Planococcus sp. Cocoa swollen shot
ii. Pseudococcus saccharifolli Sugarcane spike (Phytoplasma)
iii. Pseudococcus brevipes Pineapple wilt disease, papaya streak virus
Grasshopper,
6. Potato virus x, tobacco mosaic virus
Melanophus differetialis
Lace bug, Stephanites
7. Root wilt of coconut (MLO disease)
typicus

Citurs psylla, Diaphorina

8. Citrus greening (MLO)
citri
Leaf miner, Phyllocnistis
9. Citrus canker (bacterial disease)
citrella
10. Mites, Acaria sp. Fig mosaic
Cucumber mosaic virus, tobacco necrosis virus,
11. By fungus
peanut clump, potato mop top, potato virus x

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Vegetables/Olericulture)
 Latin word :- Olericulture
 Fruits & vegetables act as Natural Protective Food.
 Generally fruits are rich source of vitamins whereas vegetable cotain minerals.
Elements Vegetables
1- Carbohydrates Sweetpotato, potato, yam, colocasia
2- Proteins Green pea, beans
3- Vitamin –A Turnip, beet, palak, bathua, methi, carrot, bottlegourd, tomato
4- Vitamin-C Coriander leaves, cabbage, methi, green chilli,
(Minerals)
Calcium (Ca) Amaranthus, palak, agethi
5- Phosphorus (P) Garlic,carrot, cucumber, amaranthus
Iron (Fe) Palak, amaranthus, bathua, cabbage
Iodine (I) Okra, onion, brinjal
(Acids)
6- Citric acid Tomato, green vegetables, beet, green chilli
Mallic acid Carrot, celery
7- Fibre Potato, chilli

Vegetable production rank u

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Ø- la- Vegetables State first in production India’s rank in world
1- Potato Uttar Pradesh 5
2- Onion Maharastra 2
3- Tomato Andhra Pradesh -

Brinjal West Bangal --

4-
5- Okra Andhra Pradesh 1
6- Chilli Andhra Pradesh check data

Do you know thatS

 Antioxidant :- vit-C , Selenium
 National research centre for onion & garlic:- Rajgurunagar, (MH)
 Quebercitin chemical found in onion which prevent cancer & heart disease
 Sulphur, present in onion & garlic which helps in heart attack
 Isothiocyanate compound found in cole crop which prevents cancer disease
 Bitter gourd ,Onion & Jamun reduced diabetes disease
 Dioecious plant:- pointed gourd, spinach, beet root, asparagus,
 Monoecious plant:- cucurbits, amaranthus, cassava, colecrop
 Which vitamin found in coriander leaves:- vit-A & Vit-C
 C4 plants:- amaranthus, maize, sugarcane, jower
 Sex ratio maintain in cucurbits by application of silver nitrate
 Vegetables which required high water:-radish, colecrop, green leafy vegetables
 Vegetables which require low water:- cucurbits, tuber crops
 High oxalic acid contain:- amaranthus, palak
 High carbohydrate present in:- tapioca, sweetpotato, potato
 Good source of amino acid:- bean, pea
 At high temperature male flower increase in cucurbits.
 Nature of vegetables:- basic, where as fruits acidic in nature
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(Toxic Substances in Vegetables) )
Ø- la- Toxic substance Vegetables
1- Calcium oxalate Colacasia, turnip
2- Dioscorine Yam
3- Haemaglutine French bean
4- Oxalic acid Amaranthus
5- Saponine Palak, tomato
6- Serotonine Watermelon
7- Solanine Potato
8- Solasodine Brinjal
9- Tomatine Tomato
10. Sinigrin Cole crop
11. Apiin Celery
12. Allicin, allin (water soluble amino acid ) Garlic
Pea, beans, sweet potato,
13. Trypsin inhibitors
watermelon, pumpkin

Do you know that S

 Pungency in chilli due to: capsaicin
 Red colour of chilli due to:- capxanthin
 Food colour and aroma due to :- oleoresin
 Red colour of carrot:- anthocyanine (high in Asian carrot)
 Orange colour of carrot:-carotene (high in europian carrot)
 Precursor of Vit-A:- Carotene
 Pungency in onion due to:- allyl propyle di-sulphide
 Yellow colour of onion due to:- quebercitin
 Catechol chemical present in onion which has antifungal property.
 Red colour of onion:- anthocyanin
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 Pungency in garlic due to:-diallyl di-sulphide
 Yellow colour of turmeric:- curcumine
 Pungency in radish due to :-isothiocyanate
 Allicin is active biolological substance present in garlic having antimicrobial property.

Vegetables Introduced from

1- Potato Europe, 1615
2- Chilli Brazil
3- Cauliflower Londan, 1822
4- Carrot Persia

(Self Pollinated )
 Tomato, potato, pea, cowpea, methi,
(Often Cross Pollinated)
 Okra, brinjal, chilli, lima bean, pigeon pea, safflower, jute, tobacco, jower
(Cross Pollination)
 Cole crop, cucurbits, roots crop
(Sex Form) :-
1.Monocious:- amaranthus, cucurbits, radish, cole crops
2.Dioecious:- pointed gourd, beet root, spinach, yam, asparagus

Protoandry:- onion, carrot, beet root

Protogyny:- cole crop,
Male Sterility:- tomato, brinjal, chilli, onion, carrot
Cleistogamy:- lettuce (flower never open)
Chesmogamy:- tomato, rice, (flower open after fertilization)
Heterostyle :- brinjal, sweet potato
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Type of vvegetables:-
1.summer season vegetables:- (fruits are edible parts)
Sowing season :- zaid season & kharif season
Eg:- cucurbits, tomato, brinjal, chilli, okra, (except:-pea)
All are belongs to day neutral plant
2.Cool season vegetables:- edible parts are leaves, stem, root, flower, except fruits
Sowing season :- rabi season
Eg:- cole crops, root crop, (radish, carrot, beet, turnip), palak, methi, potato, onion, garlic,
(except –sweet potato)
Mostly belongs to long day plant

(Photoperiodism) )
1.Short Day Plant:-
 sweet potato, most of bean like dolichos bean, cluster bean,winged bean (except-
French bean)
2.Long Day Plant :-
 Cole crop, potato, radish,carrot, beet, turnip lettuce, palak, spinach, pea,
3.Day Neutral Plant :-
 Tomato, chilli, brinjal, okra, cucurbits, cowpea, French bean, amaranthus,
Pollination:-transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma
Pollinizing agents:-
1.Anemophily:- amaranthus, spinach, palak, beet (fruits- papaya, date)
2.Entomophily:- cole crop, radish, carrot, onion, turnip (most of vegetables)

(Fruit Type) )
1.Berry:- tomato, chilli, brinjal, potato

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2.Capsule:- okra, sweet potato, beet, turnip, (aonla, cotton, til, jatropa, dathura)
3.Pod:-pea, bean

4.Schizocarp:- carrot
5.Siliqua:- brassica spp.
6.Seed Ball:-beet, turnip

(Inflorescence) )
1.Katkin:- cabbage
2. panicle:- cassava(tapioca), drumstick
3.spikes:- amaranthus, beet, palak(beetleaf)
4.umbel:- onion, garlic, coriander, carrot, funnel, cumine, aniseed (ajwayan)
Important point
Salt tolerance vegetables:-
 Beet, ash gourd, bitter gourd, French bean, cole crops (moderate tolerance)
Acid tolerance vegetables:-
 watermelon, sweet potato, potato, fennel
Very shallow rooted vegetables (15-30 cm soil depth):-
 onion, small radish
Very deep rooted vegetables(120-180 cm soil depth):-
 sweet potato, watermelon, pumpkin, tomato,
Vegetables produce high respiration rate:-
 leafy greens, green onion, cauliflower, muskmelon, watermelon
Vegetables produce low respiration rate:-
 potato, onion
Vegetables which are transplanted:-
 onion, chilli, tomato,brinjal, cauliflower, cabbage, lettuce, celery

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pHH
 5.5 - 6.5:- brinjal, cole crops, radish, cucumber, sweet potato
 5.5 - 7.5 :- potato
 6.0 - 7.0 :- chilli, okra, onion, pea, garlic, carrot, cucurbits, palak
 7.0 - 10.0 :- tomato
 8.0 - 10.0 :- beet root, amaranthus
Trap Crops)
main crop trap crop
1- Cabbage Marigold, mustard
2- Cotton Okra, castor
3- Tomato Marigold, tobacco

Spacing of Vegetables )
Spacing( cm2) Vegetables
1. 15 x 10 Onion, garlic
2. 20 x 5 Palak
3. 30 x 5-10 Amaranthus, carrot, pea, French bean
4. 45 x 30 Chilli, onion(by bulb)
5. 45 x 45 Chilli, cole crops
6. 60 x 15-25 Potato
7. 60 x 30 Sweet potato
8. 60 x 45 Tomato, okra
9. 60 x 60 Brinjal
10. 100 x 300 Water melon
11. 150 x 250 Cucumber

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Colour of Flower of Vegetables )

1.brinjal :- Violet, blue 2.chilli:- white 3. Tomato:- yellow
4.pea,onion, drumstick:- white 5.cruciferae:- yellow 6. Cucrbits:- yellow, whites

Short Description of Vegetables)

Edi
Yield
Vegetable Botanical 2 ble Seed
Family Origin
s name n par rate/ha.
(t/ha)
t
Determi
Hybrid nate:-
Lycopersi
seed:-100- 20-30
con 2 Frui
1- Tomato solanaceae peru 150 g Indeter
esculentu 4 t
Normal :- minate
m
425-475 g 100-
150
Hybrid:-
Solanum
2 Frui 150-200 g
2- Brinjal melongen solanaceae India 50-100
4 t Normal:-
a
400-500 g
Normal:-
1-1-5 Kg
Capsicum 2 Frui
3- Chilli solanaceae Mexico Hybrid/cap 7-10
annum 4 t
sicum:-
250-300 g

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Solanum
tuberosu 25-35 q/ha
Peru
m 4 Tub TPS
4- Potato solanaceae South 25-50
8 er :-100-150 g
america

Okra
5- Abelmom Summer:- Summer
1
oschus Frui 18-22 Kg :-5-7
Malvaceae Africa 3
esculantu t Kharif:- Kharif:-
0
s 8-10 Kg 11-13

Water Tropical 2 Frui

6- Citrullus cucurbitaceae 3-5-5 Kg 30-40
melon Africa 2 t
lanatus

Musk Cucumis 2 Frui

7- Cucurbitaceae Tropical 1-2 Kg 20-25
melon melo 4 t
Africa
Cucumis 1 Frui
8- Cucumber Cucurbitaceae India 2-5-3-5 Kg 8-12
sativus 4 ts
Langenar
Bottle South 2 Frui
9- ia Cucurbitaceae 6-8 Kg 10-15
gourd Africa 2 t
siceraria
Momordi
10 Bitter Indo- 2 Frui
ca Cucurbitaceae 4.5-5 Kg 10-15
- gourd burma 2 t
charantia
11 Pumpkin Cucurbita Cucurbitaceae Mexico 4 Frui 6-8 Kg 25-40

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- moschata 0 t
Luffa
12 Spong 2 Frui
cylindrica Cucurbitaceae India 2.5-3-5 Kg 15-20
- gourd 6 t
l
Asian:-
13 Daucus Afganist 1 Roo 20-30
Carrot Umbeliferae 5-6 Kg
- carota an 8 t Europia
n:-10-15
Rabi:-
Alliaceae/
14 Allium Central 1 Bul 12 -15 Kg
Onion Amaryllidacea 25-30
- cepa asia 6 b Kharif:-
e
10-12 Kg
Alliaceae/ 500 Kg
15 Allium Central 1 Clo
Garlic Amaryllidacea 10-12
- sativum asia 6 ve
e
Palak /
Beet leaf Beta
16 Chenopodiacea Indo- 1 Lea
vulgaris 25-30 Kg 8-12
- e china 8 ves
var.benga
lensis
Mediterr 25-30
17 Beet Beta Chenopodiacea 1
anean root 7.5-8 Kg
- root/beet vulgaris e 8
region
Pisum Early:- Early:-
Ten
18 sativum Central 1 100 - 120 2.5-3
Pea Leguminoceae der
- var.horte asia 4 mid/late:- Mid/late
seed
ns 80-100 Kg :-

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6-10

Early:-
Brassica Mediterr Early:-
19 Cauliflow Brasssicaceae/c 1 Cur 12-15
oleracea anean 500-600 g
- er ruciferae 8 d Mid/late
var.botryt region Mid/late:-
:-20-30
is 350-400 g
Brassica Early:-
Mediterr
20 oleracea Brasssicaceae/c 1 Hea 400-500 g 35-45
Cabbage anean
- var.capita ruciferae 8 d Hybrid:-
region
ta 70-80
Asian:-
Roo
21 Raphanus 1 15&20
Radish Cruciferae Europe t& 9-12 Kg
- sativum 8 Europia
leaf
n:- 5-7
22 Brassica India 2 Roo
Turnip Cruciferae 3-4 Kg 20-25
- rapa ,china 0 t

1.potato

 B.N. :- Solanum fuberosum

 Family – Solanaceae
 Origin : South America
 Plant part used – Tubers
 2n – 4x = 48 (Autotetraploid)
 Cultivation of potato was beginning first in the Nilgiris hills in the year.
 Potato is dicot plant, flowers are hermaphordite
 Potato is long day plant but cultivated as short day plant
 Leading state > WB>UP in production
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 India share – 13% of total potato world production.
 About 90% of the total area is located in sub-tropical plans.
 Optimum temp. for growth and development – 15o – 25o C
 Temperature below 21oC is favourable for tuber formation
 Optimum temp. for tuberization is 20oC
 Most of the var. donot tuberize when night temp is more than 23oC
 At low temp the vegetative growth of the plan is restricted, that is why :- potato is
grown as a summer crop in hills and as a winter crop in tropical and sub-tropical
regions of the country.
 Long photoperiod promotes haulm growth and delay tuberization & maturity where as
short photoperiod reduces haulm growth but tuber initiation is early and the crop
maturity period reduces.
 For best yield – potato crops needs long day condition during growth and short day
condition during tuberization.
 Excellent potato crop is gown under river-bed system of cultivation in Deesa (District
Banaskantha) in Gujrat.
 Propagation – By tuber
 Seed tubers account for about 40-50% of the total input cost.
 Seed plot technique – for production of healthy seed in N.I Plans.
 Seed plot technique
 Developed by Dr. Pushkarnath in 1967.
 By this technique, produce seed (healthy seed) can be kept in reasonable health for 2-3
years.
 The seed production through seed plot technique not only gave 30-40% enhanced yield
compare to hill seed, but also was free from late blight infected tuber and several other
soil born disease and pest.
 True potato seed (TPS)
 An alternate technology for potato seed production is TPS.

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 By Dr. Ramanujan (founder director of CPRI)
 Seeds free from viral disease
 Storage losses of seed tuber will be eliminated
 Botanically seed of potato is known as TPS, its fruit called berry.
 A single plant of potato can produce 40-50 berries with 200-250 seeds per berry.
 Seedrate – 100-150 g/h
 Use of hill-grown seed
 So, for breaking the tuber dormany, seed tubers are soaked in 1% thiourea + 1 ppm
gibberellic acid solution for 1 hr.
Seed size and spacing
 Medium sized – 25-55 mm or 25-75 g is better
 Ideal tuber size – 35-40 mm or 45-50 g
 Spacing – 60 cm x 15 cm (inter and intra row)
 Seed rate – 25-30 q/h for 30 g seed – 10-15 g/h (optimum)
Planting
 In N-W Himalayas – May June
 In Gangetic Plans – Oct Nov
Interculture
 Earthing-up in plans done 35-40 doys after planting when plant reaches a height of 15-
20 cm
 HPM (Harvesting and postharvest Management)
 Harvesting of potato is done before the temp rise from 30oC. It is completed by end
January.
 Dehaulming in potato is done 10-12 days before harvesting (Jan.) chemical used for
dehaulming - C45o4
KEY POINTS
 Late blight is most devasting disease in potato
 Maximum area under potato is in Alluvial soil

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 Potato tuber dormancy – 8-10 weeks
 Ridge and furrow – most popular method of planting
 Cyst nematode – southern hills,
 Potato month – warm regions of MH, KN, MP
 Wart disease is confined to the Darjeeling hills of WB
 Potato is unfit for consumption if solain is greater then 20mg/100g
 Contains – 16% protein, rich source of barbohydrate
 It contains 17mg/100g Vit-C and 568 mg/100 g potassium.
 Potato moth tuber is major pest introduced from Italy.
 The international potato centre (CIP) is an autonomous scientific institution of Lima in
Peru, established in 1971.
 In India potato was introduced in 1615 by portugese, resarch on potato started in 1935
at IARI thena CPRI, Kufri.
 Lack of flowering under most of the climatic conditions, sterility of ovalue and pollen,
F1 hybrid sterility and embryo abortion at premature stage are major constrains in
potato breeding.
 HPS 1/13 and HPS 11/13 and HPS 24/111 are the true potato hybrids developed and
commercialized through true potato seed technology.
 Potato flowers are hermaphrodite
 The degradation of starch into sugars at low temp is catalysed by the cnzyme
phosphorylase.
 Curing can be achieved by subjecting potato tubers at 15-20oC and 85% RH for 5-10
days.
Storage
 Best method of storage – cold storage (22-33oC, RH- 75-80%)
 Potato stored at less than 0oC suffer from internal break down known as black heart.
 For long storage, potato tubers stored at 15-20oC
 FRUIT VEGETABLE

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2. brinjal

 B.N. – Solanum melongena

 Family – Solanaceae
 Origin – India
 Plant part used – Green fruits
 2n = 24
 Also known as Egg plant or Baigan or Aubergine
 Dry fruit contain goiterogenic prineciple
 Bitter taste in brinjal is due to glycoalkaloids (solanie/ solasodine)
 Seed germinate in 12-18 days
 Anthrocyanin pigment present in brinjal
 Heterostyle is common in Brinjal
 Maximum fruit setting takes place in long styled flower (70-80%)
 White colour brinjal good for Diabetic patient
 Offen cross pollinated crops
 Pigmented dark-purple brinjal has more vitamin c than those with white skin
 One gram seeds of brinjal having about 250 seeds
 Climate and soil
 Sasceptible to severe frost
 Mean temp. 20o-30oC
 Seed rate – 200g/ha (Hybrid)
 Transplanted at 3-4 leaves stages (4-5 weeks)
 Foliar application of 1% urea increase the growth and fruit set.
 Yield – Early crop = 25-30 tonnes/h, F1 hybrids = 50-90 t/h
Fruit-set
 Four type of flower have been described under brinjal (on the basis of length of style)
 Long styled – Maximum fruit setting (70-80%)

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 Medium styled – fruit setting (12-55%)
 Pseudo short styled &True short styled – due to redimentary ovaries, donot develop
into fruits.
 Fruit set can be increased by :- para – chloropheoxyacetic acid, NAA and 2.4-D
 For earlier and higher fruitset – spraying the whole plant with 2, 4-D solution at 2 ppm
Granding
 Three grades – super, fancy, commercial
Storage – 10o-11oC RH = 92oC for 2-3 weeks
Seed production
 For seed production – isolation distance for foundation seed – 200m for certificed seed
– 100m
 Ratooing cropping adopted in brinjal
KEY POINTS
 Orobanche is serious weed affecting solanaceous crops (used 2,4-D)
 Flowers are pentamerous, hermophordite & solitary, seterostyle is comma
 Induced parthenocarpy, increase fruit se by application of 2, 2-D (2ppm)
 Little leaf of brinjal disease transmitted by leafhopper, which is most serious
disease,causing 40-80% crop damage.
 S. Sisymbrifolium species is resistant to little leaf of brinjal
 S. Khasianum (wild species) – Resistant to shoot and fruit borer, which is serious pest.
 Chance of cross-pollination more in long styled flowers
 Inverted V-shaped interverinal chlorosis :- due to mg
 Fruit is a multiseeded berry
 Dried fruists of brinjal good source of vit-B

3.Tomato

 B.N. – Lycoperisicon esculentum

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 Family – Solanaceae
 Origin – Mexico and south america
 Plant part used – Riped fruits
 2n = 2x=24
 Most important and remunerative vegetables crop in India
 Tomato is universally treated as protective food
 Considered as "poor man's orange' in India while 'Love of apply" in England.
 No.1 – Processing vegetables
 Tomato fruit aroma is due to – Sulfonium
 Red colour in tomato due to – Lycopene and it is highest at 21-24oC, production of
lycopene, drops rapidly above 27oC
 Fruit contain 20-50 mg/100g fruit weight lycopene.
 Tomatine is steroidal glycoalkaloid
 One gram tomato seed contain 300 seeds
 Optimum temperature – 15-27oC
 Raising Seeding
 For raising seeding, 250m2 area is required, in rainy season
 Bed size – 7.5 m x 1.2m x 0.1 m
 During summer and rain season, there is very heavy incidence of damping off. (use
10% formaldehyde)
 Seed rate – 400-500g/ha, 125-175 g/h – hybrid seed
 80% of the processing tomatoes are grown by this method
Planting
 Training helps in better utilization of light and air
 Followed in inderminate type of tomato (single stem system) which increase number of
fruits and maintain uniform size of fruits and quality of fruits.
 Application of P – promotes root development where as K promotes colour of fruits.
Seed production

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 In northern plains, good quality seed can be obtained from Dec-Mar (harvesting
period)
 For extraction of seeds, fermentation method, alkali treatment, method and acid
treatment method is recommended.
 Seeds can be also extracted with conc. hydrochloric acid D 20ml/kg for 30 minutes
 Seed yield – 100-120 kg/h
 For poor setting of fruit – spray a mixture of 1% urea and 2,4-D at 1 to 2 ppm, when
the first few flower clusters, appear.
 Use male-sterile lines can decrease the cost. e.g. pusa Ruby and Best of all – F1, F1 =
Resistant to root knot, higher yield
HPM
Harvesting Stages – Mature green to turning stage : for distant marking, Pink to light red : for
fresh consumption, Red ripe : for seed production.
KEYPOINT
 Breaker stage (10% lycopene) – suitable for long distance fransport
 Foliar spray of PCPA (20ppm) is very effective in increasing druitset and yield.
 Tomato variety developed by use of biotechnolgy – Flavrsaur (PG gene) involve
 Seed treatment with 2, 4-D & 2-5 ppm gives early fruit set and leads to parthenocorpy.
 Dr. C.M. Rick and G. Kalloo are well known in improvement of tomato.
 Seed germination is inhibited due to presence of caffic acid and ferulic acid
 Lycopersicon chessmanii – Resistant to salt.
 Lycopersicon pennellii – tolerant to drought
 Muller (1940) divided the genus lycosersicon into sub genus
 Buckeye rot disease in tomato – L. pimpinellifolium is resistant source.

CHILL AND CAPSICUM

 B.N. – Capsicum annuum / C. frutescens
 Family – Salanaceae

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 Origin – Mexico and S. America
 Edible part – Fruit
 2n = 2x=24
 Fruit type – berry
 In northern india, capsicum is commonly known as shimla mirch
 India is a major producer, consumer and exporter of chilli in the world
 A.P. leading state in production
 Rich in Vita (292IU) and vit-C (iiimg/100g) more than tomotoes
 Pungency due to – Capsaicin
 Red colour of chill – capsanthin
 colour and flavour in food – oleoresin
 Dry chilli generally contain about 54% seeds + 40% pericarp + 6% stalks
 Capsaicin – C18 H27 NO3
 Lycopene – C4oHS6
 Chilli and capsicum often cross pollinated crop, cross pollination is a reported upto
63%
 Seed rate – 1.5 kg/h
 Chemical – Copper oxychloride, which control damping off.
 Seeding become ready for transplanting 40-45 DAS (6-7 weeks)
 Use of biofertilizer – Azotobactor – and Azospirillium
 Harvesting – Normally – 2-2.5 tonnes dry chilli and 7.5-10 tonnes of green chilli / h, in
Rainfed = 0.5 – 1.0 t/h dry chilli/h, in irrigated condition – 1.5 – 2.5 t/h
 Seed production – 50-60 kg/h
 Chemical used in processing – Dipsol
KEYPOINTS
 NAA and tricontinol (vipal) is used to control fruit drop
 1 g seed contain – 120-170 seeds

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OKRA
 B.N. – Abelmoschus esculantus
 Family – Malvaceae
 Origin – T. Africa Ethiopia
 Edible part – fruit
 2n=72, 120, 130, 132, n= 34, 35, 36
 Type of fruit – Capsule
 Okra fruits are excellent source of Iodine, helps in control goitre
 Dr. Harbhanjan singh initiated systemic resarch work on improvement of okra
 The species Abelmoschus monirot is also used as leafy vegetables
 India is largest producer in the world
 Mucilage present in okra fruits is polysaccharides
 The powdered roots of okra is given with sugar for wring of leucorrhoea backache.
 The dry seeds contains 13-22% good edible oil and 20-40% protin.
 Climate and Soil
 Require a long warm and humid growing period
 Sensitive to frost
 Optimum seed germination – 35oC (Fastest germination observed at 35oC)
 Seed fail to germinate below 20oC temp.
 Okra gives 300-500% crop land use efficiency as an intercrop in Cassava and cucurbits
 Longer fruits are used for fresh market
 After onion it accounts 70% of the 30% exchange earlings from export of vegetables
 esceelentus is most closely related to A. tuberculetus follow by a manihot
 YVMV is most serious disease, 1st vector is white fly (Bemisia tabacii)
 Jassid is the most serious pest.
CUCURBITS
Water Melon
 B.N. – Citrullus lanatus

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 Family – Cucrbitaceae
 Origin – Tropical africa
 Edible part – Fruit
 2n – 22
 Citrullus Vulgaris is the ancestor of cultivated watermelon
 Fruit contain 92% water, 0.2% protein, 0.3% minerals, 7% carbohydrates / 100g
 Cucurbifacine is main bitter substance (Tefracyclic friferpenses)
 Rich source of Potassium (100 mg / 100 g) and Iron (8 gm / 100g)
 Arid region of Rajasthan are best for production of quality fruit
 Pigment present in watermelon – Anthocyanin, +Lycopene
 Monoecious annual
 Germination of seed epigeal
 Require not dry climate
 It cannot withstands frost or very low temperature
 Temp. for optimum plant growth – 28-30oC
 Temp. for seed germination 25-30oC
 Temp for better fruiting 24-27oC
Cultivation
 Seed rate 3-3.5 kg/h for small seeded types, 5 kg / h for large seeded types, 1/3rd for
hybrid i.e. (1-1.5 kg/h)
 Sowing – in N.I. – Late Feb to mid March, in N.E. – Nov – Jan, in S.I. – Dec.-Jan, In
Rajasthan – Aug-Sep.
 Water melon is sown in relay system just before digging of potatoes in late Jan. to early
Feb.
HPM
 Ready for harvesting 90-120 days after sowing (3-4 months)
 TSS range 8-13%
 Metallic sound at the time of harvesting shows immaturity of frutis

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 Heavy dull sound at the time of harvesting show maturity of fruits
 Yellow ting / brown spot where it resets on ground, indicate maturity
 Avg. yield 30-40 t/h (hybrids)
Varieties
 Arka Jyoti – IIHR x crimson sweet (11-12% TSS) – Mid-season hybrid
 Arka Manik – IIHR-20 x Crimson sweet, 11-12% TSS – Resistant to Multi disease
 Durgapura Kesar – Late maturity – Selection
 Durgapura Meetha – Yellow fleshed var. – Selection
 Pusa Bedana – triplod – Tetra-2 x Pusa Rsal (seedless var.) by Dr. Kihara 1972
 Pusa Rasal – Selection
 Sugar Baby – TSS – 11-13%
Key Points
 2-true leaf stage is the best time for the application of chemical and PGR
 Daria cultivation is followed in cucurbits
 Among cucurbits – Muskmelon – Most suitable for daria cultivation
MUSK MELON
 B.N. – Cucumis melo
 Origin – Tropical africa / Indo Burma
 2n = 24
 Edible part – fruit
 Known as whole some fruit
 Short day length promotes female flower production
 Monoecious plant
 Maximum no. of fruits with highest TSS is produced between 9th and 12th (bud) nodes
on the main stem
 Optimum temp. for seed germination 27-30oC (Not germinate below 18oC)
 Sensitive to acidic soil
 Seed rate – 2.5 – 3.75 kg/h, for direct method whereas 1kg/h for dibbling method

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 Insitu sowing is practiced in Muskmelon
 Seed depth – 1.5 cm
HPM
 For local markets harvesting should be done on full-slip stage
 Hara madhu never reach the full slip stage colour of rind can be taken as the criteria of
maturity.
 Muskmelon is used in icecream in western countries
Yield 20-25 t/h (hybrid)
 Application of TIBA & 25 ppm applied at two an four leaf stage of plant growth which
induced female flower early and its number whereas silverthiosalphate & 300-400
PPM induced male flower
 Soaking of seeds in ethephon at 480 mg/eit for 24 hr improve germination in
muskmelon at low temp.
Varieties
 Selection
 Arka Jeet – Excellent flavour and high vit-C, relatively dwarf habit
 Arka Rajhans – Excellent keeping quality, resistant to powdery mildew
 Durgapur Madhu – Suitable for Rajasthan
 Hara Madhu – Late maturing var. 13% TSS
 Pusa Madhuras – Mid season var, 12-14% TSS
Hybrids
 Pusa sharbati – Kutana x Cantaloupes, early var, 11-12% TSS
 Punjab sunheri – Haramadhu x Edisto, 11-12% TSS
 Punjab Rasila – Resistant to powdery miilew, downey mildew
 Hissar Madhu – Pusa Sharbati x 75
 Public Sector Hybrids
 Pusa Rasraj – Developed using Monoecious sex from as female parents, 11-12% TSS

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 Note :- Hara Madhu (Late Var), Pusa madhuras (Mid var) & Remaining var. of
Muskmelon mostly early var.
CUCUMBER "KHIRA"
 B.N. – Cucumis sativas
 Origin – India
 2n – 14
 Edible part – fruit
 Bifferness in fruits is due to cucurbitacines, chemically cucurbitacin is tertracyclic
triferpens having extensive oridation level
 GA3 and Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) induce male flower on gynoecious cucumber
 It is a thermophilic and frost susceptible crop
 Optimum temp for growth 18-24oC
 Seed rate 2.5-3.5 kg/h
 White spine colour is indication for edible maturity in slicing cucumber while black in
pickling cucumber.
 In cucumber the yield could be double by using tropical gynoecious F1 hybrids
 Pusa sanyog – F1 hybrids of Japanese Gynoecious line x Green long of Naples
 Varieties
 Japanese long green – A temperate cultivar, extra early fruits mature in 45 days (by
IARI)
 Poinsett – Resistant to downey mildew, powdery mildew, anthracnol and Angular leaf
spot (Multi disease resistant)
Hybrids – Himangi – Recently recommended, resistant to bronzing poinsett x Kalyanpur
Ageti
 Phule Subhangi
 Sheetal (Selection) suitable for konkan region
 Pusa sanyog – It has gynoecious female parets – first f1 hybrid of cucumber developed
in India 1973

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 Priya – Released by private sector (hybrid)
Key points
 Bitterness is due to metaxenic effect when bitter pollens fertilize with non-bitter ovules
 Bloating is due to the production of excess CO2 in cucumber
 For long storage 10oC is Ideal
BOTTLE GOURD
 B.N. – Lagenaria Siceraria
 Origin – South Africa
 Edible part – fruit
 2n = 22
 MH at 400 ppm promptes the female flower production and increase fruits set
 Heterosis is present through its lifecycle in all stages
 Seed rate 6-8 kg/h
 Kofta and petha are most popular preparation from bottle gourd
 Dry shell is used for preparation of musical instrument
 Processed product – tooty fruity
 Samrat – highest yield potential on bower system
 Fruit set can be increased by spraing of plant at the 2 and 4 true leaf stage with ethrel
(100-150 ppm), MH (400 PPM) tridobenzoic acid (50 ppm) born (3-4 ppm) and
calcium (20 ppm)
Varieties
 Selection
 Pusa summer prolific long (PSPL)
 Pusa Naveen – Suitable for summer as well as rainy season
 Arka Bahar – Without crook neck
 Samrat – Highest yield, good keeping quality good for box packing
 Pusa Meghdoot – 1st F1 hybrid by public sector (PSPL X Selection2)
 Pusa Sandesh – New variety

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 Pusa Mangari – PSPL x Sel-11
 Pusa Supriya – High yielding variety
 Harit
BITTER GOURD
 B.N. – Momordica Charantia
 Origin – Indo-Burma
 2n = 22
 Edible part – Fruit
 Hindi – Karela, Kareli
 Also known as – Bitter cucumber, Balsam pear
 Rich source of Iron, Vit-C, Vit-A (210 IU)
 Bitter principle due to – Monordicin
 Ccucurbiticin – Bitter glucosides in preventing spoilage of cooked
 Vegetables of bitter gourd
 Trained on bower system
 Optimum temp for cultivation – 24-27oC
 Seed rate 5-6 kg / h
 Yield 10-15 t/h
 Moturify pd 60-75 DAS
 Growth regulator – Ethrel @ 25 ppm increase female flowers
Varieties
 Selection
 Pusa – do – Mausami
 Pusa vishesh – selection from local var.
 Priyaka
 Konkan Tara – Suitable for export, good keeping quality, shelf life 7-8 days
 Phule green gold – Green long x Delhi local
 Pusa hybrid-1

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 Arka Harit – collection from Rajasthan, Arka Anupama
PUMPKIN AND SQUASHES or "Vegetable Marrow"
 Pumpkin – Cucurbita Moschata
 Origin – Mexico, Peru
 2n = 40
 Chappan Kaddu (Summer Squash) Origin Mexico 2n = 40
 Vilayati Kaddu (Winter squash) C Maxima, Origin – Mexico – 2n = 40
 Pumpkin is monoecious annual climber
 Also known as Kashiphal
 Flower of pumpkin are more nutritive than fruit.
 Amphidiploid (2n= 40) in nature (AABB)
 Seed rate 6-8 kg / h
 Maturity pd 110-120 days
 Orissa – 85% area and 90% production
 Yerusseri – Prepared from immatured fruits
 The genomic structure of C. Moschata is AABB indicating an amphidiploid
 Pumpkin is specially known for its low cost of production and long keeping quality.
 Ethrel @ 200-250 ppm increase the female flower production & yield
Varieties
 Arka Chandan – Pleasant aroma, carotene content (3331 IU/ 100g)
 Arka Surya Mukhi – Resistant to fruit fly
 Pusa viswas
 Pusa Vikas – highly suitable for spring summer season in N.I.
SUMMER SQUASH
 Also called vegetable marrow or filed pumpkin
 Harvesting stage at 1/3rd maturity
 Pattypan from USA, short duration variety
 Pusa Alankar – Chappan x Early Yellow Prolific

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WINTER SQUASH
 Monoecious and annual climber
 May tolerant frost
 Variety
 Arka Suryamukhi
SQUASH MELON OR ROUND GROUD
 B.N. Crullus valgaris var. fistulosus
 Origin – India
 Most popular summer vegetable in North India
 The round melon has higher nutritive qualities than most of the other cucurbits
 Maturity period 45-50 days
 Yield – 10 t/h
 Variety – Arka Tinda
 Seed rate – 5-6 Kg/h
POINTED GOURD
 B.N. – Trichosanthus dioca
 Origin – India
 2n = 22
 Fruit – Fusiform 8-12 cm long
 Hindi – Parwal
 Propagation – root cutting
 One of the most nutritive and wholesome vegetables
 Considered as "King of Gourds"
 Commercially propagated by vine cutting @ 2000-2500 cutting / ha
 Pointed gourd is a dioecious, perennial, climing or trailing in habit
 10% male plant is necessary to get high yield
Varieties
 Bihar Sherif

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 Swarna Rekha
 Swarna Alaukit
 Chhoa Hilli
 Transplaning time of root cutting Feb-Mar.
RIDGE GOURD
 B.N. – Luffa acutangula
 Origin – Asia
 2n - 26
 Both spong gourd and ridge gourd contain a gelatinous compound called luffein.
 Used in Bathing sponge
 Commercially trained on Kniffin system
Varieties
 Pusa Nasdar – Monoecious var.
 Sat putia – Hermaphro dite var.
 Konkan Harita
 Punjab Sadabahar
 Hybrid
 Surekha
 Arka Sujat
SPONG GOURD
 B.N. – Luffa cylindrica
 Origin – Assam
 2n = 26
 Long day promotes femaleness
 Seed rate – 2.5 – 3.5 kg/h
Varieties
 Pusa Chikni – Selection and early var.
 Pusa supriya

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 Harita – F1 hybrid while Arka Harita = Bitter gourd, Pusa Harit – Palak
CHOW – CHOW / CHAYOTE
 B.N. – Sechium Edule
 Family – Ccucurbitaceae
 Origin – Mexico
 Edible Part – Fruit
 2n=28
 Common name – Chayote, Choco, askas
 Single seeded fruit in Cucurbits
 Most nutritious among cucurbits
 Harbaceous, perennial, monoecious, climbing vine
 High calcium content
 Propagated by fruits (vivipary)
 Chayote is generally raised by planing entire fruits. It can also be propagated by
tuberous roots.
ASH GOURD (Wax Gourd)
 B.N. – Benincasa hispida
 Origin – Java, Japan
 2n = 24
 Fruits at maturity have white waxy surface
 Annuals hipsid (rough with bristle like hairs)
 Longest storage life among cucurbits
 Var – Mudlier, Pusa Ujjwal, Pusa Shakti (White, shakti = Tomato)
 Disappearance of ash wool on the fruit surface is an indication of maturity.
KAKROL OR SPINE GOURD
 B.N. – Momordia cochinchinesis
 Edible part – fruit 2n = 28
 Spine gourd is large, dioecious, perennial climber

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 Kakrol leaves of kakrol are also consumed as a leafy vegetables
 Kakrol is rich in protein and Vit-C
 Propagated by tuberous roots and seed
KARTOLI / SWEET GOURD
 B.N. – Momordica cochinchensis
 Propagation – Tuberrous root
 Dioelious, perennial plant
Scarlet Gourd : Ivy gourd / kundru / coccinia / tondle / Little gourd
 B.N. – Coccinia grandis / C. India
 Origin – India
 Perennial climbing herb
 Pioecious (c. grandis) pherbs, having tuberous root

PALAK / SPINACH BEET

 Beet leaf / Common palak / desi palak / Garden beet
 B.N. – Beta Vulgaris var. bengalensis
 Family – Chenopodiaceae
 Origin – Indi-China
 Edible part – Leaves 2n = 18
 Primarily used as pot herb
 Most common leafy vegetables of tropical and sub-tropical regions
 Highly salt tolerant vegetables and can be grown in saline soil
 Vit-A 9.770 Iu,Vit-C – 70mg Protein – 3.4 g
 Seed Rate – 15-20 kg seed / ha.
HPM
 Ready for 1st picking 3-4 weeks after sowing
 6-8 Picking can be taken
 Yield 8-12 t/h

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 Seed yield 1-1.5 t/h
Suitable for N.I.
 All green – Selection
 Pusa palak – Swiss chard x Local palak
 Pusa Jyoti – Selection
 Pusa Harit – Sugar beet x Local palak (by hybridisation)
Selection
 Pusa Jyoti
 All Green
 Pusa Bharti – Plyploid var
 Punjab Green
 Mutant Var.
 Jobner Green – Suitable for Rajathan
 Ohte Var.
 Ban erjee's giant
Key Points Palak Produces heramaphrodite flowers
VILAYATI PALAK / SPINACH
 B.N. – Spinacea Oleracea
 Family – Chenopodiaceae
 Origin – Iran
 Edible part – Leaves 2n= 12
 It has very high respiration rate due to presence to large leaf surface area
 Long day plant
 Most important pot herb
 Varieties
 Prickly seeded cultivars – Virginia Savoy
 Khara palak
 Katui Palak

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LIMA BEAN
 B.N. – Phaseolus lunatus
 Origin – Guate mala
 Edible part – POD
 Known as – Double bean / butter bean
 It is used to prepare wine
 Varieties
 King of Garden
 Florida Butter
 Baby potato
 Handerson Bush
BROAD BEAN
 B.N. – Vicia Faba
 Also known as – Faba bean / Horse bean
 Cool/ Season crop
 Bean is known as Favism
 Red Epicure (long pod type)
 Pusa summet

WINGED BEAN
 B.N. – Psophocarpus tefragonolo bus
 Origin – Africa 2n = 18
 Edible part – Pod seed
 Also known as Four angled bean or Goabean veg of 20th century
COLE CROPS
 B.N. – Brassica oleracea var. botrytis
 Family – Cruciferae / Brassica ceae
 Origin – East mediterranean region (syria)

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 Edible part – Curd
 2n = 2 x = 18
 Cauliflower has descended through mutation and selection from a common ancestor,
the wild cabbage – Brassica oleracea C. Var sylvestris
 Thermosensitive crop
 It was introduced in India in 1822 by Dr. Jenson from London (In saharanpur)
 The name cauliflower has originated from the Latin words
 Cauliflower, cabbage, kale and broccoli are all closely related and have originaged
from wild cabbage known as "Colewots"
 The optimum temp. for growth of young plants is around 23oC and 17o-20o in the later
stages. (curd initiation)
 Hot water treatment at 50oC for 30 minutes – To control seed bore disease.
Maturity Time of seed rate Ready for Transplanting spacing Yield t/h
type seed (g) transplanting time (cm2)
sowing (in weeks)
Early mid may 450-700 g 5-6 weeks early July to 60cm x 6-10
to end Aug. 30cm
june
Mid July - 300-500 g 3-4 weeks Sep to Oct 60 cm x 25-30
Aug 40 cm
Late Mid Sep 300-500 g 3-4 weeks 1 week of 60 cm x 25-30
to end Oct Nov 40 cm

 Most of the late types commonly known as snowball type have self blanched habit.
KEYPOINTS
 Scooping – Removed of central portion of curd for easier initiation of flower stalk in
cauliflower.

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 Blanching is a mtehod to protect curd from attaining yellow colour after their direct
exposure to sun and to arrest enzymatic activity.
 Bowflies are effective pollinator
Seed production
 The seeds of early and mid season varieties are produced in the plains of N.I.
 Late varieties of cavli flower is now only possible in the kulu valley parts of the
Kashmir valley, H.P. and Nilgiris hills
 Seed yield – 2.5 – 4.0 a/h

CABBAGE
 B.N. – Brassica oleracea var. capitata
 Family – Cruciferae
 Origin – Mediterranean region and western europe
 Edible part – Head
 Fruit type – Siliqua
 Cabbage covers 4.3% of total area under vegetable
 W.B. is leading state in production
 It has anticancer property due to presence of Indole-3-carbinol
 Round head var. mature earliest followed by conical varieties.
 Wild cabbage – B. Oleracea var. sylvestris
 Savoy cabbage – B. Oleracea var. Sabuda
 Red cabbage – B. Oleracea var rubra
 It was introduced in India from Western Europe
 Cabbage contain goitrogens, which enlarge of thyroid glands
 Optimum seed germination temp – 12.8 – 15.6oC
 The growth in most of the cabbage var. is arrested when temp.
 Harvesting period – Dec. to Apirl

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 Sauerkraut – Value added product prepared from white cabbage, It is used to cure
scurvy
 Seed production
 Yield – 5-6.5 q/h
 Only possible in the Kashmir valley, H.P. and other hills regions
Varieties
 Round head or ball head types (early variety)
 Golden Acre : (selection) from copenhagen market
 Pride of India – By selection
 Pusa mukta – Hybrid
 Copenhagen market – Most of the hybrids belongs to this group
 Mammoth Rock Red
 Express
 Flat head or Drumhead types
 Pusa Drumhead (Hybrid)
 Conical head type (Mid season) – Jersey, wake field
 Savoy type – Chieftain
KEY POINTS
 Cabbage produces seeds in the temperate region onl
 The flower of cabbage are protogynous
 Cabbage seeding are transplanted at 4-6 true leaf stage
 Cabbage head is modification of leaves

SPROUTING BROCCOLI
 B.N. – Brassica oleracea var italica
 Family – Cruciferae
 Origin – Italy
 Edible part – head

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 2n = 2x = 18
 Fruit type – Siliqua
 It has about 130 times more vitamin – A contents than cavlidlower and 22 times more
than cabbage
 Optimum temp – 20o – 25o C
 Seed rate – 400-500 g/h
Varieties
 Palam samridhi – Mainly for subtropical condition
 Greenbud
 Green mountain
 Green head
 Pusa KTS-1
 Decicco
 Sparten early
 Italian Green or Calabrese – Most popular variety

BRUSSELS SPROUTS
 B.N. – Brassica Oleracea var gemmifera
 Family – Cruciferea
 Origin – Belgium
 Edible parts – Buds
 2n = 18
 The edible part is swollen axillary bud known as sprouts or buttons or mini cabbage

KNOL KHOL
 B.N. – Brassica oleracea var gongylodes
 Origin – Mediterranean region
 Family – Cruciferae

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 Origin – Mediterranean region
 Edible part – Swollen stem (knob)
 2n – 18
 Seed rate – 1kg/ ha
 Brussels sprout and knol – khol are typically biennial crop, while Broccoli comprises
of both annual as well as biennial.

KALE
 B oleracea var. acephala
 Family – Cruciferae/ Brassicaceae
 Origin – Mediterranean region
 Edible part – leaves and shoot
 2n = 18
 Minor cole crop
 Kale is hardiest crop and can withstand low temperature and propagated by seed.
 Karamsag is mostly grown is J & K.
BULB VEGETABLES
Onion
 B.N. – Allium cepa
 Family – Alliaceae (Amaryllidaceae)
 Origin – Central Asia
 Edible parts – Bulbs (modified stem)
 India is rank IInd in area and production after china.
 Rich source of vitamin B, and richest source of vanadium
 Onion accounts for 77% of total foreign exchange earning among fresh vegetables
 Pungency due to = Allyl-propyl disulfide
 Contain an enzyme called – allinase
 The antifungal factor in dnim is phenolic compound knwon as catechol

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 The colour of the outer skin of onion bulb is due to quercetin
 Climate & soil
 Ideal temperature – 12.8oC – 21oC (before bulbing) and 15.5o-25oC for bulb
development, about 20o – 25oC temp is optimum for seed germ.
 pH = 5.8 – 6.5
 Bolting problem – below 15oC temp
 Planting Methods
Season Sowing time spacing Seed rate kg/h Ready for
transplanting
Rabi Mid Oct to end 4-5 cm 10-12 8-9 weeks
Nov.
Kharif Aug-Sept 4-7 cm 12-15 6-7 weeks

Planting by bulbs
 This is practised to meet the demand of green onion for slad in early winter
 Bulbs are dipped in 15cm on the side of 45cm wide ridges or in begs
 Seed rate = 705 kg medium sized bulbs / ha
Direct Sowing
 By broadcasting or drilling of seeds directly in the field
 Seed rate – 25kg/h
 Seeding 6-8 weeks old, may be thinned
Planting by sets – seed rate 5-8 kg for raise enough number of sets in 200m2 area.
MH (pre-harvest foliage sprays) may be helpful in controlling the sprouting of onions in
storage.
KEYPOINTS
 Dehydration ratio – 10:1
 Largest cultivared onion var :- orange and yellow
 Temperature is more important than day length in seed production.

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 Daylength more important than temp. for bulb production
 Lassalyoan in MH is the biggest onion market in India
 Seifing and massing is a method of improvement in onion suggested by Jones and
Mann in 1963.
GARLIC/LAHSUN
 B.N. = Allium sativum
 Family = Alliaceae (Amaryllidaceae)
 Origin = Central Asia and Mediferranean region
 Edible part = Cloves
 2n = 16
 Remarks = Sexually sterile, diplo bulbs divided into cloves
 China rank 1st in area and production
 India rank IInd in area IIIrd in production
 True garlic odour – due to Diallyl disulphide
 Allicin is the antibacterial substances of garlic and has the typical odour of fresh garlic
 In India mostly short-day type var. are grown
 In Aarveda garlic is considered as 'Nector of Life".
 Frost hardy requiring cool and moist period
 Tissue culture tech. also involves in healthy garlic bulbs production.
 Seed rate = 500 kg of 8-10 mm diameter cloves / hectare
 The bulbs mature 130-180 days after planting
 Yield of bulbs 10-20 t/h
 About 25-50% losses takes place if garlic is not stored
 Curing is necessary
 Packed in open mesh jute bags
 Cloves sprout quickly at temp. near 4.4oC
 Storage life of garlic is prolonged and loss in wt is reduced by spraying 3000 ppm MH
on the crop before harvesting

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Small cloved var – Godavari
 Pusa sel 10
 Agrifound white (G-41) – T.SS = 41% for commercial cultivation
 Yamuna safed-K (G-1) -> 38-40% TSS for commercial cultivation
Big size clove
 G282 – earliest maturing, grown in southern hills and northern plains
 Agrifound parvati – 10ng day types, grown in Northern hills
 Conger the day length given to var. higher yield.
 Borax D 10kg/h increase bulb size and yield
ROOT CROPS
RADISH
 B.N. – Raphanus satirus
 Family – Brassicaceae / Cruciferae
 Origin – Europe
 Edible part – Tender root & leaves
 2n = 18
 Modified form of root – Fusiform
 The edible portion of radish root develops from both primary root and the hypocotyl.
 Cultivated radish is originated from Raphanus rophanistrum
 Rat-tail radish – R. Satirus var. caudatus, pods are used as vegetables
 Pungency due to Isothicynates (fran-u-methyl-thio buteny) iso thiocyanale)
 Pink colour in radish – Anthocyanin
 Pungency of radish increase with maturity.
Climate and Soil
 Asiatic var. can tolerant higher temp. than european type
 Optimum temp. 10-15oC
 Max-root growth occurs initially at – 20-30oC
 Low temp. and long photoperiod influence flowering in radish.

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 Best quality of roots are produced in Nov to Dec sowing
 Seed rate 9.5-11 kg/ h
Seed production
 Temperature winter var. requires 10w temp (0-4oC) for period of 40-60 days to induce
bolting and flowering
 Sowing of seed in Sep.
 Isolation dist of foundation seed & credified seed is 1600 m and 1000 m
 Avg seed yield of European var 570-780 kg / h or 6-8 q/h
 Tropical var. can produce seed both in tropical and temperate region of India
 European type : Maturity period – 25-30 days, Yield – 5-7 t/h
 Asiatic type : Maturity period – 45-60 days, Yield 15-20 t/h
Varieties
Asiatic varieties –
 Pusa chetki – sowing time (march to august), Suitable for growing in hoffer months
(selection)
 Pusa Desi
 Pusa Rashmi
 Arka Nishant – Highly resistant to white rust. Resistant to pithiness, pre-mature bolting
and root branching by mass selection
 Japanese white
 Punjab safed
 European varieties (Biennial in nature)
 Rapid Red, White tipped (Globe shaped) Earliest maturing var., Ideal for pot culture
 Scarlet Glove – Round shape with white flesh
 White Icicle
 Pusa Himani – Grow throughout the year sowing Dec to Fec.
 Hybrid Varieties
 Pusa Himani – Raddish Black x Japanese white

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 Pusa Safed – White 5x x japanese white
 Pusa Rashmi – Green type x Desi type
CARROT
 B.N. – Daucus carota
 Family – Umbeliferae
 Origin – Afganistan
 Edible part – Root
 2n – 2x = 18
 Carrot is an annual herb for root production and biennial for flowing and fruit set
 Tropical types are annual where as temperate types are biennial
 Asiatic type – High yielder but poor in quality and carotene and rich in anthocyanin,
core distinct
 European type – Orange colour, rich in carotene, stumb and blunting core.
 Richest source of vitamin-A
 The highest accumulation of corotene occur in older cell of the phloem.
 Ornage colour in carrot is due to – Carotene
 The carotene content in carrot is more affected by stage of maturity and fertilization.
 B. Carotene is responsible for most of the biological and medicinal properties of
carrots
 Kangi – Beverage is prepared from block carrot, considered to be a good appelizer.
 Flower – protandrous in dlorescence – compound umbel
 Isolation distance – Foundation seeds – 1000 m, Certified seeds – 800 m
 Climate and soil
 For better growth optimum temperature is 18.3 to 23.9o C
 Best temp. for roof colour development is 15.6 – 21.1o C
 Sowing
 The seed is sown on shallow ridge 30-45 cm apart

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Type Sowing time Spacing in Seed rate seed depth Yield
in NI cm
Asiatic or Aug to early 45 x 30-45 5-6 kg 1.5 cm 25-30 t/h
Tropical Oct
Temperature Oct-Dec 30x30-45 4-5 kg 10-15 t/h
(European)

Varieties
 Tropical or Asiatic types
 Pusa Kesar – Suitable for early sowing (selection)
 Pusa Meghali – Highest Vit-A (11,571 mg carotene/100 g fresh wt.)
 Temperate or European types
 Chantenay – Suitable for processing and storage (canning)
 Early Nantes – From France
 Nantes Half long – For canning
 Pusa Yamdagini
 Imperator – Mid to late maturing
 Zeno – Suitable for Nillgiri hills, introduced from Germany. developed at Ooty
Hybrids
 Pusa Kesar – Local Red x Nantes Half long
 Pusa Meghali – Pusa kesar x Nantes
Notes :-
 Hissar Garlic – Selection
 Autumn King – Suitable for canning
 Danvers – Suitable for both fresh market & processing.
Key Points
 Temperates type from roots both under temperate and tropical climate but seed setting
only in temperate climate.

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 For seed production of carrot minimum temp. of 5-8oC for 40-60 days
 The taste of carrots is mainly due to the presence of glutamic acid
 Caffeic acid is predominant phenolic acid in carrot
 Male sterility in carrot is of both genic & cytoplasmic types
 Heavy feeder of potash
BEET ROOT / CHUKANDAR
 B.N. – Beta Vulgaris
 Family – Chenopodiaceae
 Origin – Mediterranean region
 Edible part – Root
 2n = 18
 Beet plants are very sensitive to low temperature and high acidity
 pH = 8-10 (grown in saline and alkaline soils)
 Rich source of folic acid, essential for pregnant women to reduce risk of spina bifida
 1 gm of sed ball counts about 50 seeds
 Thinning is compulsory
 Inflorescence – spike , normally develops in the second year
 Isolation distance for foundation seed – 1600 m, for certified seed – 1000 m
 Fruits are botanically – Capsule
 Seed balls (fruits) contain many seeds (2-6)
 The calyx continues to grow after flowing become corky and covers seed completely
 Seed viability – 5-6 yr.
 Most productive at 20-22oC temperature
 Temp above 26oC can makes roots tough and lower sugar content
 Seed rate – 7.5-8 kg/h
HPM
 Detroit Dark Red – globular to oval group
 Crimson globe – globular to oval group

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Key points
 Beet root requires vernalization (low temp treatement) for 2 weks at 4-10oC for flower
bud initiation.
 Seed is produced above 1200 m in India. Each fruit contain 2-6 seeds, that is why
thinning is essential in beet because of each place 2-3 seeds germinate.
TURNIP
 B.N. – Brassica rapa
 Family – Cruciferare
 Origin – China, India
 Edible part – Root
 2n – 2x = 20
 Modified form of root – Napiform
 Nacl and CO2 is used to overcome self incompatibility
 Best temp – 18-23o for root development
 Best temp below 10oC for seed production
 Seed viability 5-6 yrs.
 Seed rate 3-4 kg
 Yield 30-40 t/h
Varieties
Asiatic
 Pusa Kanchan – Hybrid, posses good flavour & taste
 Pusa Swati – White colour, very early
 Punjab safed – pusa safed – hybrid of Raddiesh
European
 Golden Bold
 Pusa Swarnima (hybrid)
 Pusa Chandrima

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(Physiological Disorders of Vegetables) )

Vegetables Name of Disorder Cause /control/important point

1.Fruit Cracking  boron deficiency
1. Blossom end
 Calcium deficiency & high temperature
rot (BER)
 Low /high temp. & lack of fertilization
3.Puffiness
 Pocket like structure
1.Tomato 4.Cat face  Unfavorable climate at growing period
5. blotchy ripening  Kotash deficiency
6.sun scald  More than 400C temp.
7.waxy blister

8.golden flake
 Lack of oxygen in storage
1.Black Heart  Control:- stored ay 10-150C temp. and better
aeration

2.Potato  Excess nitrogen

2.Hollow Stem  Most common in large size potato
 Control:-reduce spacing & use appropriate
nitrogen dose.
3.Greening  High light intensity

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 Accumulation of solanine
 Control:- earthing up
4.chilling injury  Low temperature (less than 10 0C)
 Temp 0 0C /less than , it cause more harm than
5.freezing injury
chilling injury
6.internal brown spot  Lack of moisture
3.Cauliflower 1.Ricyness  Valvetty structure on curd
 Nitrogen deficiency
2.Buttoning
 Formation of small type of curd
 Frost and insect
3.Blindness  No terminal buds
 No formation of curd
 Excess use of nitrogen
4.Hollow Stem
 Boron deficiency
5.Chlorosis  Mg deficiency
6.Browning  B deficiency
 Mo deficiency
7.Whiptail
 More prone in acidic soil
 Accumulation of anthocyanin due to high light
8.Pinking
intensity

Fuzz like structure on curd

9.Fuzziness
10.Leafyness -
 Pre mature initiation of flower stalk
1.Bolting
4.Cabbage
2.Tip burn  -
1.Pithiness

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 Delay harvesting
5.carrot
2.Bitterness  High ethylene accumulation
3.Splitting  B deficiency and excess nitrogen
4. Forking  Hard soil pan & partial decomposed FYM

 Calcium deficiency
5.cavity spot
 Early sowing
1.Bolting
 Temp below 150C
6.Onion 2.Splitting 
 Control:- application of malic hydrazide
3.Sprouting
@2500-3000 ppm
7.water
1. BER  High temperature
melon
8.cucumber 1. pillow  Calcium deficiency
1. BER  Lack of moisture
9. Chilli 2. flower drop Control:- by NAA
3.Frog Eye Spot
10.French
1.Blossom drop Unfavorable climate
bean
1.internal brown spot  Boron deficiency
11.beet
 More common in turnip
root/turnip 2.Brown Heart
 B deficiency

(Important Diseases of Vegetables) )

Disease name Causal agent Important point

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Alternaria
1.(Early Blight) &
solanai
Phytopthora  Most serious disease
2. (Late Blight)
infestance  Cause Ireland famine in 1845
Synchritium  Mainly prone to Darjeeling region
1.(Potato)
3.(Wart) endobioticum (WB)
4.black scrub Fungus Resistant var. – kufri kuber
5. golden
nematode Nematode  Severe in Darjeeling region
6.Witch Broom MLO’S
Erwinia
7. soft rot
crotovera
8. faint/latent Vector:- aphid
PV-X & S
mosaic Alkaline soil –favourable
 Curling of leaf, application of CCC
1.Leaf Curl Virus  Vector:-white fly
 Rainy season is more favourable
2.(Tomato) 2.fern mosaic Virus  Vector:-white fly
 Vector:- thrips
3.spotted wilt Virus

4.blight Bacteria  Control:-streptomycin 0.1 g/lit

 Most serious disease
1.Little Leaf MLO’s  Vector:- leaf hopper
 Resistant var- Arka sheel, manjarigota
3.(Brinjal)
2. phomopsis  Resistant var- pant samrat, pusa
Fungus
blight anupam ,pusa bhairav,
3. Wilt Bacteria

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4.Chilli 1.Leaf Curl Virus  Vectors:- Thrips, White fly

2.Mosaic Virus Transmitted by:- aphids

3.damping off Fungus
4. antracnose Fungus
 Resistant var- Pusa Sawani, Parvani
1.yellow vein Virus
Kranti, Arka Abhay, Arka
mosaic virus Vector:-white
Anamika
(Y.V.M.) fly
 Most serious disease

5- Okra Meloidogyne
2. Root-knot
spp  Formation of root-knot galls
nematode
3.Leaf spot Fungus
4. enation leaf
Virus Vector:- white fly
curl
1.Black Rot Bacteria v-shape chlorosis on leaf margin
2.black leg/dry
6. cole Fungus Transmitted by- seed
rot
crops
Albugo  Control;-bordeaux mixture
3.White Rust
candida  Most severe in acidic soil
7. onion Alternaria  favourable temp for disease spread-
1.Purple Blotch
& garlic porii (28-30 0C)
Aspergillus
2.black mould Storage disease
niger
8. 1. powdery
Fungus  serious disease
cucurbits mildew (PM)

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2.green mottle
Virus Most common in cucumber
mosaic
 most serious disease of water melon
3.Bud Necrosis Virus
 vector:-aphids/seed
1. powdery
9. pea Fungus
mildew
10.french
1.mosaic Aphids  vectors:-aphids
bean

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(Post Harvest Management) )

 In indidia, post harvest losses in fruit and vegetables are very high (avg.30%) due to
1.mechanical losses:- bruising, cracking, cuts.
2. microbial losses:- by fungi and bacteria
36% vegetables decay due to soft rot bacteria (erwinia crotovera)
30 % fruits decay due to fungus (penicillium spp.)
3. physiological losses:- change in respiration,transpiration, pigments, organic acid,
flavour.
Maximum post harvest losses:-
in fruits:- papaya , mandarin
in vegetables:- cauliflower, tomato

cause of losses

(pre-harvest) (post - harvest)

1. Variety 1. (curing) :- removal of moisture

2. Cultural practices 2. (degreening) :- degradation of green pigments
3.maturity indices 3. (Pre-cooling):- loss of heat
4. (Hydro-cooling):- heat loss by water
For green vegetables at 12-15 0C
5.washing and drying
6. (waxing) 7. (ripening)
8.packaging 9.transportation
10. storage 11. (radiation)

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Post harvest factors :-
1.curing :-
 removal of moisture by exposing the product to particular temperature or humidity
condition.
 Artificial curing temp.for:- onion (40oC), Sweet potato (33oC), Potato (13-16oC)
 Maximum curing temp. at field is 37.8oC for 3-5 days.
 Eg:- onion, garlic, sweet potato, potato, colocasia etc
2.Degreening:-
 degradation of green pigments by appling ethylene and its derivatives.
 Best degreening temp.-27oC, RH-85-90%
 Ethylene concentration 20 ppm should be apply for degreening
 Eg:- banana, citrus( sweet orange, mandarin), mango, tomato etc.
3.pre-cooling:-
 Rapidremoval of heat from freshly harvested fruits and vegetables, by conduction
principle.
 Water cooling (hydro-cooling) is used for leafy vegetables
4.waxing :-
 It is a process of covering of frits & vegetables with artificial waxing material like
edible wax(paraffins)
 Brand name for wax:- tal-prolong, semper-fresh, frutox, waxol, nipro fresh, deco
luster etc
 Two type of wax emulsion:- wax-O(gloss to fruits & vegetables) & wax-W
 Fruitox :- fungicide with wax-o (0.3%) & Tal-prolong (1-1.5%) reduced ripening in
mango
 Waxing increase shelf-life of fruits & vegetables by reducing respiration rate and
transpiration
 Eg:-citrus, apple,grapes, cassava, tomato, brinjal, etc
5.ripening:-

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Ripening is a process in which following change takes place:-
Unripe fruit (content) Enzyme Ripe fruit
Chlorophyll (green) Hydrolase Anthocyanine/carotene
(Red/yellow)
Acidic (sour taste) Kinase Neutral
Starch Amylase Sugar
Pectine (hard) Pectinase Less pectin (soft)
Large organics Hydrolase aromatic

 ethylene is gaseous hydrocarbon where as ethephone is liquid

 Ethephone commercially known as ethrel or CEPA is used as ripening
 CaC2 (calcium carbide) can also be used as ripening (100g for 100 kg of fruits) eg:-
banana
 Purafil (KMnO4) is ethylene absorbant.
6. packing:-
 Potato, onion,carrot, radish packed in gunny bags
 Apple, stone fruits, citrus, sapota, litchi, guava packed in wooden box
6.storage :-
 for storage two factor is important- (1). low temp. (2) high humidity (>90%)
 onion& garlic required low relative humidity (70%)
(Storage) )
Storage Life
Fruits name Temp.
(week)
1- Banana 12-13 0C 1-2
2- Pineapple, jackfruit 11-13 0C 6 (pineapple)
3- Bael,papaya, guava 9-10 0C
4- Mango 8-9 0C

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5- Mandarin, sweet orange 6-8 0C
6- Sapota 3-4 0C
Grapes, litchi,
7- pomegranate, 0-1 0C
Apple, pear, peach, plum

Vegetables name Temperature Storage life (in week)

34 (potato), 13-20
1- Potato, sweet potato 10 - 13 0C
(sweet potato)
2- Brinjal 10 - 11 0C 2-3
3- Cucumber 10 - 12 0C 2
4- Ripe tomato, green chilli 7 - 8 0C 1
Cole crop, garlic, onion, carrot, radish,
5- turnip, pea (trick:-edible part other 0 0C
than fruit, except pea)

Method of storage :-
1.evaporative cool storage:-
 Simple and effective method for short term storage at farm level
2.zero energy cool chamber:-
 Developed at IARI, New Delhi
 Developed by:-susanta K.Roy
 Based on principal of direct evaporating cooling, developed for short term storage
 In summer when outside temp. is 44oC, inside chamber temp. not beyond 28oC, RH-
90%
3.Controlled atmosphere storage:-
 Maintain an artificial atmosphere in storage rooms which have a higher conc.of CO2
and lower conc. of O2 than normal atmosphere.
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 It reduced the rate of
4.hypobaric storage:-
 also known reduced atmospheric pressure/low pressure storage/vaccume storage
 Principle:- removal of ethylene gas from the storage atmosphere and lowering the
partial pressure O2.
 Slow ripening storage method
 Low pressure of O2 (102 mm of Hg)
 Highly perishable fruits (high rate of decay):-phalsa, banana,strawberry, mango,
 Highly perishable vegetables:- palak,ripe tomato, cauliflower,cabbage, watermelon
 Irradiation(𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠) used in preventing sprouting in onion/potato
(Maturity Stages) )
Maturity indices Fruits/ vegetables name
1- (Acidity) Citrus, pineapple
2- (Heat Unit) Datepalm
3- (Netting) Musk melon
(Full Slip & Half Slip)
4- Musk melon

5- Water melon
(Metallic sound)
6- (Solidity) Cabbage
7- Tapka stage Mango
8- T- stage Apple
9- D - leaf Pineapple
10- Bent neck Onion
Disappearance of finger
11- Banana
angularity
12- (Sugar) :- TSS

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0
i. 18 - 22 B Grapes (thampson seedless)
ii. 12 - 14 0B Mandarin
iii. 12 0B Sweet orange

iv. 11.5 0B Papaya

v. 12 - 14 0B Pineapple (Shape:-Flattening of eyes)
vi. 20 0B Mango (shape:-fullness of cheeks)
vii. 12.5 0B Pomegranate
viii. 8 - 10 0B Guava
13. Starch index Apple , pear, banana
14. Tapping Water melon, jack fruit
15. Flattening of tubercles Litchi
Mango :- 1-1.02
16. Specific gravity Guava:- 1.0
Pineapple:- 0.98-1.02

(Preservation Methods of Fruits & Vegetables) )

 Central Food Technology Research Institute, (CFTRI) established in 1950, mysore

(KN)
 FPO :- Food Product Order, Edtablished in 1955

(Preservation Methods of Fruits & Vegetables)

Temporary method Permanent method

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1.(Asepsis) (with heat) (without heat)

2. refrigerator1. (sterilization) 1.Chemical method
3- pasturisation2. (canning& bottling) i. KMS (K2S2O5)
4- exclusion of moisture 3. (processing) ii. Sodium Benzoate
4- by sugar (65 – 70 %) 2. By CO2
5 .exclusion of air 5- by drying 3.By fermentation
i. Sun drying 4. Radiation
ii. Dehydrogen

 Acetic acid in vinegar:- 4 – 6 %, where as food material contain vinegar :- 2 – 3 %

Permanent method of preservation:-

1- by chemical compound
i. kotassium meta bidulphite (KMS) :-
 Release SO2 gas, in the presence of acidic medium and also acts as antimicrobial
agents (mainly for bacteria & mould)
 It acts as bleaching agents
 Use only for colourless fruits
 It is used to preserve most of juice,squash,cordials etc
 According to FPO, its concentration is 350 - 700 PPM (0.06 – 0.1 %)
ii. (Sodium Benzoate) :-
 Salt of benzoic acid
 It prevent yeast growth
 Donot act as bleaching agent(i.e not bleach the anthocyanin pigments)
 It use for coloured fruits (eg- tomato product, phalsa, jamun, pomegranate, etc)
 According to FPO, its concentration is 700 - 1000 PPM (0.1 %)

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iii. acetic acid:-
 Act as poisonous for micro-organism
 Acetic acid present in vinegar : 4 - 6 %
 About 2 % acetic acid is enough to prevent the spoilage of the products.
 This method used for preservation of pickle, sauce and katchep
iv. by CO2
 eg. Pepsi, cococola, thump up
3. (Fermentation) :-
 metabolic process that produce chemical change in organic substance through the
action of enzyme and microbes.
 Discovered by:- cruick Shank & Pasteur
 Much similar to anaerobic respiration
 Buchner discovered the enzyme zymase
 Enzyme and microbes are essential for fermentation
 Energy release in the form of heat
 Process takes palace out of the cell
 C6H12O6microbes, enzyme C2H5OH + heat

i. alcoholic fermentation
 C6H12O6Yeast/zymase C2H5OH (alcohol) + heat

 Eg. :- Grape Wine, cider (from apple)

ii. acetic acid fermentation
 Microbes:- acetobactor aceti
 Eg. :- Vinegar
iii. lactic acid fermentation

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 Microbes :- lactobacillus plantarum (lactic acid forming bacteria) involves in
pickles,(cucumber, lemon, mango), sauerkrates (cabbage product), & kangi (from black
carrot)
 Eg. :- formation of curd from milk ,
 NaCl is also used in lactic acid fermentation
iv. butyric acid fermentation:-
eg:- Retting of Fibers, Tanning of leather, Curing of tea, processing of tobacco

3. By Salt :-
 Concentration:- 15 - 20 %
 By causing high osmotic pressure, resulting plasmolysis of microbial cells(exo-
osmosis)
 It is natural preservative compound.
 Eg:- pickle , chutney
4.Drying& Dehydration:-
 One of the most ancient method of food preservation
 Safe drying temp:- below 10oC
5. By Sugar:-
 Concentration:- >65-70 %
 By causing high osmotic pressure, resulting plasmolysis of microbial cells (exo-
osmosis)
 It is also natural preservative compound
 Eg:- jam, jelly, preserve, candy etc
(Preserved Products) )

1. jelly½
 Jelly is semisolid product obtained from fruit juice with sugar & acid.
 It contain;-

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 o
TSS- 65 B
 pH :- 3.2
 Fruit juice:- 45 %
 Acidity:-0.5 -0.7 %
 Pectin :- 1%
 Judging of end point temo:-105oC
 Best fruit:- guava, caronda, plum

Addition of citic acid:-2g/kg fruit

Pectin test:-
1.Jelmeter test: jelmeter performed best at 21-38oC
2.Alcohal test
3.sheet test
Problem related with jelly formation:-
1.failure in jelly setting :- due to low pectin conc.
High sugar %
2.crystalized jelly:-due to excess sugar
3.cloudy jelly:-due to over cooking
4. weeping jelly:- due to excess acid, sour in taste
Preparation technique:-
Ripe fruit-peeling-addition of sugar water-addition of citric acid- judging of end point
temp/TSS/Sheet test- filling—cooling--- waxing—capping—storage--

Jam
It is a product obtained by cooking fruit pulp
 TSS- 68oB
 pH :- 3.0
 Fruit juice:- 45 %

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 Acidity:-0.5 -0.6 %
 Judging of end point temo:-105oC
 Best fruit:- apple,, mango, papaya
Marmalade:- ( like jelly )
 TSS- 65oB
 pH :- 3.2
 Fruit juice:- 45 %
 Acidity:-0.5 -0.7 %
 Pectin :- > than 1%
 Judging of end point temo:-105oC
 Best fruit:- citrus

Preserve:-
Sugar concentration:- 68-70% TSS:- 700B
Suitable fruits:-aonla, asg gourd, fruit pulp%:- 55
Candy:- TSS- 750B

(Summary) )

mRikn Fruit juice % TSS Acidity (%)

1- Readt-to-serve 10 10 0.3
2- squash 25 40 - 50 -
3- Syrupe 25 65 1.3
4- Jelly 45 65 0.5 – 0.7
5- Jam 45 68 0.5 – 0.6
6- Preserve 55 70 -
7- Tomato Sauce - 30 -

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8- Tomato ketchup - 25 - 28 -
9- Fruit sauce (other than tomato) - 15 1.2

 For coloured fruit preservation :- used sodium benzoate (700 - 1000 ppm)
 For colourless fruit preservation:-used (KMS) – (350 - 700 ppm)
Dehydration used for:- onion, okra
Optimum temp.for yeasr growth:-25-28oC

Ø- la- Microbes pH (Range of Growth)

1. Bacteria 4 - 7.5
2. Mould 1.6 - 8.5
3. Yeast 2.5 - 3.5

Fruits/vegetables productn
Product Fruits/vegetables Product Fruits/vegetables
1- Jelly Guava 12- Tooty-fruity Bootle gourd
2- Jam Apple 13- Preserve Aonla, ash gourd
3- Marmelds Citrus 14- Vinegar Jamun, grapes
4- Kanji Carrot 15- Prunes Plum
5- Vodka Potato 16- Yerusseri Pumpkin
6- Toddy Coconut 17- Rasin Grapes
7- Cider Apple 18- Sauce Tomato
8- Wine Grapes 19- Sauerkraut Cabbage
9- Rum Molasses 20- Chuhara Date
10- Beer,whisky Barley 21- Chips Potato, banana
11- Gulkand Rose 22- Malt vinegar Barley

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12- Fenni Cashewnut 23- Cordials Citrus

(Canning) )
 father of canninng:- Nicolas Appert
 term appertizing in stead of canning
 canning is a method of preserving food in which the food contents are processed and
sealed in an air tight container
 for tin container:-used canning term where as for glass :-used bottling
step used for canning:-
1. Selection of fruits and vegetables
2. Washing :- with cold and hot water depemding upon nature
3. Pelling:- (a.)by machine:- double simmer
( b) lye peeling:- by caustic soda (1-2 % caustic soda +boiling water for 1-2
minutes)
Quickest method of peeling.
Eg;- potato, sweet potato, orange, sweet orange
(c)Flame peeling:- used for onion and garlic
4. Blanching :-
 Subjected vegetables /fruits to boiling water treatment for 2-5 minutes
Objective:-
 Remove micro-organism
 Inactivates enzyme which is responsible for discoloration,softening, and loss of
nutrient value
 Removes saponin in pea ,yhus increase sweetness
 Remove astringent taste of peel and thus improve flavour
5.can filling:-
 Vacant space in cane from top :- ½ - ¾ inch

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 Syrup (solution of sugar with water):- it is used for fruits canning ,
 Sugar conc.measured by:- brix hydrometer
 Some amount of ascorbic acid and citric acid added in syrup by which increases
aroma and nutritive value of product
 Brine(solution of salt with water):- it is used for vegetable canning ( used 2% NaCl )
 Salt conc. measured by:- salometer/brine hydrometer
5. Exhausting:-
 exclusion of air from filling cane------
 After that container dipped in hot water, whose temp. should be approx. 82-100oC
 Product/Can filled material temp.should be :-79-80oC
 Time for this process:- 6 – 10 minutes

6.sealing of can/container :- temp.not below 70oC (74oC)

7. Processing:- final exclusion of micro-organism
Processing temp for fruits:- 100oC
Processing temp.for vegetables :-115-121oC
After that cooling of processed product are 39oC
8. Labelling 9.storage of can.

IMPORTANT POINT:-
 Pasteurization temp for jelly:- 83oC, Vinegar (77oC), Wine (82-88oC)
 Fermentation temp:- 22-28oC
 Vaccume cooling is most suitable for leafy vegetables
 Prevention of food adulteration(PFA) day:-1954
 Integrated food safety and standard bill :-2005
 Vit-C mostly destroyed during freezing due to oxidation
 Quick freezing:- maximum crystallization temp. (-18 to -25oC)
 D-value:- 90% micro-organism are killed

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 F-value:- combination of temperature and time
 Millard reaction:- non enzymatic reaction
 In canning bacillus spp (bacteria) is most damaging factor
 Sulphur prevent discoloration
 Mango pickle :- first rank in india (where as in world:-first rank cucumber pickle)
 Dehydration temp for vegetables:- 60-66oC and for fruits:- 61-71oC
 R-enamal :- acid resistant cans (used for fruits)
 C-enamal:- sulphur resistant cans(used for vegetables)
 Lacquering may be acid resistant/ sulphur resistant
Important biocides used in floral preservatives:-
Biocides are chemical substance which are used to inhibites microbial growth in vase
water
a. 8-HQC (8-Hydroxy quinone citrate)---Very effective , closeing stomata, acidifies water
b. Silver nitrate
c. Ammonium sulphate
 Sugar is main component for pulsing solution (enhance shelf life of flower)
 Acidifing water having ph 3.0 to 3.5 used for floral preservatives
Acid used for preservation:-
a. Acetic acid:- pickles, chutney, sauce, ketchup
b. Citric acid:- jam, jelly,squash
c. Lactic acid:- curd from milk
Pectin is food additives used as stabilizer

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(Floriculture) )

Annuals flower:- the plants which complete theire life cycle in one season or in one year
Annuals flower

Summer annuals rainy annuals winter annuals

Kochia Balsam Larkspur, Lupin
Zinnia Cock’s comb Acroclinum, Aster
Cosmos Amaranthus Calendula, Carnation
Portulaca Torenia Coreopsis, Candytuff
Sunflower Gaillardia Corn flower, Cineraria
Nasturtium , Pansy
Daisy, Dahlia

 Annuals are grown for various purpose:-

 For shady situation:- Salvia, Cineraria
 For screening purpose:- Holly hock, Sweet pea
 For hanging basket:- Nasturtium, Petunia, Portulaca,
 For rock garden:- Ice plant
 For dry flower:- Acroclinum, Lady’s lace, Helichrysum,
 For peculiar shape:- Clinthus
 Colour of annuals flower:-
 Blue colour:- Larkspur,Ccorn flower, Ageratum,
 Yellow colour:- Coreopsis, Nasturtium, Calendula, Marigold
 White flower:- Phlox, China aster, Stock
 Pink colour annuals:- Candytuft
Photoperiodism

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 Short day annuals:- Cosmos, Salvia, Amaranthus, Aster
 Long day annuals:- Aarnation, Petunia, Antirrhinum
 Day neutral annuals:- Balsam, Gomphrena
 Dwarf annuals:-ice-plant, phlox, candytuft, daisy
 Seed germination only in dark:- Nigella, Allium, Amaranthus
 Climbing habits annuals:- sweet pea
 King of annuals flower :- pansy
 Immortal flower:- helichrysum

Annuals flower Common name Annuals flower Common name

Kochia Summer cypress Calendula Pot marigold
portulaca Sun plant Coreopsis Tick seed
Ageratum Floss flower Ice-plant Living stone daisy
Antirrhinum Snap dragon/dog flower Linaria Toad flax
Arctotis African daisy Phlox Star flower

(Famous Gardens of India) )

 Lalbagh :- Bangalore, (KN) , built by Hyder Ali, floral clock is main feature (eg of
free style garden)
 Brindavan :- mysore (KN), Largest formal garden, near caveri river
 Sim’s Park :- conoor,(KN)
 Byrant Park :- Kodaikanal (TN)
 Indian Botanical Garden :- Sibpur, Calcutta (WB)
 Lyod Botanical Garden :- darjeeling (WB)
 Botanical garden:- deharadun, (uttrakhand)
 National Botanical Garden:- Lucknow (U.P.)
 Rastrapathi Bhavan Garden):- New Delhi
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 Buddha Jayanti Park:- New Delhi
 Roshnara Park:-New Delhi
 Mandoor Garden:- Jodhpur (Raj)
 The Mughal Garden:- pinjore (Haryana)
 Rose Garden:- chandigarh (Haryana)

(Style of Gardening) )

1.Formal Garden :-
 Plane is symmetrical/geometrical style i.e square or rectangular
 Main feature:- baradari (12 open door), pergola, arches, fountain, warer pool, cascade,
statues, tomb or mosque
 Eg:- Mughal garden, Italian garden, Persian garden,
2.Informal Garden :-
 Plane is asymmetrical
 It represents natural beauty
 Main feature:-stepping stones, stone lantern, water pond, arrangement of rocks, moss
 Eg:- Japanese garden (nature in miniature)
3.Free Style :-
 Combination of both formal and informal garden
 Eg:- English garden( rockery, lawn, herbaceous border is main feature)
 Rose garden (Ludhiana), Lal bagh (Bangalore)

(Vegetable Garden) )
1.Kitchen Garden :- for 5-6 member, ( 25 x 10 m2 area is required )
2.Truk Garden :- Extensive garden, grow single vegetable in bulk
3.Market Garden :- intensive garden, garden should be 20-25 km away from garden

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4.Floating Garden :- dul lack, in J&K
Important point
 Taj mahal garden is example of Mughal garden
 Rastrapati bhawan garden is example of sunken garden
 The Rose in India (book) : Dr. B. P. Pal
 B.P. Pal is variety of Rose.
 Flowericulture in India (book) :- G.S. Randhawa
 Jasmine covers maximum area in india (loose flower)
 Rose covers maximum area in green house
 Rose : symbol of love , king of flower
 Queen of flower:- chrysanthemum
 African Marigold :- Vulgar mind (symbol)
 Carnation :- Female’s love (symbol)
 Bonsai origin :- from china

1.Rose
 Botanical name:-rosa spp.. Family- Rosaceae
 Native- India, China, Japan, Europe
 National flower of – England, iran, UK
 Symbol of beauty,
 It is top ranking cut flower in the trade
 Dry petals of roses are also used for making incense sticks
 Ph:- 6 to 7.
 Planting time:- september – October
 Propagation- T-budding (November-february)
 Propagation of rootstock:- hard wood cutting
Rootstock-

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1. The common rootstock used- edouard rose (R.bourboniana) in western india
- More aroma contain
2. Rosa. india- most common used rootstock in north india
3. R. caniana- most common in European country
4. R .centrifolia- Cabbage rose
5. R.gallica- French rose
6. R.moschata- Musk rose
7. R.damasceana – mostly used for oil extraction, flowering in- march-april
Haldighati, khamnor region of rajsamand very popular for cultivation.
Annual pruning :- September-october
Classes of rose:-
1. Hybrid tea rose (H.T)- hybrid perpetuals x tea rose of china
First variety- La-france (by French breeder Guillot,1867)
Variety:- super star, first prize, happiness, tushar, bajazzo, kiss of fire, blue moon,
Commercial variety- super star, gladiator, Mercedes, Sonia
2. Floribundas :- hybrid tea x dwarf polyntha
First variety was- rodhatte (by poulsen,1912)
Variety- banjaran, red gold, queen elizabath,
3. Grandiflora :- hybrid tea x floribundas variety:- buccaneer
4. Polyantha:- R. multiflora x R.wichuriana x R.chinensis
5. Climber :- breath of life, golden shower
6. Rambler :- americqn pillar
7. Miniature roses:- called as baby or fairy roses
Variety- desert charm , lolypop

Mutant Indian variety:-

 Abhisarika, madhosh, mohini (chocolate brown colour),
 Thorn less variety:- suchitra, pusa mohit, grand gala

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 R.damascena :- noorjahan, (from lucknow), himroz( for hills), jawala(for plains)
green house var.- first red,(most popular) grand gala

Important point:-
 Wintering of rose is very comman in western part of india
 Most costly oil- rose oil
 Bluing of rose petals- due to accumulation of ammonia
 Blue pigmentation in rose due to delphine
 Blue colour rose is –samba
major problem in rose breeding is- seed setting
gulkand is prepared by mixing petal and sugar in 1:1 ratio
rose seed- acenes
rose fruit called- hip (black in colour, good source of Vit-C)
B.S. Bhattachatar jee- father of rose breeding
Dr. B.P.Pal evolved first rose var. Rose Sherbat
Complete rose fertilizer- rose-mix
Disease-
1.Die back- diplodia roseum – very serious disease
2.Powdery mildew- sphaerotheca pannosa
3.Black spot- diplocarpon rosae
Disorder-
Bull head
Bent-neck/limp-neck- storage disorder
Sleeping- ethylene injury during transportation
Vascular plugging
Pest:-
Red scale, white ant, dagger wasp

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2. Chrysanthemum:-
Botanical name – Dendrathema grandiflora family- Compositae/Asteraceae
Common name- Guldaudi/ Glory of East/ Queen of East/
Origin- China
Symbol of royality in Japan
National flower of japan
blooming period- Sep-Dec
Disc florets in- Centre Ray florets- Outer
It is short day plant
Propagation- by rrot suckers(10-15 cm), terminal cutting
Climate:-
a. Thermo-positive:-
Low temperature between 10-27oC inhibits or delay bud initiation
High temperature over 27oC accelerates bud initiation but delay flowering

B.Thermo-negative:-
 Bud initiation occurs at low to high temp (10-27oC) but high temp. delays development
of buds
 Ph:- 6.2 to 6.8
 Optimum day Temp- 18-21oC night temp- 10-16oC
 Pinching- twice after four and eight weeks of trandplanting
 De-shooting--- retain 4-5 shoots in standard cultivars and 8-12 shoots in spray cultivars
 Harvesting:- july-sep
 Pinching also known as stopping
 Sen, rin tsukisi- Japanese style of chrysanthemum culture

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 Use of alar /phosphine is very effective in producing better size blooms on dwarf plants
 Qxathin is used for disbudding in chrysanthemum

Variety:-
 Standard variety:-/large flowered groups
Sonar bangla, peach bloom, indra, kirti, cresta, dignity
 Spray type/ small flowered groups-
Birbal sahni, king fisher, red star,
 Pot mums- fantasy, albert,
 Off- season variety- haldi ghati, meghdoot

Disease-
 Black leaf spot- serious disease
Pest-
 Red hairy caterpillar

3.GLADIOLUS
o Botanical name- Gladiolus grandifloras Family- Iridaceae
o Native- Africa, Europe 2n= 60(4x), 30(2x)
o Common name- sword lily
o It is leading cut flower in india as well as world
o Optimum temp for growth- 16-30oC
o It require open sunny situation
o Longer day length improve spike quality
o Ph- 5.5 to 6.5
o Planting :- sep-nov (north india)
o Propagation- by corm, cormlets,

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o Gladiolus is seaven month crop
o Seed rate-150,000corms/ha
o Different method to break dormancy-
o Low temperature storage for 2-3 month at 4-7oC
o Ethylene chlorohydrin (4-5 drops/lit)
o Dip corms in thiourea 500 ppm solution
o Dip corms in GA3 50 ppm solution for 30 minutes
o Hilling , scoring operation done in gladiolus
o Optimum temperature for storage (spikes)- 2-5 oC
o Optimum storing temp for corms- 4-7oC
o Corm size- 5 cmge in gladiolus leads to blind shoot
o Geotropism disorder is caused due to transportation
o Short day at 1-2 leaf st
Variety-
Pusa suwasini
Mayur
Topaz
Friend ship
Diraj
Oscar
Shobha

Disease-
 Wilt or collar rot- sickle shaped leaves
 Storage rot corm- caused by fusarium spp
Disorder-
 Negative geotropism- uneven distribution of auxin and transport
 Topple bud rot – Calcium deficiency

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 Blind ness

4.Marigold
 Botanical name- African marigold (Tagetes erecta, 2n=24)
French marigold (Tagetes patuta, 2n= 4x=48)
 Family- Compositae Origin- Mexico
 Optimum temp for growth- 18-30oC
 Ph- 7.0 to 7.5
 Planting time:- rainy season and winter season (best time)
 Propagation:- by seed and terminal cutting
 Seed rate- 1 to 1.5 kh/ha
 Pinching:- 50-60 days after transplanting, mainly in tall var. of T.erecta
 Cross-pollinated crop
 Seed yield- T.erecta (3-4 q/h), T.patula (10-13q/h)
 Marigold not used in gajra
 Genetic male sterility is very common in marigold
 Protandry found in marigold
 S.P.S Ragava associated with marigold

Variety:-
 African variety:- cracker jack, pusa basanti genda, pusa narangi
 French marigold:- red brocade, butter scotch
 Nugget:- triploid variety


4. Carnation
 Botanical name- Dianthus caryophyllus Family- Caryophyllaceae
 Origin- south Europe 2n= 30

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 Quantitatively long day plant
 It is cool season crop
 Ideal temperature to growth- 10-20oC
 Propagation:- terminal stem cutting (8-10 cm with 4-6 leaf pairs)
 Colouring of white carnation called- tinting
 Pinching is very important operation in marigold for producing better quality of flower
 Disbudding- improve flower size and quality
 Storage temp- 2-4oC
 Perpetual type of carnation are grown at large scale

Variety :-
William sim, dona, arka tejas, arka flame, pico

5. Tuberose:-
 Botaniacal name- polyanthus tuberosa Family- Amaryllidaceae
 Origin- mexico 2n= 60
 Common name- ragni gandha flower colour- white
 Flowering time- July- Oct
 Planting time- feb- march
 The ratoon crop is taken up to third year
Variety
 Single var- rajat rekha, shringar
 Double var- known as pearl ,
Eg- suvasini, swarna rekha, rajat, dhawal,
IIHR Var- suvasini, vaibhav, shringar

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6. Dahlia:-
 Botanical name- Dahlia variabilis Family- Compositae
 Origin- mexico 2n= 16Propagation- tuber/cutting
 Cultural operation- stopping, disbudding
 Use root promoting (seradix-B) in cutting
 Storage- 4-7oC
Variety:- white star, manali, swamiji,

7.Orchids
 Family- Orchidaceae Origin- India, Mexico
 Number of species- 25-30 thousands
 Bulbophyllum is larvest genera of orchids
Classification based on habitat:-
 Epiphytes- Bulbophyllum, Vanda, Cattleya
 Lithophytes:- Cymbidium, Calanthe
Classification on growing pattern:-
 Monopodial- Vanda, Vanilla, Phalaenopsis
 Sympodial- attleya, cymbidium, bulbophyllum, dendrobium,
Propagation :- division-cattleya
Cutting- vanda
In vitro (tissue culture)- commercial method
Repotting is done in every year
Pseudo-bulbs are commonly used to multiply
Seed- endosperm absent (exalbuminous)
Fruit type of orchid- capsule
Gynoecium in orchid flower is called as column
A lip opposite to odd sepal in orchids flower is known as labellum

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 SOIL SCIENCE

 Soil is dynamic, three dimensional (3D) having length, breadth and depth piece of
landscape with a three phase (solid, liquid and gaseous) system.
 The origin and evolution of earth is best explained by ‘Planetesimal Hypothesis’ put
forth by T.C. Chamberlain and F.R. Moulton in 19th century and Nebular hypothesis.
 Soil is derived from Latin word Solum means floor and ground.
 Surface soil- Surface soil is upper most loose layer of the earth consisting of organic
matter and the soil organism suitable for plant growth.
 It is generally called furrow slice soil layer (0-15 cm depth) and fertile soil.
 Sub-Soil – Sub-Soil is compact soil below the furrow slice soil layer which cannot be
cultivated by tillage operation. It is less fertile than surface soil.
 Weight of furrow slice is 2.25 × 106 kg/ha. Or 2 × 106 lbs/acre.
 Soil science have two branch –
A. Edephology – To study the soil from the stand point of higher plant is known as
edephology. According to edephology soil is a natural habitat.
B. Pedology –To study the origin, classification and description of soil is known as
pedology. According to pedology soil is a natural body.
 Volume Composition of the soil –

Soil

Solid space (50%) Pore space (50%)

Mineral Matter(45%) Organic Matter(5%) Water (25%) Air (25%)

SOIL PROFILE
 A vertical section of the soil through all its horizons and extending into the parent
material.
 The soil profile is divided into five master horizons (O, A, E, B, C).
 Organic horizon(O)-
 This horizon commonly found in forest areas and it is not found in mineral
soil. It is visible in virgin soil and absent in arable soil.
  It can be divided into three sub-horizon.
Oi = organic material slightly decomposed easily identified and recognized.
Oe = organic material are moderately decomposed.
Oa = organic material are highly decomposed.
 Mineral horizon (A) – Topmost mineral horizon, It is darker than lower horizon
due to it containing strong admixture of of organic matter.
 Eluviation Horizon (E) (Wash out) of maximum eluviation of clay, Fe and Al
oxides and corresponding concentration of resistant mineral such as quartz in
sand.
 Illuvial Horizon(B) (Wash In)- Horizon of maximum accumulation of silicate
clay, Fe and Al oxides (Illuvial horizon). In arid zones CaCO3, CaSO4 and other
salt.It is known Sub-soil.
 C Horizon - Unconsolidated parent material underlying the solum (A and B)
zone of least weathering, accumulation of Ca, Mg carbonates, cementation. It is
known Regolith.
 (Oi) Organic, slightly decomposed

(Oe) Organic, moderately decomposed

(Oa) Organic, highly decomposed

(A) Mineral Horizon, Dark colour due to

mixed with humus

(E) max. eluviation of silicate clays sesquioxides

AB or EB: Transition to B, more like A or E than B.

BA or BE : Transition to A or E, more like B than

A/E

(B) Illuviation Horizon

BC : Transition to C , more like B than C.

(C) Regolith least weathering, high bulk density

R (Bed Rock)

Structure of soil profile

 Regolith = A + B + C
 Solum/ True soil = A + B /A + E + B
 Sub – Ordinate Distinctions with in Master Horizons -
 p: plough layer disturbance.
 h : illuvial accumulation of organic matter.
 n : accumulation of sodium.
 t : accumulation of silicate clays.
 s : illuvial accumulation of organic matter and sesquioxides
 y : accumulation of zypsum.
 z : accumulation of soluble salts.
 Regosol – Any soil of azonal soil order without definite genetic horizon developing
from sands, loess, and glacie
 r drift.
 Organic Soil - Organic soil having at least 20% organic matter (by weight).
 Mineral Soil - Mineral soil having less than 20% organic matter (by weight).
Organic soil contain 95% N, 5-60% P2O5 and 80% Sulphar.
 Light Soil - Induce little resistance than heavy soil to the passage of implement. It
contain high amount of sandy soil. Suitable for Potato, tobacco, groundnut, bajra,
legumes.
 Heavy soil – Induce high resistance to the passage of implement. It contain high
amount of clay soil. Suitable for Rice, cotton, sorghum. Skeletal Of soil is known
Sandy and Silty Soil.
 Flesh and Active part Of Soil is known Clay soil.
 Clay soil have negative charge.
 Weight of one inch soil :- 150 ton/ hac./cm
 Number of microorganism in soil :- Bacteria > Actinomyceties > Fungi
 Biomass of microorganism in soil :- Fungi > Actinomyceties > Bacteria
 Important Father of soil science :-
 Father of Pedology :- V.V.Dokuchev
 Father of Soil Testing :- M.L. Troug
 Father of Soil Microbiology :-Winogradskey
 Father of Field Plot Technique :-Bausing gault
 Father of Indian Soil Science & Ag. Chemistry :- J.W. Leather
  Peat Soil:- Partial decomposed organic matter (pH = <4 ).
 Muck Soil:- Well decomposed organic matter (pH = >4 ).
 Earth crust- Earth crust are uppermost layer (5-56 km) of lithosphere and it consists
of rocks with density of 2.6 -3.0.

 Composition of Earth’s Crust –

 Earth crust are formed 106 elements in which eight are sufficiently abundant as to
constitute 98.6 % (by weight) of the earth crust (up to 16m).
 Out of eight elements O-2 and Si+4 are in great abundance and comprise 75% the total
composition of the crust. The other six elements are metals.

Non metallic (%) O-2 = 46.60 Titanium - 0.41

Si+4 = 27.72 Hydrogen – 0.17

Carbon - 0.12

Metallic (%) A13+ = 8.13 Phosphorus- 0.09

Fe 2+ = 5.00 Sulphur - 0.07

Ca2+ = 3.63 Manganese- 0.07

Na+ = 2.83 Barium - 0.05

K+ = 2.59 Strontium - 0.02

Mg2+ = 2.09

ROCKS

 Rock is mixture of two or more mineral.

 Peterology – Peterology is the science of rock which form the units of the earth’s
crust
 Petrogenesis – It is the study of the origin of rock.
 Peterography –It deals with the description of rock.
 On the basis of their genesis and structure rocks are grouped into three class
A. Igneous Rock – They are formed by solidification of molten magma on or
beneath of the surface of earth.
  These are characterized by non-laminar massive structure and on the
whole make up 95% of the earth crust.
 Classification of Igenous rock
a. Based on the mode of origin

Volcanic rocks Plutonic Rocks

1. Formed on the surface of earth 1. Formed with in earth’s crust.

2. Cooling of magma is quick
3. Fine size crystals are formed
4. Mineral grains can be observed only
under a microscope or magnifying
lenses.
5. Rocks have a glassy structure
Ex:- Basalt, Andesite, Trechite,Riolite
6. These are called extrusive rocks.
2. Cooling of magma is slow time
taken for crystallization is quite long
3. Coarse crystals are formed
4. Mineral grains can be seen with
naked eye
5. Rocks have hard and massive
structure eg-Granite, Gabbro, syenite &
Diorite
6. These are called intrusive rocks.

b. Based on the chemical composition

1. Acid rocks = >65% silica Ex:- Granite, Riolite, Pitchstone, Obsisian
2. Sub acid rocks = 60-65% silica Ex:- Syenite, Trachyte
3. Sub basic rocks = 55-60% silica Ex:- Deorite, Andesite
4. Basic rocks = 45-55% silica Ex:- Gabbrose, Basalt, Diabase
5. Ultra basic rocks - < 45% silica

B. Sedimentary rocks:- The sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments, derived from
the breaking down of pre-existing rocks.
 These rocks are also called as stratified rocks or aqueous rocks.
Ex.- Peat, Lignite, anthracite, Limestone ,Dolomite and gypsum.
C. Metamorphic Rocks :- The word ‘metamorphic’ means “change in form”
Igneous and sedimentary rocks subjected to tremendous pressures and high temperatures
change into metamorphic rock.
  Changes brought about by chemically activated waters - Hydro-metamorphism
Ex: Sand stone to Quartzite; Granite or Basalt to Laterite.
 Changes brought about by Heat -- Thermo-metamorphism
Ex: Limestone to crystalline marble(Non foliated)
 Changes brought about by Pressure -- Dynamo -metamorphism
Ex: Granite - Granite-gneiss (Partial foliation) , Gneiss - Schist (Complete foliation)
Shale - Slate
 Changes brought about by Heat & Pressure - Dynamo-thermal metamorphism.
 Many crystalline gneisses, schists and marbles are formed.

S.No. Original Rock Metamorphic Rock

1 Granite or Syenite or Gneiss
Conglomerate
2 Mica Schist
3 Sand Stone Quartzite
4 Shale Slate
5 Limestone Marble
6 Peat Coal

 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks :-

a) Foliated (Parellel structure) (Leaved or leafy) :- Ex. Gneiss, Schist (Coarse grained);
Phyllite (medium grained); Slate (Very fine grained).
b) Unfoliated (massive structure): EX; Talc-schist, amphibolite and graphite.
c) Granular :- Ex: Quartzite, Marble.

Density
 Density is the mass per volume of a soil.
 Unit = gm/cm 3 or Mg/m3 or lbs /feet3.
 Soil Density determine by Picnometer .
 Two density measured P.D. and B.D. are common for soils.
 Bulk density/ Apparent density (B.D.) – It is mass of a unit volume of dry soil
including both solids and spaces. B.D. of general soil is 1.33 gm/cm 3.
 B.D. =Ms /Vs +Vp ( Ms is mass of solid, Vs and Vp is volume of solid and porosity)
 B.D. increase with tillage and increase depth of soil due to low content of O.M.
 B.D. decrease with increase porosity, compactness of the soil, amount of pore space
and amount of organic matter.
 Cropping increases the bulk density of top soils. Crumb soil structure shows low bulk
density than that of platy structure.
 Root growth restrict B.D. 1.47 gm/cm3 .
 B.D. of soil is sandy 1.6,loamy 1.4, clay 1.1 and organic matter 0.5 .
 B.D.is greater importance than particle density in understanding the physical
behaviour of soil.
 Particle Density/ true/Real density (P.D.)– It is the mass (weight) of a unit volume
of soil solids. P.D. of the most mineral soil is 2.60 - 2 .75 gm/cm3 .
 P.D. = Ms/Vs(Ms is mass of solid, Vs is volume of solid)
 P.D. depends on the chemical composition and crystal structure of the mineral
particle.
 P.D not effected by the size of particle and aggregation.
 P.D. is a physical properties cannot be changed after soil texture. Particle density of
soils is almost a permanent character which is not influenced by addition of organic
matter, tillage or depth.
 P.D.of organic matter is 1.1-1.7 and peat soil is 1.5 gm/cm3 .
 P.D.of soil is sandy 2.65, silty 2.80,clay 2.85 and red soil 2.56,alluvial soil 2.55,
laterite 2.48, and black 2.3gm/cm3.
 Porosity – The percentage of soil volume occupied by pore space (voids). Porosity of
a soil can be easily changed.
 There are two types of pores in soil.
 Macro pores – It is found in between the granules .Size of macro pores is > 0.006
mm(<60micron). Sandy soil have highest macro pore.
 Micro or Capillary pores – It is found within the granules. Size of macro pores is <
0.006 mm(<60micron).Clay soil have a greater number of microspores. It is more
important in the plant growth relationship .
 Relationship between porosity and density.
𝐵.𝐷.
 Porosity = 100 − × 100
𝑃.𝐷
 ( Here B.D. is bulk density and P.D. is particle density in gm/cm3 ). It related to
aeration, permeability , drainage and water relation.
 Porosity of soil is sandy 40%,loamy 47%, silty 50%, clay 58%.
𝑒 𝑓
 Relationship between pore space /void ratio (e) and porosity(f) = = 1−𝑓
1+𝑒
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓
 e = 𝑉𝑠 and f = 𝑉𝑡(𝑉𝑠+𝑉𝑝)

 Soil consistence - Soil consistence refere to the resistance of soil material to

deformation or the manifestation of the physical force of cohesion and adhesion
acting with in the soil at various moisture constant .
 Consistence of soil is - Dry soil > Moist soil > Wet soil .
 Soil plasticity – Shape of soil mass can be permanently changed without breaking.
 A soil shown plasticity when contain at least 15% clay.
 Atterberg (1911) given three limit for plasticity is known Atterberg limit.
A. Upper plasticity limit or Liquid limit - pF = 0.5
B. Lower plasticity limit - pF = 2.8 – 3.3
C. Plasticity index / Number – Difference between moisture content at lower
plastic and upper plastic limit.
Soil texture
 Soil texture refer to the relative percentage of sand, silt and clay in a soil.
 Classification of soil particle – According to system developed by International
Union of Soil Science(IUSS). It classified soil particle in four class.
S.No. Soil particle Size (mm)
1 Coarse Sand 0.2 – 2
2 Fine Sand 0.02 - 0.2
3 Silt 0.002 - 0.02
4 Clay < 0.002
 Size of other particle
S.No. Particle Size (cm)
1 Gravel 0.2 - 7.5
2 Cobble 7.5 –25
3 Stone 25-60
4 Rock >60
 Texture is basic property of a soil and it cannot be changed .
 Texture class – Three broad and fundamental group of soil texture class are
recognised – Sandy, silty, clay .
 Sandy = Minimum amount of sand is 85%.
 Silty = Silt contain at least 80% .
 Clay = Clay contain at least 40%.
 Loamy soil contain sand 30- 50 %, silts 30-50% and clay 0-20%.
 Texture class determined by laboratory method .It is based on a mechanical analysis.
Mechanical method are based on stock’s law.
Soil structure
 The arrangement of primary particle and their aggregates into a certain definite
pattern is called soil structure.
 Peds – Natural aggregates are called peds.
 Cloud – Artificial aggregates are called cloud . Size of cloud is 2- 200 mm.
 Fragment –It is broken ped
 Concretion - Concretion are usually small like shotgun lead pellet.
 Flocculation effect of ion - Al+3 > Ca+2= H+ > Mg+2 > K+ >Na+.
 Na is responsible for deflocculation and Ca is responsible for flocculation.
 Phosphorus fertilizer improve soil structure.
 Soil structure are four type based on general shape and arrangement of peds.
A. Plate like –
 If unit are thick they are called platy and unit are thin then they are
called laminar.
 Size of aggregates are 1-10 mm.
 It is found Alluvium, Lacustrine parent material and clay soil.
B. Prism like –
 Vertical axis are more develop than horizontal axis giving a pillar like
shape.
 Two sub-type columnar and prismatic.Size of peds are 10-100mm.
 This type of soil structure found in sub soil horizon in arid and semi
arid soil.
C. Block like – All three dimension are the same size and the peds are cube like .
  Two sub-type –
a. Angular = Sharpe edge and rectangular
face.
b. Sub–angular/Blocky = Edge and face both are
round.
 Size of peds is 5-50mm. It is found subsurface horizon.
 Spheroidal – This type of soil structure found Mollisol, grassland soil.
 Spheroidal are two type –
a. Granular – Less porous than crumby and size of peds is 1-10
mm.
b. Crumb- Granules are especially porous and size of peds is 1-5
mm.
 Structureless grades are found in puddle soil and sand dunes region.
 Artifical aggregate is poly ack, acrilo nitrile.
 Soil crusting -
 Soil crusting is the phenomena associated with deterioration of soil structure where
the natural aggregates break and disperse due to impact of rain drops, followed by
rapid drying due to radiant energy of the sun.
 when drying starts surface tension forces pull the soil particles together, tending to
form a dense and strong layer known as soil crust. crust thickness is about 5.0 mm.
 It occur in arid and semi-arid region and it is form all type soil except sandy soil.
 Soil factors that are commonly associated with crusting are low organic matter, high
silt and high
 exchangeable sodium.
 Soil crusting is the important factor affecting emergence and early growth of seedling
and largely determines the crop stand. It is characterized by high B.D ., very low non-
capillary pores, very low hydraulic conductivity, very low aeration , high penetration
resistance and high run-off of water.
 Soil crust strength can be evaluated by using a penetrometer, Balloon
pressure technique or modulus of rupture test.
 Heat of wetting – It is a property of clay soil which show on drying it adsorbed
considerable heat of energy and on wetting it evolved the same amount of heat .This
phenomenon is known as heat of wetting.
 Soil Air
 Composition of soil and atmosphere air -
Atmosphere
Gases Soil Volume (%)
Volume(%) Weight (%)
N2 78.03 75.47 78.60
O2 20.95 23.24 20.6
CO2 0.03 0.04 0.3(0.25 – 0.50)
Ar 0.94 1.20 0.90

 The content of CO2 in soil air is more than 10 times than atmosphere air.
 The concentration of CO2 is generally high in soil air and increase with increase
microorganism population, temperature, organic matter and depth of sub-soil.
 The exchange of gaseous between the soil and the atmosphere is facilated by two
mechanism (a) Mass flow (b) Diffusion
 Mass flow – Mass flow of air is due to pressure difference between the atmosphere
and the soil air.
 Diffusion – Diffusion is the molecular transfer of gases.In this process each gas tend
to move in a direction determined by its own partial pressure.
 If a soil contain O2 below 10% the growth of most crop is restricted.
 If a soil contain co2 more than 10% the growth of most crop is restricted.

Oxygen Diffusion Rate(ODR)

 It is one of the criteria generally used to determination of O2 concentration in soil
pore space .
 It is determined by using the platinum micro-electrode technique where diffusing O2
is allowed to reduce at the platinum micro electrode surface at a given electrical
potential.
 The rate of diffusion of O2 to the platinum electrode is used as an index of the rate of
diffusion of O2 through the water film to the roots.
 Range of ODR = 22.9 – 39.5 × 10-8 gm/cm2/min.
 Root growth ceased = < 20 × 10-8 gm/cm2/min.
  For Irrigated Pea = 39.5 × 10-8 gm/cm2/min.
 For unirregated Pea = 32.4 × 10-8 gm/cm2/min.
 For Rice = 22.1 × 10-8 gm/cm2/min.
Important institute related to Soil Science :-
 Indian institute of soil science: - Bhopal (M.P.)
 Central soil salinity research institute: - Karnal (Haryana)
 National bureau of soil survey and land use planning: - Nagpur (MH.)
 Central soil and water conservation research and training institute: - Dehradun
(Utrakhand)

Mineral
Mineral is a naturally occurring, homogenous element or inorganic compound that has a
definite chemical composition and a characteristic geometric form.
Two or more elements combined –
Gypsum ( CaSO4 . 2H2O), Olivine – (Mg, Fe) 2 SiO4, Feldspar – KAlSi3O8
Only one element – Metal – Cu, Fe, Ca.

Non Metal – C, S, Si.

Minerals Important constituents (other than ‘Si’ and ‘O’)

(Arranged in order of their crystallization)

A. Primary Minerals

Ferromagnesians

1. Ortho or Inosilicates

Olivines Fe, Mg

Pyroxenes Ca, Na, Fe, Mg

Amphiboles etc Ca, Na, Fe, Mg, Al, OH

2. Phyllo – silicates

Biotite K, Fe, Mg, Al, OH

Muscovite K, Al, OH
Non – Ferro Magnesians

3. Tecto silicates – Feldspars

Albite Na, Al

Anorthite Ca, Al

Orthoclase /Microcline K, Al

Quartz

B. Secondary clay minerals Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, OH

 Silicate minerals occupy 90% of the mineral composition of rocks of the earth’s crust.
 The silica tetrahedron is the fundamental building block of all the silicate minerals.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL
 Based on mode of origin
 Primary Minerals :- which are formed owing to the crystallization of the molten
magma.
 Depending up on the tetrahedral linkage, the silicate minerals are divided in to
four groups.

1 Orthosilicates :- Olivine (Green colour,Island silicate). Ex: Forsterite (Mg2SiO4) ,Fayalite

(Fe2SiO4)
2 Inosilicates :-
Single chained :- Pyroxenes eg. Augite (Ca, Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
Double chained: - Ampliboles
3 Phyllosilicates: - Biotite, Muscovite
4 Tectosilicates :- Quartz, Feldspars
 Secondary minerals: Minerals formed due to weathering action of primary minerals.
Clay minerals :- Illite, Montmorillonite, Kaolinite
Oxides, Hydroxides of Al and Fe :- Hematite, Goethite, Gibbsite
Carbonates :- Calcite, Dolomite
Sulphates :- Gypsum
Phosphates :- Apatite
Weather ability of Minerals in sequence:-
A. Early stage of weathering :-
Gypsum(CaSo4.2H 20) > Calcite( Ca CO 3 ) > Dolomite (Ca CO3. Mg CO3)
B. Intermediate stage of weathering :-
Secondary clay minerals like Illite > Vermiculite > Montmorillonite
C. Advanced stage of weathering :-
Silicate minerals like Kaolinite and Halloysite.
Non silicate minerals like Gibbisite (Al2O3.3H 2O) > Hematite ( Fe2O3) > Goethite
(FeOOH) > Rutile and Anatase (TiO2 ) > Zircon (ZrSiO4)

Amount of Mineral In Earth crust

Feldspare :- 48 % Quartz :- 36 % , Mica :- 10 %
 Hardness of mineral measured by Mohr's Scale.
 Hardness decending order :- dimend > corundum > Topaz > Quartz > Feldspare >
Apetite > Calcite > Gypsum > Talk
 In water logged soil occur siderite (FeCo3)
Source of nutrient :-
S.no. Mineral Nutrient
1 Apatite Ca10 (PO4) 62+ P
2 Mica, Orthoclase K
Olivine, Biotite, eugite, Dolomite,
3 Epsomite(MgSO4.7H20), Epsom (MgSO4.7H2O), Mg
Mangnesite (MgCO3)
4 Dolomite, Calcite, Gypsume Ca
Chalcorite( Cu2S),Covellite (CuS), Chalcopyrite
5 Cu
(CuFeS2)
Pyrolusite (MnO2), Manganite (MnOOH),
6 Mn
Rhodocrosite (MnCO3)
7 Tourmaline (Na (Mg,Fe)3 Al6 (BO3)3 Si6 O18) B
8 Sphalerite(ZnS), Smithsonite (ZnCO3) Zn

9 Molybdenite (MoS2), Wulfenite (PbMoO4), Powellite Mo

(CaMoO4)
 Magnetite (Fe3O4), Limonite (Fe2O3. 3H2O)
12 Viviamite (Fe3 (PO4)2), Ilmenite (FeTiO3), Siderite Fe
(FeCO3),Pyrite - FeS2 Hematite Fe2O3
Rutile and Anatase (TiO2)
13 Ti

14 Zircon (ZrSiO4) Zr

Hardness of mineral measure by Mohr’s scale.

Decreasing order of Hardness:-

Diamond > Corundum>Topaz > Feldspar > Apatite > Calcite> Gypsum > Talk.

Soil Health Card :- 19 Feb 2015

 Soil Health Card Scheme is launched by P.M. Narendra Modhi in suretgarth district
of Rajasthan state.
 In this scheme 12 (O.C., pH, E.C., N, P, K, S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, B) soil parameters are
tested.
 Validity of S.H.C. is 3 year and a sample taken in 2.5 hac irrigated area and 10 hac
irrigated area.
 Soil Day:- 5 Dec.
 International Year :- 2015

 PARENT MATERIAL
 Jenny (1941) defines parent material as the initial stage of soil system.
 Different Transporting agents – Parent Material
 Transporting agent Deposited by Or in Name of the deposit or Parent
material
Water River Alluvium
Lake Lacustrine
Ocean Marine
Wind Wind Dune (sand & silt)
Aeolian / Loess’s (fine silt &
clay)
Gravity Gravity action Colluviums
Ice (Glaciers) Ice Till, Moraine

WEATHERING
Weathering is the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks and minerals,
And formation of regolith.
Types of Weathering
1 Physical / Mechanical Weathering (Disintegration)
 In physical weathering rock size will be reduced without any change in chemical
composition of rock. The agents responsible for physical weathering are the physical
condition of rock, changes in temperature, action of water, action of wind and
atmospheric electric phenomena.
 This process with time may cause the surface layer to peel of from the parent mass
and the rock may ultimately disintegrate. This phenomenon is called ‘Exfoliation.

2 Chemical Weathering (Decomposition)

Chemical weathering takes place mainly at the surface of the rocks. Chemical
weathering is highly pronounced in humid tropical regions. Various chemical process are
(solution, Hydration, Hydrolysis, Oxidation, Reduction, Carbonation) responsible for
chemical change in parent material.

3 Biological Weathering (Disintegration and decomposition)

Man, animals, higher plants, earth worms, termites and micro-organisms etc. flora and fauna
are responsible for biological weathering.
SOIL FORMATION
 Soil formation is a process of two consecutive but overlapping stages -
1 The weathering of rock (R) into regolith.
2 The formation of the soil from parent material.
Weathering Soil forming processes
Rock----------------------- Regolith ------------------------------ Soil

Jenny (1941) formulated the following equation

S= F(cl, b, r ,p,t)
S= any soil property cl = Climate b = Biosphere r = Relief / topography
p =Parent Material t = Time

Joffe (1949) divided the soil forming factors into active and passive factors.
1.Passive factors :- Parent material, Relief / Topography and Time.
2.Active factors :- Climate, Vegetation & Organisms.

 Temperature and rainfall are the two climatic agents, that influence the process of soil
formation.
 Soils formed under the predominant influence of climate, where the parent material
effects are obliterated, are known as Ectodynamomorphic soils. Soils are formed
under the supreme influence of parent material are known as Endodynamomorphic
soils.
 According to Vant Hoff’s law For every 10 0C rise in temperature the chemical
reactions
are increased double.

 Amount of mineral in Earth crust:-

 Feldspar :- 48%
 Quartz :- 36%
 Mica :- 10%

Weathering stages:-
 Initial stage: Unweathered parent material
  Juvenile stage: Weathering has just started but much of original material can be seen.
 Virile stage: Easily weathered minerals are not seen (completely decomposed)
 Senile stage: Only most resistant minerals like quartz survive in these soils.
 Final stage: Soil development is complete under the prevailing conditions.

PEDOGENIC OR SOIL FORMING PROCESSES :-

The basic pedogenic processes involved in soil formation, according to Simonson
(1959) include –
BASIC / FUNDAMENTAL PEDOGENIC PROCESSES:
1. HUMIFICATION: -
 Humification is a combined process of decomposition of organic matter and synthesis
of new organic matter.
 The activities of microorganisms and soil formation are as under:
 Mor : It refers to surface soil horizon developed under acid litter and humus from
coniferous and heath vegetation, where fungi activity predominates.
 Mull : Designated as forest soil horizon (A1) is of intimately mixed mineral matter
and amorphous humus. It is slightly acid and is best developed under base rich litter,
where bacterial activity predominates.
 Sward: Is a dominantly rhizogenous A1 horizon in grasslands as contrasted with
zoogenous mull horizon of forest soils. This includes mollic epipedon or Ap horizon
formed by cultivation of forest soils, in general.
 Orterde: Is a humus rich B horizon in podzols.

2. ELUVIATION :-
 Eluviation means Washing out from the upper layer to lower layer.
 Lessivage (Dachaufour, 1977):-Mechanical movement of clay and iron oxides from
A horizon without undergoing chemical alteration .
 Elemental mobility
Ca2+ Na+ > K+, Mg2+ >>>> Fe2+ >> Si4+ >> Al3+
(Most mobile) (Least mobile)

3. Illuvation :-
The process of deposition of soil materials (removed from the eluvial horizon E) in the
lower layer is termed as illuviation. The horizons formed by this process are termed as
illuvial horizons .

 Specific pedogenic processes:-

Calcification, Decalcification, Salinization, Alkalization
1. LATERIZATION :
 The term laterite is derived from the word later means brick.
 In tropics, certain soils are massively impregnated with sesquioxides to the extent of
70 to 80% of the total mass, and forms a cemented horizon, which when dried
becomes very hard like a brick.
 This soil forming process is called laterization or Lotozation .
 Eg: Soils of Malabar hills of Kerala.
2.GLEIZATION
 Glei means blue, grey or green clay.
 The gleization is a process of soil formation resulting in the development of a glei (or
gley) horizon in the lower part of the profile above the parent material due to poor
drainage conditions or water logged conditions.
 Such soils are called hydromorphic soils.
3.PEDOTURBATION:-
It is the process of mixing of the soils. Mixing to some extent takes place in all soils.
 Faunal pedoturbation : Mixing by animals such as ants, earthworms, moles,
rodents and man himself.
 Floral pedoturbation : Mixing by plants, as in tree tipping that forms pits and
mounds.
 Argillopedoturbation : Mixing of materials in solum by churning process caused by
swell - shrink clays as is observed in deep black cotton soil.

Soil Colour:-
 Soil colour can be an indicator of the climatic condition (acquired or pedochromic)
color under which a soil was developed or of its parent material (litho chromic color).
 Soil color is also taken as criteria for assessing soil productivity.
 Mineral provide colour in soil
S.No. Soil Colour Mineral
1- Red colour Hemetite (Fe2O3), Trugite
2- Yellow colour Limonite(Fe2O3.3H3O)
3- White colour Gypsum, Lime, Goethite, Gibsite (Al2O3.H2O)
4- Blue and Green colour Reduction of Fe and Mn
5- Mottle Continuous oxidation
6- Black Titeneferous magnetite

Soil Water

A. Physical classification B. Biological classification

1. Hygroscopic 1 Available :
- 31 – 10,000 bar - 1/3 – 15 bar
Hygroscopic water : 31 bar
Ultimate wilting point: - 60 bar 2 Non available
2 Capillary water > -15 bar
Field capacity : 0.33 or 1/3 bar 3 Superfluous water
PWP: - 15 bar < -1/3 bar
Moisture equivalent :- > - 1/3 bar
3 Gravitational water :- < 1/3 bar
Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) :-
 PWP concept given by Briggs and shuttz.
 It is the soil moisture content at which plants show wilting symptoms and can’t
recover even though it is kept in humid chamber. It occurs at pF value 4.18.
 Dwarf Sunflower are used for indicater plant.
 It is lower limit of water availability.
Seepage :- horizontal; movent of water.
Infiltration:- Entery of water in soil in unsaturation zone.
Percolation :- Downward movement of water through water coloum in saturation condition.
Leaching :- Movement of salt and nutrient below the root zone.
Available water :-
 Concept of available water given by vvehenmeyer and hendriction(1955)
 This type of water available for water.
 pF Concept:
 To express the soil moisture suction or tension Schofield 1935 has suggested
to use the logarithm of this tension with a symbol pF, an exponential funct ion
of free energy difference.
 It is defined as the “logarithm to the base 10 of the numerical value of the
negative pressure of the soil moisture expressed in centimeters”.
pF= log(- h)
 pF is the logarithmic expression of the force with which water is held in soils
expressed in terms of height of a water column (cm) required to produce equal
tension.
 P = logarithmic value F= free energy
 pF value and Soil condition:-
Pressure
S.No. Soil Condition PF Values
(atm/bars)
1. Saturated Soil 0 0.001
2. Field Capacity (346cm) 2.53 1/3
3. PWP (15849) 4.18 15
Hygroscopic Point(31623)
4. 4.50 31

5. Oven Dry Soil 7.0 10,000

6. Lower plastic limit (LPL) 2.8 – 3.3 -
Upper plastic limit (UPL)/ Liquid
7. 0.5 -
limit

Measurement of soil moisture :-

A. Direct method
Gravimetric method :-
 This is a standard method in which the soil sample is collected from the field (moist
condition) and weighed.
  The weighed sample is oven dried at about 105-110°C for overnight and weighed
again.

Weight of fresh soil – weight of oven dry soil

 % moisture = -------------------------------------------------------------- x 100
Weight of oven dry soil
B. Indirect method
1. Tensiometer method
 The use of tensiometer is confined up to the minimum matric potential of -0.8 bars.
 It is most suitable for sandy soil.
2. Electric resistance method or electrical conductivity method
 In this method two platinum electrodes are embedded in gypsum block at a definite
distance apart.
 These blocks are buried in the soil at a required depth and conductivity is measured
with a modified Wheatstone bridge.
 The electrical resistance of the soil decreases with increase in water content.
 This method is useful to measure the percentage of soil moisture from field capacity
to wilting percentage.
 This is not an appropriate method in soils containing high salt concentration.
3.Neutron scattering method :-
 The neutron moisture meter consists of americium and beryllium or radium and
beryllium as the neutron source and boron tri fluoride (BF3) gas as a detector.
 This method is rapid, less laborious, non-destructive and repeated measurements can
be made at the same depth.
 This method is not suitable for moisture determination of surface soil.
4. Pressure apparatus method :-
 It is a form of tensiometer used under laboratory conditions.
 A core of soil is placed firmly on a porous plate to which a suction is applied.
 Suitable in 0-1 bars tension.
5.Pressure membrane apparatus:
 It is used to measure the tension values as high as 100 bars.
 Organic matter
 Mixture of plant and animal dead tissue residue in soil is known organic matter.)
 Humus is formed after decomposition of organic matter.Humus is store house of
nutrient.
 composition of humus C : 58 %, H, N : 5 %, O2 : 32 – 33 %, P, S : 0.5 %
 Organic matter :- organic carbon x 1.724 (Bemelan factor)
 Organic matter in mineral soil :- 0.5 – 5 %
 Organic matter in peat soil :- 20 – 95 %
 Organic matter in Alluvial soil :- 0.4 – 0.7 %
 Organic matter in Indian soil :- 1- 5%
 Average Organic matter in Indian soil :- <0.5%
 Hemicellulose polymer is xylose, Cellulose poymer is Beta –D glucose and starch
polymer is alfa glucose.
 Rabbing :- Applied heat treatment to soil by burning waste material placed over soil
is known rabbing.
 Mar :- It is raw humus and it is a type of forest humus layer.
 Marling :- Add of clay to sandy soil for improvement of physical condition.
 100 gm Organic matter contain 58% organic carbon.
 O.m. = Forest soil > Grassland soil > Arable soil
 Categories of organic carbon in soil :-
1. Low categories < 0.5 %
2. Medium categories 0.5 – 0.75 %
3. High categories > 0.75 %

 C: N Ratio = It is ratio of Weight of organic carbon to weight of total N .

C : N Ratio
 Normal /Arable /cultivable soil :- 10 - 12 : 1
 Humus :- 10 : 1
 FYM and Legume :- 20 – 30 : 1
 Micro organism :- 4–9: 1
 Bacteria :- 4-5 :1
 Actinomycites :- 6:1
 Fungi :- 10:1
  Rice straw :- 80 : 1
 Oat straw :- 90:1
 Wood ash :- 225:1
 Saw dust :- 400:1

(Humus) )
 Humus is defined as a complex and rather resistance mixture of brown to dark brown
colour, amorphous, CEC of Humus is 150 to 300 cmol / kg.
 Humus contain 40 – 45 % lignine and 30 – 35 % protine.
Component of humus :-
1.Fulvic :- Low molequler weight, Yellow colour and water,Acid and base soluble.
2.Humic :- Medium molecular weight, Black colour and Base soluble.
3. Humic :- High molecular weight,Unsoluble in base and acid.

pH
 lpH concept given by S.P.L.Sorenson in 1909.
 pH is a French word.
 pH is log. Of negative H+ ion concentration in soil solution.
pH = - log10 (H+)
 [H+] x [OH-] = 10-14
 pH + pOH = 14
 pH scale range :- 0-14.
 Pure water contain [H+] and [OH-] concentration
 For pH determination ratio of soil and water should be 1:2 or 1:2.5.
 Most of the soil nutrient available pH :-6.5-7.5.
 Phosphorus and Boron are available at neutral pH.
 Mo increase with pH.
ij pH pH < 6.0 pH 6.0 – 6.5 pH > 6.0
i Available nutrient Al, Fe, Mn, Zn P, B Ca, Mg, Mo
 Soil fertility and Productivity
 Soil fertility :-
 Capacity of soil to provide all nutrient in available form and suitable amount is
known Soil fertility.
 Soil fertility determined by its yield in qu. or kg or gm per ha.
 Factor affecting soil fertility :-
Natural factor
1. Parent material 2. Topography 3.Soil age 4. Climate
5. Depth of profile 6. Physical condition of soil
7. Soil erosion 8.Nutrient providing capacity of soil.
Artificial Factor
1. Water logging 2.Croping system 3. Soil temperature
4. Soil pH 5. Soil micro organism 6. Organic matter
7. Tillage
Soil productivity :-
 Crop production capacity of soil is known soil productivity.
 Productivity measure in yield’s price.
(Soil Classification) )
 Soil are divided into 6 categories according to 7th approximaxation (1960).
 Order, Sub order,Great group,Sub group,Family,Series.
 Lowest categories of soil classification is soil series and highest categories is soil
order.
Category No.of taxa. Differentiating characteristics
Order 12 Presence or absence of major diagnostic horizons /
properties.
Suborder 65 Presence or absence of properties related to wetness,
moisture regime,climate,parent material and vegetation.
Great 319 Based on base status, STR, SMR, presence or absence of
Group plinthite, fragipan,duripan etc.
Subgroups 2400+ Typic, Intergrades. Extragrades
Families 4500+ Properties which meet the practical predictions for land
use planning – Particles size class, mineralogical class,
STR class.
 Series 19000+ Kind, arrangement, and features of horizons in a pedon.

 Area of soil order in india :- Inceptisols > Entisols > Alfisols > Vertisols > Aridisols
 Area of soil order in World :- Aridisols > Alfisols > Inceptisols > Mollisols
 In India the extent of Inceptisols, Entisols, and Alfisols is more than 75%.
 Resentely added (1975) or new soil order is :- Andisols & Gelisols
SOIL ORDER NAMES AND THEIR FORMATIVE ELEMENTS :-
S.No. Order For. element Derivation of formative Rank in area
element World India
1 Alfisol Alf Nonsense syllable Pedalfer 3 3
2 Andisol And j.an – ando, black soil Ando 11 -
3 Aridisol Id L. aridus, dry Arid 1 5
4 Entisol Ent Nonsense syllable Recent 4 2
5 Gelisol El Gr. gelid, very cold Gelid 12 -

6 Histosol Ist Gr. histos,tissue Histology 10 9(Lowest)

7 Inceptisol Ept L. inception, beginning 2 1
Inception
8 Mollisol Oll L. mollis, soft Mollify 6 6
9 Oxisol Ox Fr. Oxide, oxide Oxide 5 8
10 Spodosol Od Gr.spodos,wood ash 8 -
Podzolized (odd)
11 Ultisol Ult L. ultimus, last Ultimate 7 7
12 Vertisol Ert L. verto, turn Invert 9 4

 There are 12 order of soil classification .

 Trick :- AVAGAMIHOUSE
 Charcters of soil order:-
S.No. Soil Order Charcters
1 A :- Alfisols Ochric epipedon, Argillic horizon ( >35% base
saturation),Natric horizon(>35% base saturation + ESP
>15),Kaolinite clay,Red and laterite soil
2 V :- Vertisols
3 A :- Aridisols
4 G :- Gelisols
5 A :- Andisols
6 M :- Mollisols
7 I :- Inceptisols
8 H :- Histosols
9 O :- Oxisols
10 U :- Ultisols
11 S :- Spodosols
12 E :- Entisols
Verto mean inversion, Argillic pedoturbetion,
Montmorilonite clay,
Black soil,Grumosol
ARID mean dry , developed in dry climate, Ochric epipedon,
Light colour and low organic matter,calcic and gypsic
horizon.
Permafrost layer(>2 year 0oC), Tundra,Spengum
vegetation,Lichen,Crypedoterbation
Volcanic eruption,ALlophane
Important agrl order,Lime rich P.M.,mollic epipedon,dark
colour,
Inceptum mean beginning ,embryonic soil,cambic horizon
Organic soil order,Lowest area in india,
High weathering soil,Low fertility,Laterite soilfound in keral
and TN.
Kandic and argilic (<35% base saturation),Highly developed
soil, Shift cultivation.
Wood ash colour,spodic horizon.
Recent/youth soil,No Diagnostic horizon, P.M.is very
resistance to weathering, Little profile development,Illite
clay,Found in Alluviam,Aeolian

(Soils of India) )
 Indian soil are classified into eight group.
1. Alluvial soils : -
 It is formed River alluviums (erosion products of rivers), coastal alluviums (coastal
sands) and deltaic alluviums (Heterogeneous sediments) Parent material . Alluvial soil
not developed any horizon.
 Inherently rich in plant nutrients in P and K but deficient in N and OM.
 Highest area in india (U.P>HR>Delhi).Deposited in flood plains by transported in
river and streams.
 It is formed Entisol order and contain illite silicate clay.
 Generally deep soil geologically it iss two type :-
 1. Bhanger :- It is older alluvium,dark, full of kanker and contain more clay.
2. Khadar :- It is newer alluvium,Light colour, less of kanker and contain more sandy.
2. Black soils :-
 Black soil is known late soil, Regur soil and Black cotton soil. Black colour due to
clay humus complex or titaniferous magnetite mineral.
 Highest area of black soil in Maharastra state in india.
 It is formed in vertisol order and it is developed by Decan basalt trap so black soil
have basic nature.
 It contain high amount of Smecite (montmorillonite) type clay.
 Because of swell-shrink nature, they develop deep wide cracks due to churning /
Argillo-pedoturbation. Black soil shown self mulching capacity.
 B Horizone absent in Black soil.
 It contain high amount of lime and K but deficient in O.M., N, and P nutrient.
 Black soil are best for cultivation in dryland agriculture.
 Micronutrient deficiency in calcareous soils.
3. Laterite soil :-
 The term laterite was coined by Buchanan in 1807 for highly ferruginous,vesicular,
unstratified deposits of Malabar hills.
 It is formed by oxisoll and ultisoll soil order. Kaolinite clay is dominant clay and is
formed due to neosynthesis.
 It is developed in tropical and sub tropical climate (High rainfall (300-600cm) and
high temperature (24-27oC) condition).It is reddish and yellowish red colour.
 In india it is found in costal area of kerala, Karnataka, Orissa etc. state.
 Honey comb structure found in laterite soil.
 Generally usaed for plantation crops & shifting cultivation (should be 20 years or
more), In low level areas - rice, banana coconut & high level areas - coffee, cocoa,
rubber, tea are grown.
 Chemically degraded, low nutrient reserve, deficiency of P, K, Ca, Zn, B etc.,
Strongly acidic, high P fixation, Al & Mn toxicity.
 These soil are reached sesquioxide devoid of base and primary mineral.Drying after
wetting and turn as Brick.
 It is deeply weathered, High clay content, low base saturation and silica, low O.m.(10-
20%).
4. Red Soil :-
  It is known Early soil . It is occurred highest in Tamilnadu state.
 Morphologically they are red loams, red earths, red & yellow soils. Brown
soils are called parwa while red soils are called rakar.
Soil derived by Granite,Gneiss and Schist.Red soil are divided into two group Red
loam (Cloddy structure) and Red (Loose and friable but rich secondry sesquioxide
clay).
 The name red is given to soils rich in sesquioxides that have developed of archean
origin granites, gneisses.
 Under good mangement practices, these soils are good for agricultural, horticultural
and plantation crops.
 These soil are known hungry and Thirsty and opposite to black soil.
 Red soil have pH 6 -7.5, CEC low (25 –40 cmol/kg of clay) and BS is low to
medium, SiO2/R2O3 ratio 2.5 –3.0.
 Red soil deficient in OM, N, P, Ca. High in Fe2O3 & Al2O3, kaolikinite, allophanes so
P fixation high, though K is sufficient fast depletion due to continuous cropping.
 It contain high amount Kaolinite silicate clay so it shown high P fixaton.
 Red soil is red colour due to Hemetite (Fe2O3) mineral.
 It is formed in Alfisoll and Ultisoll order.
Chalkas soil :- (Sandy clay loam soil)
 Crusting and hardening of red sandy soils. It is occur mostly in A.P.
 Presence of free iron oxides which form irreversible bonds with clay fraction
 Sealing pores by rain drops force – dispersion of soil particles.
 On drying of clay to sand + silt ratio (3:7) when strenghth 36kg/cm2.
Management:-
 Tillage with spike roller, pulling thorny bush to break the crust.
 Mulching of seed lines Sowing on the sides of the ridges
 Incorporation of slowly decomposable organic residues – paddy husk, grounut pod
shells, coir pith etc.
5.Alkaline and saline soil:-
Alkaline and saline soil developed from Aridisoll, Inceptisoll and Alfisoll order.
Saline Soil:-
 It is developed in Arid and semi-arid climate (Low Rainfall 10-50 cm and High
temperature).
  It have soluble salt of Na, Ca, Mg with Cl-, SO4-2 .
 Soluble salt accume on the surface of soil due to capillary action.
 These soil have pH < 8.5, EC < 4dS/m and SAR < 13 and ESP < 15 and Soluble salt
> 0.1%.
Costal saline soil :-
 Occur in the deltaic region of Major River near Bay of Bangal and Arabian sea.
 These soil is slightly acidic to alkali (Except high amount of FeS2).
Alkali Soil :-
 It is developed in semi-arid climate, 55-90 cm Rainfall and High temperature.
 It have Exchangeable salt of Na with CO3-2, HCO3-2.
 Mg and Ca is replaced by Na ion.
 These soil have pH > 8.5, EC < 4 dS/m and SAR > 13 and ESP >15 and Soluble salt
< 0.1%.
6. Desert soil :-
 It is developed from Aridisole and Entisole soil order.
 It is developed in Arid and semi-arid climate (Rainfall <50 cm and temperature >35
o
C). O.M. contains low.
 Natric horizon found and accume CaCO3 in horizon.
 It is found in western Rajasthan, HR and Punjab.
7. Forest and Hilly soils:-
 Forest soil found 23.8% of total geographic area. It is poor in P.
 Highest forest found M.P.
 Three major soil Brown forest, Podzolic and Red & Laterite found in forest and hilly
soil.
 Podzolic forest soil are developed under coniferous forest vegetation resulting from
the leaching of the base and translocation of sesquioxides.
 Brown forest soil developed sandstone, limestone or colluvial under slightly acidic
and alkali.
8.Peat & marshy soil :-
 Peat & marshy soil formed in Histosol soil order.
 These soil developed in humid region and have soluble salt and O.M., FeS 2 and Black
colour such saline peat soil called Kari soil in kerala. pH of these soil is < 4.
 It is used for Rice cultivation.
  Marshy soil are found in alluvial and costal plain area.Colour of these soil is blue due
to reduction of Fe and Garnomanite mineral.
Terai soil :-
 It is developed in Mollisoll order and in high moisture regime and water table.
 Mostly found in foot hill of Himalaya.It is suffient in O.M.
 Terai soil also known Baber soil. It is deficient in Zn.
 It have cambic horizon and Mollic epipedon and pH is 4.5-5.8., poor base
saturation, Low available nutrient.
 In west Bangal Terai soil are used for Rice cultivation.
There are three class of O.M.:-
1. Febric :- Peat soil
2. Sepric :-Muck soil
3. Hemic:-Peat and Muck soil

(Soil Erosion)
 Soil erosion are combined process of three stage
 1. Detachment
 2. Transportation
 3. Sedimentation
 Father of soil conservation :- H.H. Bennet.
Type of soil erosion:-
1.Natural erosion / Geographical erosion:-
Soil erosion are occurred same amount soil formation.
2.Accelerated erosion :-
Due to wind and water factor.
3.Wave/Strive Bankes erosion :-
Due to combined action of water and air.
4. Anthropogenic erosion :-
Due to Human activities (Deforestation, excess grazing etc.)
 Causes of soil erosion
A. Water erosion B. Wind erosion
A. Water Erosion :-
Area of water erosion in India :- 148 mha
 A. Splash Erosion:-
 First stage of water erosion.
2- Sheet Erosion:-
 Highest loss of fertile soil. Not seen by nude eye.
 It is also known silent poison and it is most serious form of water erosion.
3- Rill Erosion :-
 Formation of small finger shape trench.
4- Gully Erosion :-
 Serious stage of water erosion. It is known cancer of water erosion.
1- Revine erosion:-
 Extreme stage of gully erosion.
B. Wind Erosion :-
 Area of wind erosion in India :- 13.5 mha
 Highest wind erosion in Rajasthan.
1. Saltation :-
 Size of particle 0.1 mm – 0.5 mm.
 50 – 75 % erosion due to wind erosion.
2.Suspension :-
 Size of particle < 0.1 mm.
 3- 4 % erosion due to wind erosion.
3.Surface Creep :-
 Size of particle < 0.5 mm.
 5 - 25 % erosion due to wind erosion.

Soil conservation
1. Cultural practise:- It is used when soil slope is < 2%.
 Contour Farming :- Cultivation across the slope.
 Use Low and minimum Tillage.
 Mulching: - cover the land any material.
 Crop rotation: - Growing legume crop in crop rotation.
 Strip cropping: - Growing erosion resistance and erosion induce crop.
 Lay farming: - Growing grasses with agronomic crop.
 Vertical mulching: - It is used in coffee and tea crop.
 Used wind breaks and shelter belts :- North and western direction.
2. Mechanical methods :- It is used when soil slope is > 2%.
 Sub-soiling:- Breaking hard layer by sub-soiler.
 Contour terrace :- Width 60 cm and depth 30 cm with suitable interval.
It reduce wind speed 5-10 times in wind ward direction and 30 times in leeward side
there height.
 Zing terrace :- It is used where soil slope is 3 – 10 %.
 Bench terrace :- It is used where soil slope is 16-33%.
 Broad Bed and Furrow (BBF) :- It is used in black soil and Maize, Groundnut.
 Contour bunding :- It is used where soil slope is > 6 % in Arid and Semi climate.
 Graded bunding :- It is used 2 – 10 % slope area in black and where average rainfall
is >800 mm.
 Graded bunding and Contour bunding are used in India.

Universal Soil loss Equation

 It was given by Weischmeyer and smith (1978).
A = RKLSCP
Here :-
 A :- Soil loss per unit area (tone/acre soil)
 R :- Rainfall factor
 K :- Soil erodibility factor (0 to 0.6)
 L :- Slope length factor (22 m)
 S :- Slope gradient factor (9%)
 C :- Crop management practice
 P :- Soil conservation practice
 Soil erosivity :- It is capacity of agent causing erosion.
 Soil erodibility :- It is the susceptibility nature of soil particle (mostly <0.1
mm) to erosion .
 Permissible limit of soil loss is 12 tone /ha.

(Acidic Soils)
 Soil having less than 6.5 pH.
 Area of acidic soil in India:-49 mha
 Highest area of acidic soil in West Bengal.
  Physical condition of acidic soil is better.
 It is found in humid climate.
 These soil high Fe, Mn and Al and poor in Ca,Mg.
 Cat soil, Acid sulphate soil ,Kari/Pokali soil :- These soil are sufficient sulphide (H2S
and sulphide) become strongly acidic after drainage due to oxidation of sulphur and
formation of sulphuric acid. pH of these soil is < 4. Cat clay shines like cat’s eye.
 Before drainage of these soil are normal pH are known potential acid sulphate soil.
Type of acidity:-
1. Active acidity:- Acidity due to H+ and Al in soil solution
2. Exchangeable acidity:- Acidity due to exchangeable H+ and Al on soil colloid.
Causes of Acidic soil formation :-
1. Granite and Quartz parent mineral
2. Leaching of base
3. Use of acid forming fertilizer.
4. Decomposition of O.M.
5. Acidic rainfall
Management:-
 Drainage of water
 Growing acid resistance crop eg.Rice,Potato etc
 Used of Basic fertilizer
 Used of Lime material:- Requirement of lime in acidic soil knowing by Shoemaker
et. al (1961) method.

Neutralizing value of CaCO3)))

S.No. Lime Material Lime material
1 CaO (Quick, Burn Lime) 179
2 Ca(OH)2 (Slacked Lime) 136
3 CaCO3.MgCO3 (Dolomite) 109
4 MgCO3 119
5 CaCO3 (Ag. Lime) 100
6 CaSiO3 (Basic slag) 86
 (Saline & Alkaline Soils) )

Area of salt affected soil in india is 70 lakh.

 Salt affected soil contain soluble salt of Na,Mg, Ca with SO4, Cl, CO3 ,HCO3.
 In U.P. salt affected soil are known usar, usar term are derived by Sanskrit language.
 Saline soil are known Thur and Alkaline soil are known Rocker in Punjab.
 Salt tolerant crop ;- Barley > Sugarbeet > Dhaicha.
 Salt tolerant fruit ;- Date > Aonla > Ber
 Central soil salinity research institute :- Karnal (HR)
EC at
S. Other
Soil 25 0C pH ESP Charcter
NO name
(dS/m)
Soluble salt NaSO4 & NaCl
high,Toxic effect on plant
White growth due to high osmosis
1- Saline alkali, >4 < 8.5 < 15 effect.
Solon-chalk Arid and semi- arid
climate,low rainfall >50 cm.
Soluble salt con. > 0.1.
Soluble salt NaCO3, NaHCO3
Black Rainfall 55 – 90 cm.High Ex.
Alkaline alkali, 8.5 - Na present.
2- <4 > 15
Solon-tezz 10 Soluble salt con. < 0.1 %.
Physical condition of soil is
not good.
Saline - Soluble salt and Exchangeable
3- >4 > 8.5 > 15
Alkaline Na both is high

Management:-
A. Physical and water technique method :-
1.scraping 2Water drainage
3- Trenching 4. Leaching witth good quality water.
B. Chemical method:-
 1. Gypsum :- 29.2 % Ca, 18.6 % S 2. Pyrites 3. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
4- Aluminium sulphate and iron sulphate
Gypsume equivalent :-
S.No. Amliorent Amount of amliorent (ton)
1 Gypsum 1.00
2 Sulphuric acid 0.57
3 Element sulphur 0.186
4 Lime sulphur 0.756
5 Iron sulphate 1.62
6 Aluminium sulphate 1.29
7 Lime stone 0.58

C. Biological method:-
Used of FYM, green manure and Press mud
C. Land management method :-
 First irrigation high amount after frequent irrigation use and used 15- 20% high seed
rate, 20-25% high fertilizer.
 Saline soil are reclamation by physical and biological method.
 Alkali soil are reclamation by chemical method after used biological method.
 EC is used for measurement of soil salinity.
 ESP is used for determination of soil alkalinity.
 Tolerance of alkalinity :- Karnal grass > Rhodes grass> Para grass > Rice
>Sugarcane.
 In case of acidic and saline soil Gypsum should not be used because SO4 increase.

(Plant Nutrients) )
 Criteria of essentiality :- Arnon and Stout 1939 proposed criteria of essentiality which
was refined by Arnon in 1954.
 Essential plant nutrient :- 17 [17:- Ni (Browen ,velich and carries in 1987)]
 Ultra micro nutrient :- Required < 1 PPB {Co, Mo} (Nicholas, 1963)
 Functional nutrient:- Nicholas (1961) from long Asthom Institute ( USA) proposed
the term Functional nutrient for any mineral element that function in plant
metabolism.
  Functional nutrient :- 17 essenial + Si + V + CO + Na = 21
 Ballast element :- Si and Al
 Beneficial nutrient/ Potential micronutrient :- Se, Al, Rb,Sr,Cr,As.
 Silicon absorbed by plant as a monosilicic acid [Si(OH)4)].
 Fe+2 and Mn+2 are absorbed as reduced form.
 Mo is required for N fixation.
 Ca is essential for cell wall formation.
 Co is essential for Vit. B12 formation.
 Na is essential for osmo-regulation and increase drought tolerence in Sugarbeet.
 Black heart of potato due to deficiency of O2.
 Black scurf of potato :- Rhizoctonia solani fungi
 Sulphar is consitutent of amino acid like methionine, cysteine and cystine.
 Mg is essential for chlorophyll formation.
 H2PO4- is equeal HPO4-2 at 7.2 pH.
 Essential of protoplasm = C, H, O, N, P, S
 Oxidation and Reduction regulators = Mn, Cu, Fe,Zn
 Redox potential = Mn, Cu, Fe
 Boron is mobile in soil but immobile in plant.
 Mo may be substitued by Vanadium (V2O5), Cl by Br, K by Rubidium (Rb) and Ca by
Strontium (Sr).
 Phosphorus is mobile in plant but immobile in soil.
 P cycle not found in gas form.
 Luxuary consumption showed by N and K.
 Non metal element :- N,P,S,C,H,O
 Hidden hunger :- A plant cannot show obvious symptoms yet the nutrient content is
sufficient to give the top profitable yield.
 Non metal micro element :- Boron
 Regulate permeability of cell membrance= Ca2+, Mg2+
 Provide basic structure :- C,H,O
 Fertilizer nutrient :- N,P,K,S

Classification:-
A. Structural :- C H O (90 – 96 %), [ C = 45 %, O = 45 %, H = 5 %]
B. Major/macro :- > 1 PPM
 1. Primary – N, P, K
2. Secondary - Ca, Mg, S
C. Micro/minor/trace/ rare/oligo/spurne nutrient):-
 < 1 PPM, Fe, Mn, B, Mo, Ni, Cl, Zn, Cu
D.fertilizer nutrient:- N, P, K, S
E.Lime nutrient :- Ca, Mg
F.Energy exchange nutrient :- H,O
G. Energy storage :- N, P, S, C
H. Translocation regulator :- K,Na,Ca,Mg
I.Oxidation – reduction regulator:-
 Fe, Mn, Zn ,Cu, Mo, B
Mobility of nutrients in Soil :-
1. Immobile :- H2Po4-, HPo42-, Zn2+
2. Less Mobile :- NH4+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cu2+
3. Highly Mobile :- No3-, So42-, Bo33-, Mn2+, Cl-

Mobility of Nutreints in Plant :-

1. Immobile :- Ca, B 2. Less Mobile :- Fe, Mn, S, Cu, Cl
2. Medium Mobile :- Zn 4. Highly Mobile :- N, P, K, Mg, Mo

Deficiency Symtoms :-
1. Symptoms on axillary buds (Immobile Nutrient) : Ca, B
2. Symptoms on old and new leaves (medium mobile nutrient) :- Zn
3. Symptoms on lower leaves (Immobile) :- N, P, K, Mg, Mo
4. Symptoms on new leaves :- S, Cu, Fe, Mn
Amount of nutrient in plant and their available form :-
S.No. Nutrient Amount in plant Available form
A. Major nutrient :-
1. Carbon (C) 45 % CO2
2. Hydrogen (H) 6% H2O
3. Oxygen 45 % H2O, O2
B. Primariy nutrient :-
4. Nitrogen (N) 1.5 % NO3-, NH4+
 5. Phosphors (P) 0.2 % H2PO4-, HPO4-2,
6. Potassium(K) 1.0 % K+
C. Secondary nutrient :-
7. Calcium (Ca) 0.5 % Ca+2
8. Magnesium (Mg) 0.2 % Mg+2
9. Sulphur (S) 0.1 % SO4-2
D. Micronutrient :-
10. Iron (Fe) 100 PPM Fe+2 > Fe+3
11. Mangnes (Mn) 50 PPM Mn+2 > Mn+4
12. Zinc(Zn) 20 PPM Zn+2
13. Copper (Cu) 6 PPM Cu+2
14. Boron (B) 20 PPM H3BO3 > H2BO3-
15. Molybdenum (Mo) < 1 PPM MoO4-2
16. Chlorine (Cl) 100 PPM Cl-
17. Nickel (Ni) 0.1 – 1.0 PPM Ni+2

Functions and deficiency symptoms of nutrient :-

Nitrogen (N) :-
 Plant absorb in form of NO3- and NH4+
 Only N is not present in the bed rock and its presence can be made though O.M.,
lighting and microbes.
 N is integral part of chlorophyll.
 Imparts dark green colour to plants improve qulity and succulence of leafy
vegetable and fodder crops.
 Important component of protein, nucleic acid, ATP, NADP.
 Deficiency symptoms :-
 V shaped yellowing of lower leaves due to synthesis of anthocynin.
 Buttoning in Cauliflower.
 Starvation in cereal crop.
Diseases due to excess nitrogen :-
 Lodging and abortion of flower, susceptible to pest and diseases.
 Splitting in carrot.
 Ricyness in cauliflower.
  Bud sprouting in garlic.
 Hollow heart in potato.
Phosphorus (P) :-
 Plant absorb in the form of H2PO4- and HPO4-2
 Formation of ATP (energy currency).A plant cannot complete its life cycle without P
so it is known Key of life.
 Exccess of phosophorus increase deficiency of Fe and Mn.
 Enhence the activity of rhizobia and root nodules and increases the ratio of
grain/sraw.
 Deficiency symptoms :-
 Necrosis, late germination of seeds and dark green colour of leaf due to anthocynine
synthesis.
 Deficiency cause purple colour on leaves.
Potasium (K) :-
 Plant absorb in the form of K+.
 K does not enter into the composition of any of the plant constituents.
 It increases insect and disease resistance.
 Hidden hunger and luxery consumption charcter are developed by potassium.
 It regulates osmo-regulation and water balance, stomata movement, reduce
transpiration rate and increase photosynthetic rate.It act as a traffic police man.
 Responsible for translocation and formation of sugar and starch thus large quantity for
potato, sweet potato, turnip, banana.
 Improve quality of fiber in cotton and increase shelf life of fruit
 It reduces physical stress (Drought, flooding and frost) in plant.
Deficiency of K :-
 Tip burning and margin scorching of lower leaf due to synthesis of putericine
pigment.

Sulphar :-
 Constituent of amino acid Methionine, cysteine, cysteine and Vitamins Thiamine,
biotine, glutothione and lipoic acid and Acetyl Co-enzyme.
 Sulphar improved oil and protine content so Sulphar is high required for legumes and
oilseed crop.
S deficiency :-
 Tea yellowing in tea.
 Akiochi in Rice due to H2S.
Calcium :-
 Constituent of middle lamila of cell wall (calcium pactete)which gives turgidity of
cell wall.
 Highly required in Telophase for cell plate formation.Essential in activity the growing
point specially rot tip.

Ca deficiency :-
 Cavity Spot in Carrot
 Calyx end rot(CER) in Grape
 Pillow in Cucumber
 Tip hook in tobaco
 BER (Blossom End Rot) of tomato

Magnisium (Mg) :-
 Constituent of chlorophyll, chromosome, polyribosome, carier of P in plant.
 Promote formation of oils and fats, translocation of starch, catalytic action.
Mg deficiency:-
 Chlorosis b/w the vein and vein remain green.
 Purple leaf in cotton
 Sand drawn disease in tobacco.
Iron (Fe) :- It content varies in plant 100 – 500 mg /kg dry matter.
 Component of ferodoxin (Fe and S protine), cytochrome,flavoprotins and enzymes
like catalase, peroxidase,act as a catalyst in Nitrate reductase and during respirartion
act as a O2 carrier in leghemoglobin.
 Fe deficiency :-
 Principle veins remain conspicuously green and other portion of the leaf turn
yellow tending towards whiteness.
 Yellowing (Fe chlorosis) in groundnut and pulses.
 White eye symptoms in rice
 Rice Browning due to excess of Fe.

Mo :-
  Component of Nitrogenase, Nitrate reductase.
 In bacteria Mo can be replaced by Vanadium, obvious role in N fixation.
 It content is 0.2 – 2 mg/kg dry matter.
 Mo is required for sweetness in raphanus and carrot.
Mo deficiency:-
 Yellow leaf Spot in citrus
 Whiptail in cauliflower

Boron:-
 It act as a regulater of K/Ca ratio and keeps Ca in soluble form within the cell.
 Consitutent of cell membrance and essential for cell division and N and carbhohydrate
metabolism.
 Essential for translocation of sugar
 Essential for Germination and reproduction of pollengrain.
 Essential for maintain the apical growing point.
 B deficiency :-
 Hen & Chicken in graps
 Pollengrain sterility of wheat
 Necrosis in mango, Aonla
 Top sickness in tobacco.
 Hollow stem in cauliflower.
 Brown Heart in Sugarbeet, Turnip, and rephanus.
 Browning in cauliflower.
 Splitting in carrot.
 Fruit cracking in tomato and pomegranate.
 Fruit hardness in citrus.
Copper (Cu) :-
 It take part in e- transport i.e. pastocynin, peroxidase and SOD production.
 It content is 5- 20 mg/kg of dry matter.
Copper deficiency:-
 Die back, Gummosis and Exanthema in citrus
 Reclamation(white tip) in cereals.

Zinc :-
Component of carbonic anhydrase, alcoholic anhydrase, RNA polymerase enzyme
Require for bio-synthesis of auxine (IAA), IAA is precursor of treptophen.
Zn deficiency:-
 Khaira disease of Rice
 White Bud of Maize
 Little leaf in cotton and apple.
 Leaf Bronzing in Litchi and guvava
 Leaf Mottling and Frenching in citrus
Mn :-
Mn is essential for hill reaction.(Cl)
Mn deficiency:-
 The principle veins are as well as the smaller veins are green.
 Complete intervinal chlorosis
 Grey Speck of Oat/Barley.
 Phalal Blight of Sugarcane
 Marsh Spot of Pea

Clorine (Cl):-
 Essential for hill reaction.
 Legumes and tobacco are high Cl sensitive crop
 Leaf Scorching in Mango due to Cl deficiency.
Nicle (Ni+2):-
 Plant contain 1 – 10 mg/kg
 Esential for hydrogenase, methyl reductase and urease activities that rregulated N
metabolism.
Cobalt (Co+2):-
 Co is structural component of vit B12.
 Essential for formation of leghaemoglobin which is needed for N fixation .
Sodium (Na+):-
Essential for Sugarbeet and such crop influence water relation in Sugarbeet and increase
drought resistance to drought. Na is essential and some extant it can supplement for K.
Vanadium (V2O5):-
Essential for BGA for symbiotic N fixation.
Silicon ( SiOH4):-
Silicon is essential for Diatoms, Sugarcane, Rice and Maize

Method of nutrient evolution in soil samplea

S.No. Nutrient Method
1- Organic Carbon Wakley and Black titration method (77 %)
2- Total N Zeldhal method
3- Available N Subhia and ashiza (Alkaline KMnO4) method
Alkaline soil Olsen method
4- Phosphorus
Acidic soil brays and kutzz method
5- Potasium Flame photo meter method
6- Sulphar(SO4-2) Turbedimetric method
Micronutrient
7- Atomic adsorption spectrophotometer(AAS)
(Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn)
8- Boron Hot water soluble method

Reagent used for determination of nutrient in soil sample :-

S.No. Nutrient Method

1- Available N Alkaline KMnO4
Acidic soil ( pH < 5.5):- (0.03 NH4F + 0.025 HCl) (1945)
2- P
Neutral and alkaline soil ( pH 8.5):-:-0.5 M NaHCO3 (1954)
3- K 1 N Neutral Ammonium Acetate(CH3COONH4)
4- Ca and Mg Ammonium Acetate (cmol/kg)
5- Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu D.T.P.A. Extract Reagent
6- Mo Acid Ammonium Oxalate (pH : 3.3)
7- B Hot water soluble
8- Organic Carbon K2Cr2O7 + 0.5 N Ferus ammonium acetate (FAS)

Soil Fertility
S.No. Nutrient Low fertility Medium fertility High Fertility
1 Nirogen < 280 kg/ha 280 – 560 kg/ha > 560 kg/ha
2 Phosphorus (P) < 12 kg/ha 12 – 25 kg/ha > 25 kg/ha
3 Potasium(K) < 110 kg/ha 110 – 280 kg/ha > 280 kg/ha
4 Sulphar(S) < 10 PPM 10 – 20 PPM > 20 PPM
5 Zinc (Zn) < 0.5 PPM 0.5 – 1.0 PPM > 1.0 PPM
6 Boron (B) < 0.33 PPM 0.33 – 0.67 PPM > 0.67 PPM
7 Iron (Fe) < 4.5 PPM 4.5 – 9.0 PPM > 9.0 PPM

Indicator Plant

S.No. Indicator Plant Nutrient and other

1 Sunflower Drought indicator
2 Lichen (Fungi + Algae) Pollution and SO2 Indicator
3 Cauliflower and Cabbage N and Ca Deficiency
4 Mustard and Rapeseed Phosphorus Deficiency
5 Maize and Linseed Zn Deficiency
6 Potato K and Mg Deficiency
7 Sorghum Fe Deficiency
8 Sugar beet Na Deficiency
9 Sunflower B Deficiency
10 Sugar beet B Tolerant
11 Wheat and Citrus Cu Deficiency
12 Oat Mn Deficiency
13 Barley Mo Deficiency
14 Tobaco Co Deficiency

Antagonist effect of Nutrient

S.No. Excess of nutrient Antagonist effect

1 P Zn Availability Decrease
2 K B Availability Decrease
 3 Zn, Cu Fe Availability Decrease
4 Fe Mn Availability Decrease
5 N, Mg P Availability Increase
6 P Mo Availability Increase

(Bio – fertilizer) )

Nitrogen Phosphorous Organic Matter

decomposer

Simbiotic Non simbiotic Solublizer Adsorber

Bacilus VAM
Rhizobium Aerobic Non-aerobic Aspergilus Cellulose Lignine
Azolla Azotobacter Clostrodium Pseudomonas
Arthobacter Acetobacter
Aspergilus Aerobic Non aerobic
Methenobacter Trichoderma Cellulomonas

A. Nitrogenous biofertilizers :-
Symbiotic :-
(a) Nodule forming :-
1. Rhizobium:-
 Aerobic and Heterotrophic bacteria which fix atmosphere N with the presence of
leghemoglobin in nodule of legume crop root.
 Slow growing and base producer :- R.lupins and R. japonicum
 Fast growing and acid producer :- All other except R.lupins and R. japonicum
(i) Rhizobium melilotie Lucern, Fenugreek,clover
(ii) Rhizobium trifolie Bersem
(iii) Rhizobium phaseoli Beann ,Rajma
(iv) Rhizobium japonicum Soyabean
(v) Rhizobium lupins Lupin (Slow growing)
(vi) Rhizobium sp. Groundnut,Cowpea,Mung
(vii) Rhizobium leguminserum Pea,lentil
2. Actinomicetes :- From the genous Frankia and Casuriana alder
(b) Without nodule
Eg. Anabanea azollae (Blue Green Alagae) + Azolla pinnata (Water fern) .
2. Free living :-
i. Aerobic :- Azoobacter chroccum (Used in Wheat,Rice, Cotton,Sugercane)
Acetobacter (Used in Sugarcane)
ii. Anaerobic :- Clostrodium (Used in Rice)
3. Associated :-
Azospirium Micro-aerobic (Used in Jower, Bajra )
B. Phosphorus biofertilizer :- It is two type
i.Phosphorus solublizer :-
PSB Bacteria :- BBacilus megathorium,Pseudomonas strita
PSF Fungi :- Aspergilum awamori, Panicilium
PSA Actinomycites:- Streptomycine
ii. Phosphorus absorber :-
Mychorhiza (Simbiotic relationship) :- Fungus + Higher plant root
VAM (Veciculer arbosculer micorhiza)
Pink colour of legume root :- Hemoglobine (It act O2 carrier)

(Organic Manure) )
Manuring:-
It is the process of improving productive capacity of the soil by adding more
plant nutrients to the soil in different forms.
 Organic manure are natural and organic.
 Highest FYM used in Karnatak state.
 It contain low amount of nutrient but contain high organic matter.
 Bio gas term introduced by A.L.Desai and T.D. Vishwash.
Composition of Bio gas:-
 CH4/marsh gas/ Gober gas = 50 – 60 % (Main component of CNG)
 CO2 :- 30 – 40 %, H2 :- 5 – 10 %
 (NO)x :- 3 – 4 %, Low amount H2S.
I. Bulky Organic Manure:-
 Organic matter high but nutrient low
  Eg. FYM,Compost,Vermicompost and Green manure.
I. Bulky Organic Manure:-
1. Farm Yard Manure :-
Composition of FYM
Nutrient N% P2O5 % K2O %
Amount 0.5 0.25 0.5

Method of Preparation FYM

(A) Pit method :-
In this method FYM prepared in 5- 6 month.

Size Length Width Depth

3m 2m 1m

(B) Trench Method) :- This method is given by Dr. C.N. Acharya.

Size Length Width Depth
6m 3 m 1m

Application of FYM
 In crops 15 - 20 tone/ha
 In vegetable 20 - 25 tone/ha
 Used before sowing 3 - 4 week.
2. Compost :-
 Nutrient amount :- N (0.50 %), P2O5 (0.15 %), K2O (0.75 %)
Method of compost forming :-
A. Banglore method
 Anaerobic method and best method of compost formation.
 This method developed by Dr.C.N.Acharya.
B. Indore method
 Aerobic method (In 4 month),
 Length = 10 feet, width= 6-8 feet, depth = 2 - 3 feet
 This method developed by Hawerd and Yeswnt d ward
B. Nadep method :-
  This method is developed by Nadep kaka of maharastra.
 Compost are prepared in this method in 3 – 4 month.
 Length = 10 feet, width= 6 feet, depth = 3 feet
Nutrient amount N P2O5 K2O
0.5 – 1.5 0.5 - 0.9 1.2 – 1.4

3 Vermi-compost :-
 Vermiculture :- Rearing earthworm artificially.
 Vermitechnology :- Method of vermitechnology.
 Warmiri :- Place where earth worm are rearing.
Nutrient amount N P2O5 K20
1.5 - 2.5 % 1.6 – 1.8 % 1 - 1.5 %

 Three type Earthworm occur :- Endogic,Diogeic,Epigic

 Epigic :- It is occur surface one meter.It is consume 90% residual and 10% soil.
 Eg. Eisenia foetida
 Vermicompost prepared in 2 month.
 Dose :- Crop = 5 tone/ha, Vegetable = 7.5 tone/ha
 Vermicompost contain 5 to 6 times N,6 -8 times and 3-4 times more than FYM.
 Optimum condition for vermicompost preparation :-
Moisture = 30 %, Temperature = 25 - 30 °C
Size of bed :-Length = 40-50 Feet, Width =3-4 Feet, Dipth= 1m. 1
4.Green Manure :-
 It incorporated insoil at flowering stage (40-50 DAS)
 In situ Green manuring :- Growing in field and decomposed in the same field.
Eg. Dhaicha(Sesbania aculata), sunhemp(Crotaleria juncea), cluster bean and Lobia.
 Most outsanding green manure crop :- Sunhemp
 Dhaicha is suitable in saline, Alkaline and waterlogged soil.
 Green leaf manuring :- collect green leaf and twing and decomposed in the other
field. E.g. :- Glericida acculata, Pongamia pinneta, Ipomoea cornea, Neem, Mahua
 Sesbania rostrata is a stem noddulating grean manure crop which is native of west
Africa.
 Rajma is shy nodule crop because it is legume crop but not fix N.
II. Concentrated/Light organic manure :-
 Organic matter low but nutrient high
 Eg.Oilcake,Bone meal,Blood meal ,Night soil
 Night soil is human excreata both solid and liquid.
 It contain N 5.5%,P2O5 4% and K2O 2%.
Oil cake :-
 Highest N found in Decorated Safflower (7.9)
 Mahua oil cake used in field before sowing two month. It contain saponen alkaloid.
 All oilcake used before 15 day sowing.
 Neem oil cake are acted same Nitrification inhibitor.It contain 0.3 % azadirectine and
40-50 % oil.
 There are two type oil cake :-
A. Edible oil cake :-
S.No. Edible oil cake N% P2O5 % K2O %
1 Ground nut oilcake 7.3 1.53 1.3
2 Musterd oil cake 5.2 1.8 1.2
3 Til oil cake 6.2 2.1 1.3
4 Safflower (Decorated) 7.9 2.2 1.92
2 Non edible oil cake :-
S.No. Non edible oil cake N% P% K%
1 Caster oil cake 4.3 1.8 1.3
2 Neem oil cake 5.2 1.08 1.48
3 Mahua oil cake 2.5 0.8 1.8
4 Kranj oil cake 3.9 0.9 1.2
5 Cotton oil cake 4.0 1.8 1.6
6 Safflower (Undecorated) 4.92 1.44 1.23

(Fertilizer) )
 Fertilizer are inorganic in origin and they supply one / more essential nutrient.
 Fertilizer control order :- 1957
 Highest resources of rock phosphate :- Rajasthan
 Which fertilizer consumed highest in india:- Urea (85%)
  Which phosphorus fertilizer use highest in india:- DAP
 Fertigation :-Application of fertilizer with irrigation water.
 Nitrogetion:- Application of anhydrous NH3 with irrigation water.
 First fertilizer produce in world :- SSP
 Neem coated urea policy started :- 25 May 2015
 Which nutrient absorbed as anion and cation form :-Nitrogen (NH4+ and NO3-)
 Phosphorus absorbance by plant highest at root development stage.
 Gromore :- Trade name of 20:20 grade urea and ammonium phosphate.
 Suphla :- Trade name of 20:20 grade nitrate phosphate.
 Bio-super :- It is a mixture (Rock phosphate + Element S + S oxidizing bacteria . It is
known a bio-fertilizer.
 Maximum consumption of N,P fertilizer in the state :- U.P.
 Deficiency of micronutrient in Indian soil :-
Zn(49%)>B(33%)>Fe(12%)> Mo(11%) > Mn(5%) > Cu(3%)
 Crop logging:-
 Crop logging given by H.F.Clement.
 Crop logging is used for nutrient determination in sugarcane in Hawai island.
 It is graphic record of the progress of the crop contain a series of chemical and
physical measurement (Composition of crop with respect to N,P,K , moisture and
sugar and weight of young sheath).
 Teast :- Soil which contain high amount of Mo.
 Functional / Metabolic nutrient term given by – Nicholas (1961).
 Concept of Ultra Micro nutrient given by Nicholas in 1963 .
 Ultra micro nutrient :- Mo, Co
 Application of urea for foliar spray :- 2 %
 Phosphorus fertilizer improved soil structure.

Nature of fertilizer :-
 Nitrate fertilizer :- basic
 Ammonium fertilizer :- Acidic
 Ammonium and nitrate fertilizer :- Acidic
Efficiency of nutrient :-
 N fertilizer:- Rice field = 30- 40 % and other crop = 40 50 %
 P fertilizer :- 20 and 25%
  K fertilizer :- 70 - 75 %
Conversion factor :-
 Organic matter :- organic carbon x 1.724
 1.724 :- Bemlen factor
 O.M. :- N x 20
 O.P.(Bar):- E.C. x 0.36
 P :- P2O5 x 0.43
 P2O5 :- P x 2.29
 K :- K2O x 0.82
 K2O :- K x 1.20
 Protein :- N x 6.25
Classification of Fertilizers :-
1. Straight :- Which fertilizer contain only one primary nutrient.
 E.g.:- Urea, NH4SO4
2. Binary:- Which fertilizer contain only two primary nutrient
 Eg. DAP, KNO3
3. Ternary:- Which fertilizer contain three primary nutrient.
Eg. Ammonium potassium phosphate
4. Compound/Complex
 Which fertilizer contain at least two primary nutrient.
 It is chemical mixture of straight fertilizer.
 Eg. DAP, Nitro- phosphate, Ammonium phosphate.

4. Mixed fertilizer :-
 It is physical mixture of two or more than two straight fertilizer.
 Mixture of K with nitro phosphate.
5. Complete:-
Which fertilizer contain all three primary nutrient.
7. Incomplete :-
 Which fertilizer contain any two primary nutrient.
8. Low analysis :-
 Which fertilizer contain amount of primary nutrient < 25%.
 Eg. :- SSP(16% P2O5),KNO3(16 % N)
 9. High analysis:-
 Which fertilizer contain amount of primary nutrient >25%.
Eg. :- Urea(46%), Anhydrous NH3 (82.2%), DAP (18%N,46% P2O5)
10. Fertilizer grade:-
 Minimum garneted amount of primary nutrient in a fertilizer.
 Eg.:- NPK : 19 grade (19 : 19 : 19)
11. Fertilizer ratio
 Ratio of NPK in a fertilizer.
 Eg If a fertilizer grade is 8:32:32 than fertilizer ratio is 1:4:4.
 Hygroscopic nature of fertilizers :- NH3NO3 > Urea > NH4SO4 > ASN > CAN

Acid equivalent:-

S.No. Fertilizer Acid equivalent

1 Anhydrous NH3 148
2 NH4Cl 128
3 NH4SO4 110
4 ASN 93
5 UREA 80 - 84
6 DAP 77
7 NH3NO3 60

Basic equivalent:-

S.No. Fertilizer Basic equivalent

1- CaCN 63
2- KNO3 29
3- NaNO3 29
4- Di Ca Po4 25
5- CaNO3 21

Nitrogenous fertilizers :-
I. Nitrate fertilizers :-
Basic residual nature, high mobile, leaching and denitrification loss high.
Good for Top dressing.
(A) KNO3 :-13 % N, 44 % K2O (Suitable for horticulture crop)
(B) CaNO3 :- 15.5 % N,19.5% Ca
(C) NaNO3- 16 % N, 29% Na (Chilean saltpetre) Good for acidic soil.
II. Ammonical fertilizer :-
Acidic residual nature, high soluble, Denitrification and Volatilization loss high.
Suitable for waterlogged soil.
(A) NH3NO3 - 33 – 35 % N (50 % NH4+ + 50 % NO3-)
(B) NH4Cl :- 26 % N
 By product of Soda ash
 Forming Solvay process.
(C) NH4SO4 :- 20.6 %N, 24.5 % S
By product of Coal distillation
(D) CAN :- 25 % N, 8.1 % Ca
 Known Kisan khad and Sona,Neutal in Nature.
 50 % NH4+ + 50 % NO3-
(E) Ammonium sulphate nitrate:- 26 % N, 15 % S
 75 % NH4+ + 25 % NO3-
 It is known Leuna saltpetre
III. Amide fetilizers :-
(i) Organic:-
Urea 46 % N,26.7% O2 (UBT Test), 20% C
 It is major and cheap source of N.
 It is major source of N fertilizer in India.
 NH2 – C - NH2
O
 IUPAC name :- Amino methenamid
 Biuret toxicity :- When concentration in foliar spray (>0.25%) and broad
casting(>1.5%).
 Urea formation:- 150oC
 Biuret formation :- 170 oC
 Calurea :- 34% N
(ii) Inorganic :-
 CaCN :- 21 % N
  Anhydrous NH3 - 82 % N
 Thiourea (NH2 – CS – NH2), 36.8 % N
 Oxamide:- 31 % N
Nitrification inhibitor :-
 It is ammonical fertilizer. It reduce nitrosomonas bacteria activity.
 Eg. Oxamide (31%N), Thiourea(36.8%), AM (Pyrimidine), N-serve (Nitropyrin),
Neem cake

Slow release nitrogen fertilizer :-

1. Synthesis compound :-
 Urea formaldehyde :- 38 - 42 % N,
 IBDU :- 32.2 % N
 CDU :- 32.5 % N
2.Coating barrier :- S, Neem coated urea
Urease inhibitors :- Agrotain, NBPT, ATS

Phosphorus fertilizer :-

I. Water soluble :-
 SSP – 16 % P2O5, 19 % Ca, 12 % S, 0.5 % Mg
 SSP formed by monocalcium phosphate and gypsum.
 DSP (Double Super Phosphate) – 32 % P2O5
 TSP – 46 – 48 % P2O5
 DAP (Complex) – 18 % N, 46 % P2O5
 Monoamonium phosphate (MAP) – 11 % N, 48 % P2O5
II. Citreate soluble :-
 Basic slage (CaSiO3) :- 14 – 18 % P2O5 ,14-20 %Ca
It is by product of steel industry.
 Rehenia phosphate – 23-26 % P2O5
 Di calcium phosphate :- 33 – 40 % P2O5

III. Water and citrate insoluble :-

 Bone meal
a) Raw bone meal :- 3 – 4 % N, 20 – 25 % P2O5
 b) Steam bone meal :- 1 - 2 % N, 20 – 30 % P2O5
 Rock phosphate– 20 – 30 % P2O5 (Suitable for acidic soil)

Potash fertilizers :-
1. Chloride contain fertilizer :-
 Muriate of potash (KCl) :– 58 - 60 % K2O
 It is not used in sugarcane, tobacco, sugar beet and other solaneace crop. In this crop
used K2SO4 or KNO3 instead KCl.
 It is most common and cheap K fertilizer.
 It is suitable for acidic and heavy soil but not suitable in alkaline soil.
2. Cl less K fertilizer :-
Sulphate of potash (K2SO4) :– 48 – 52 % K2O, 17.6 % S
 Potasium nitrate(KNO3): – 13 % N, 44 % K2O
 Suitable for horticulture crop.
 Potasium carbonate :- 65 % K2O
Potasium sonite :- 22 - 24 % K2O, 9 – 11 % MgO

Secondary fertilizer :-
 Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) – 29.2 % Ca, 18.6 % S
 CuSO4 – 11.4 % S, 21 % Cu
 FeSO4 - 18.8 % S, 19 % Fe
 ZnSO4 – 17.8 % S, 33 % Zn
 Pyrites(FeS2) – 22 – 24 % S
 Borax - 10.6 % B
 MnSO4:- 30 % Mn
 Amonium molibdete 54 % Mo

Fertilizer application methods :-

1. Top dressing :-
Application of fertilizer in standing crop. Eg.:- Urea
2. Basal dose :-
 Application of fertilizer before sowing or as the time sowing of crop.
 Eg.:- SSP, DAP, MOP
3. Fertigation :-
  Application of fertilizer with irrigation water.
 Eg.:- Anhydrous NH3,
4. Foliar spray :- Spray of fertilizer solution on crop leaf.
Mostly micronutrient are used for foliar spray. Concentration of micronutrient should
be 0.5%.
 Activity ratio of potassium:-
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐾+
Ark:- √𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎+𝑀𝑔

 It represent intensity of labile K+ in the soil that immediately available to crop.

NPK Ratios :

 Cereal :- 4:2:1
 Oilseed :- 3:2:1
 Tuber :- 2:1:2
 Fodder & Fibre Crop :- 2:1:4
 Pulses :- 1 : 2 : 1 or 1 : 2 : 2
 Oxylophytes :- Plants growing on acid soil. Eg: Pinaceae.
 Haliophyte :-Light loving plant
 Baophyte :- Base loving plant
 Halophytes :- Saline loving plant
 Psammophytes :- Sandy soils loving plant
 Lithophytes :- Growing on rocks. Eg. Lichens, Selaginella.
 Chasmophytes :- Growing on rock crevices. Eg: Equisetum.
 Sciophytes :-Shade loving plant Eg.- Cineraria, Salvia.
 Epiphytes :- Epiphytes are small herbaceous plants that grow on higher plant.
 In Epiphytes aerial roots are covered with greenish white tissue called Valaman.
 Mangrove plants exhibit vivipary, vast net work of roots, negatively geotropic
Pneumatophores a specialized organs for respiration.

Remote Sensing

 Remote sensing term introduce in USA in 1950 by US office of Navel research.

 Parker (1962) defined Remote Sensing is collection of data about an object without
contact it.
 Device used for Remote Sensing in soil and soil survey detect EMR.
1. Active Remote sensing :-
 When sensing device detect EMR originating from an object and detect the amount of the
energy which is reflected back.
o Eg.- RADAR,SONAR and LIDAR
2. Passive Remote sensing:-
 When sensing device detect EMR originating from another source primary Sun.
 Eg- Photography in presence of sun light.
 Indian Institute of Remote Sensing :- Dehradun (Uttarakhand).
 Data are recorded either photographically or in digital form.
 Mostly use digital form.

𝐹𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
 Photoscale = 𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

 Finger print zone :- 7-11 𝝁m

 Optical region :-0.3 -15 𝝁m

EM spectrum :-

S.NO. EMR Range

1 Gama Rays <0.003nm
2 X-Rays 0.003-0.3 nm
3 UV Rays 0.03-0.4 𝜇𝑚
4 Photographic 0.3-3 𝜇𝑚
5 Visual 0.4- 0.7 𝜇𝑚
6 Reflected IR 0.7- 3 𝜇𝑚
7 Thermal IR 3-5 𝜇𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8-14 𝜇𝑚
8 Microwave 0.1-30 cm
9 Radar >30 cm
10 Radio >30 cm
 In aerial photography contain 50-65% overlapping which is essential for stereoscopic
viewing.
 Cadastral Map:-
 It show field boundaries and field .
 It prepared by renew officer.
 Scale :-1:40000 – 1:8000
 Topographic Map :-
 It used mostly for base map.
 Scale :- 1:25000/1:50000 – 1:250000

 In photography
 Vegetation showed by :- Red colour
 Water body :- Sky colour
 Deep water :- Blue
 Snow and Cloud :- White

Soil Survey
 Definition :-Study of soil morphology in the field and diagnostic soil properties in the
laboratory, classification of soil of the area in well-defined units, plotting and
predation of the adaptability of these soil to various use.
Type of soil survey :-
1. Detailed soil survey :-

Sample taken 2 pedon /2ha in 250 -500 m2
 Soil are examined detailed and close interval in an area to detect .
 Cadastral map (scale 1:4000 - 1:8000) or Aerial photography (1:15000)
are generally used for base material for preparing soil .
 The mapping unit in a detailed soil map show soil series, type and phase.
 It are laborious, time consuming and much expansive.
2. Reconnaissance soil survey:-
 It is used for examined large area like watershed. It suitable for intensive
and modern agriculture.
 The scale of mapping is 1:50000 using topographic map of the survey of
India as a base material. Sample taken in 1 to 5 km.
  It give information for detailed soil survey and broad land use planning
and agriculture development.
 The mapping unit in a Reconnaissance soil map show soil series, family
and Great soil group.
3. Detailed- Reconnaissance soil survey :-
 It show basic soil class of series and their phase.
4. Semi- detailed soil survey :-
 It is used for reclamation of problematic and degraded soil and adequate
information of soil.
 The mapping unit is soil series and family.
 Soil are examined high detail.
Soil survey technique :-
S.N. Technique Characters
1 General purpose soil survey Low intensity boundary (Soil and land
resource are large)

2 General purpose free survey Medium intensity

3 Special purpose grid survey High intensity, soil properties are
recorded on a grid pattern. Eg.- Recent
alluvium sediment. It is used by ICAR.

 Sequence of survey operation :-

Initial Reconnaissance Main survey Sampling Consolidation  Reporting

Soil colloid

 Colloidal particle are generally small than < 1𝜇m in diameter. But clay faction of soil
is less than 2 𝜇m.Clay particle have colloidal properties.
 Colloidal solution :- Size of particle is 1 𝜇 to 1 𝑚𝜇.
 True solution :- Size of particle is < 1 𝑚𝜇.
 Micelles (Micro cells):- The minute silicate clay colloid particle carrying negative
charge.
 Clay is not amorphous but crystalline and made up of irregular hexagonal plates.
Humus is amorphous.
 Many cations are attracted to micelles and formed ionic double layer, also called
Holmontz double layer.
 A large no. water molecules are carried by the adsorbed cations most of them
hydrated is called Stern layer.
 Silicate clay hold numerous water molecules as well as cations packed b/w the plates
that make up the micelle is called Gunny layer.
 Order of strength of adsorption or ability to flocculate soil colloids in decreasing
order :- Al+3 > Ca+2 > H+ > Mg+2 > K+ >Na+
 Allophane :- Ammorphus silicate mineral, poorly defined aluminium silicate
(Al2O3.2SiO2.H2O),most predominant in soils developed volcanic ash. It have high
CEC.
 The most important silicate clay is known is known as phyllosilicate clay, it have leaf-
like or platelike structure.
 Si – dominant sheet is called Tetra hedral and Al or Mg sheet is called Octohedral.
 Si+4 is surrounded by four oxygen ions and Al or Mg by six oxygen or hydroxyl ion.
 Al- dominant sheet is called Di- octahedral sheet while Mg- dominated sheet is called
Trioctohedral.
 Classification of silicate clay :-
1. 1:1 type minerals (One tetrahedral and One octahedral)
2. 2:1 type minerals (Two tetrahedral and One octahedral)
3. 2:1:1 type minerals (Two tetrahedral and One sheet Al+3 and one sheet Mg+2
octahedral).

 1:1 type minerals:-

 The two sheet are held together by oxygen anions mutually shared by Si+4 and
Al+3 in their respective sheet.
 These units are in turn held together by H-bonding.
 Eg.-Kaolinite,Halloysite,Anorkite,Dickite.
 2:1 type minerals :-
Octohedral sheet (Al+3) is sandwiched b/w two tetrahedral (Si+4) sheet.
Expanding mineral :-
 Eg.:- Smecite group (Include montmorillonite, Nontrite,Saponite, Beidellite) and
Vermiculite group.

Smecite groups :-
Montmorillonite is prominent in soil among these.
 These layers are loosely held together by very week oxygen to oxygen
linkage.
 Mg replace Al+3 in some sites of alumina sheet and Al+3 replace Si+4 in some
site of silica sheet.
 Bedilite :- Substitution Of Al+3 for Si+4 in silica sheet.
 Nontronite :- Fe+2 dominants the alumina sheet.

Vermiculite:- It is limited expansion clay mineral, substitution of Al+3 for Si+4 account for
very high negative charges.

Non Expanding mineral :-

Eg.:- Illite, Mica (found in silty and sandy soil).

In illite 20% Si+4 of silica sheet is replaced by Al+3 .K+ are strongly attracted in the interlayer
space. Thus K acts as binding agent preventing expansion.

2:1:1 Type mineral :- Eg.- Chlorite

Chlorite have an extra layer of Mg dominated [Brucite{Mg(OH)6}] alumina sheet.

Chlorite are basically silicates of Mg with some Fe+2 and Al+3).It is not expanding type.

S.N. Charcters Kaolinite Illite Montmorillnite Vermiculite Humus

1 Size (𝜇) 0.1- 5 0.1- 2 0.01-1 - -
2 Type of clay 1:1 2:1 2:1 2:1 -
3 Expanding No No Expanding Semi -
4 External Very low Low Medium High -
surface
5 Internal No Low High Low than -
surface mont. clay
6 Total surface 37-45 120-170 580-750 780-900 1200
area (m2/gm)
7 CEC(cmol/kg) 3-15 15-40 80-150 100-150 >200
8 P fixation Low Low Highest Medium -

Source of Negative charge on silicate clay:-

A. Isomorphic Substitution or Permanent charge :-

 It is also known pH not depended charge.
 It occur on 2:1 Type clay.
B. Exposed crystal Edges:-
 It is pH depended charge.
 It is developed due to ionisation of hydroxyl group, carboxyl and phenolic groups.
 It found on 1:1 type clay and Humus
 GENERAL AGRONOMY
Atmosphere
1600 km

4. Thermosphere (80 - 1600 km)

200 km Ionopause
Ionosphere
80 km Mesopause
3. Mesosphere (50 - 80 km)
50 km Stratopause
2. Stratosphere (18 - 50 km)
25 km
Ozone Layer (18 - 25 km)
18 km Tropopause
1. Troposphere (8 - 18 km)
8 km
0 km
 Temperature = Pressure
 Pressure = Temperature
1. Troposphere :- 8 – 18 km
 Heaviest layer of atmosphere (> 75 % of atmosphere’s mass)
 Lower layer of atmosphere.
 Temperature decrease with increase in altitude @ 6 0C/km.
 All weather phenomena like clouds, rain, mist, fog, dew etc. occur in troposphere.
2. Stratosphere :- 18 – 50 km
 Warmest layer
 It is actual seat of most of the photochemical reaction in air.
 Presence of ozone layer (18 – 25 km), hence called Ozonosphere.
 Ozone depletion by CFC
 1 mol. CFC destroy :- 1 lakh mol. of Ozone
 Aero plane fly in stratosphere.
3. Mesosphere :- 50 – 80 km
 Coldest region, strong decrease in temperature with increase in altitude.
4. Thermosphere :- 80 – 1600 km
 It is outer most layer, so also known as “Exosphere”.
 The lower layer of thermosphere is called “Ionosphere”.
 Long distance radio communication is possible through ionosphere.
 In Ionosphere :- F1 + F2 layer called as “Appleton layer”.
 Temperature increase with altitude.
S. Composition of Atmosphere
Name of Gas Composition of Soil
No. Volume basis Weight basis
1. Nitrogen 78.08 % 75.5 % 79.2 %
2. Oxygen 20.95 % 23.14 % 20.6 %
3. Argan 0.93 % 1.232 % 0.90
0.25 – 0.30 %
0.03 %
4. Carbon dioxide 1.0 % (8 – 10 % more than
(300 ppm conc.)
atmospheric CO2)

Weather & Climate) )

 IMD :- Indian Meteorology Department, Pune (1875)
 WMO :- World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (1951)
 ISRO :- Indian Space Research Organization, Bengaluru, Karnataka
Weather :-
 State or condition of atmosphere at a given place and at a given time, eg. a day, a week, a
month etc.
 It is daily variations or conditions of lower layers of the atmosphere.
 Meteorology (greek word):- study of weather
Climate :-
 Summation of weather conditions over a given region during a comparatively longer
period (according to WMO, 31 years).
 Climatology :- study of climate.
Classification of Climate :-
A. According to De Candolle (1900 AD) :- classify on the basis of vegetation.
B. According to Koppen (1936) :-
 Classify on the basis of weather elements, divided into 5 groups.
C. According to Troll (1965) :- explain vegetation zones of tropical Africa and S. America.
 Suitable for agricultural purpose.
 ICRISAT, Hyderabad adopted this classification.
D. Thornthwaite :- based on PE (Precipitation of effectiveness) index.
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑃)
 PE index :- 𝑥 100
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐸)

E. Moisture Deficit Index (MDI):-

 AICRP on dry land adopted this classification.
𝑃 − 𝑃𝐸𝑇
 MDI :- 𝑥 100
𝑃𝐸𝑇

 Where, P :- Precipitation, PET :- Potential evapotranspiration

 Sub Humid :- 0 to 33.3 (MDI)
 Semi - Arid :- - 33.3 to – 66.6 (MDI)
 Arid :- > - 66.6
Elements of Weather :-
1. Solar Radiation :-
 Solar radiation reach on earth surface take 8 minute 20 sec.
 Maximum solar radiation at 12 PM.
 Solar constant :- 1.94 cal/cm2/min or 1353 watts/m2 (in SI unit).
 Pyrheliometer :- measure the amount of direct solar radiation.
 Pyranometer :- measure total incoming solar radiation.
 The ratio of incoming and outgoing solar radiations is known as “Albedo”, it is measured
by Albedo meter.
 Albedo of earth surface :- 35 - 40 %
 Albedo of copped area :- 23 - 30 %
2. Temperature :-
 Measure by thermometer.
  Two type of thermometer :- (i) Minimum thermometer (alcohol), (ii) Maximum
thermometer (mercury).
 Maximum temperature at 2 PM and Minimum temperature at 4 AM.
 Bio chemical reactions will be double due to increase in every 10 0C temperature.
 In most of plants, the photosynthesis rate high at 30 - 35 0C.
 More than 45 0C temperature, the respiration rate decrease.
 0
F - 32/9 = 0C/5 K = C + 2730
Kharif Crops Rabi Crops Optimum temp. for other crop
Tobacco :- 16 - 17 0C
1. For germination:- 30 - 350C 1. For germination :- 20 -25 0C
(for nicotine)
2. For growth :- 25 - 30 0C 2. For growth :- 15 - 20 0C Potato :- 18 0C (for tuber)
Tomato :- 21 - 24 0C
3. For ripening :- 20 - 25 0C 3. For ripening:- 20 - 25 0C
(for lycopene)

3. Wind :-
 Anemometer :- used to measure wind speed.
 Wind vane :- instrument for showing the direction of the wind.
 Windward :- direction of wind comes
 Leeward :- direction of wind goes
 Winds of high speed are called Squalls.
4. Humidity :-
i. Relative Humidity :-
 Ratio between the amount of water vapour present in the air and the amount of water
vapour required for saturation at a particular temperature and pressure.
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟
 Relative humidity (%) :- 𝑥 100
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ii. Absoulte Humidity :- unit is g/m3

 Absolute or actual quantity of water vapour by weight present in a given volume of air.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
 Absolute humidity (g/m3) :- 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟

iii. Specific Humidity :- unit is g/kg

 Weight of water vapour per unit weight of air.
 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
 Specific humidity (g/kg) :- 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟

5. Rain/Precipitation :-
 Droplet size of rain :- > 0.5 mm to 6 mm
 Drizzle :- < 0.5 mm droplet size.
 Rime is a freezing fog.
 Sleet :- solid precipitation in the form of small particles of clear ice.
 Hail :- similar to sleet, but it is larger in size.
 Mist :- evaporate before reach on earth.
 Rain gauge :- measurement of rain.
 Nimbo-stratus is common associates of steady precipitation, whether rain or snow.
 Rainy Day :- > 2.5 mm rains during 24 hours
 Average rainy day in country :- 130 days/year
 Total rainfall generated volume in India is : 400 mha-m
6. Atmospheric Pressure:
 It is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time.
 It is measured by Aneroid Barometer. It is measured as force per unit area.
 The units used by meteorologists for this purpose are called millibars (mb).
 One millibars force of one gram on a sq. cm.
 A pressure 1000 mb = weight of 1.053 kg. Sq. cm.
 Normal pressure at sea level is 76 cm (1013.25 mb).
 On the earth’s surface there are seven pressure belts. They are equatorial low (the
doldrums) the sub-tropical high (horse latitudes), the sub-polar low and the polar high.
Except the equatorial low, all others have matching pairs in the Northern and the
Southern Hemisphere.

Water Budget of India :-

 In India, total generated rainfall volume :- 400 mha-m.
 400 m ha meter

Infiltration Runoff Immediate Evaporation

(215 m ha m) (115 m ha m) (70 m ha m)

Soil Moisture Ground Water From Rainfall From Snowfall

(165 m ha m) (50 m ha m) (105 m ha m) (10 m ha m)

Monsoon :-
 The word monsoon is derived from Arabic word “mousin” which means season.
1. South West Mansoon :-
 South – West monsoon period is called grand period of rainfall in India.
 This monsoon reach South India (Kerala) around first of June every year.
 Two branches of south west monsoon :-
(i) Arabian Sea Branch :- 770 mm, 80 % of SW monsoon
 Moves northward
(ii) Bay of Bengal Branch :- 340 mm, 20 % of SW monsoon
 Moves up to Assam
 Both these branches occasionally clash near Delhi.
2. North East Monsoon:-
 Onset at 15 Oct. to Mid Dec.
 Southern states (AP & TN)
 TN gets highest rainfall than AP
 Retreating Monsoon
 15 % of total rainfall in India
Average Rainfall :-
 In World :- 1,000 mm
 In India :- 1194 mm
 In Rajasthan :- 575 mm,
 Highest rainfall in India at Mawsynram, Meghalaya.
Artificial Rain :-
1. Silver Iodide (AgI) :- Cold Cloud
2. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) :- Hot Cloud
Winter Rain :- Due to western depression
Stevenson Screen :-
1. Minimum thermometer :- Alcohol
2. Maximum thermometer :- Mercury
Important terms :-
 Isobar :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure.
 Isotherm :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal temperature.
 Isohyets :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal amount of rainfall.
 Isopluvial :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal depth of rainfall.
 Isotech :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal wind velocities.
 Isohels :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal sunshine hours.
 Isohaline :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal salinity.
 Isostere :- imaginary lines connecting points of equal moisture contents.
 Isophene :- imaginary lines connecting points of similar seasonal phenomenon.
 Contour :- lines joining equal elevations.
Frost Management :-
 1. By smoke, 2. By irrigation, 3. H2SO4 @ 0.1 %]
 4. Cycocel @ 0.03 %, 5. DMSO (Di-methyl sulfo oxide) @ 0.05 %
Lapse Rate :- vertical decrease in temperature at 6.5 0C/km
Adiabatic Lapse Rate :-
 The rate at which the temperature changes as air rises or falls.
 Dry adiabatic lapse rate is 10 0C/km.
Cyclone :-
 A cyclone is a roughly circular low pressure area whose diameter may be from hundred
to a thousand miles.
 Atmospheric pressure is lowest in the center of this region and increase rapidly outward.
 Eg. Tornado (USA), Typhons (China, Japan), Herrikens (USA)
PAR :- Photo synthetic active radiation
  Photosynthesis in green leaves use solar energy in wavelengths from 0.4 to 0.7 nm.
Weather Forecasting :- Types :-
1. Short Range Weather Forecasting :-
 < 3 days or up to 72 hrs
 Generally for 24 hours
 70 - 80 % chances of correctness
 Twice a day and valid for 36 hrs
 Synoptic model used for short range weather forecasting.
2. Medium Range Weather Forecasting :-
 3 - 10 days
 Generally used in agriculture.
 NC-MRWF :- National Center for Medium Range Weather Forecasting, New Delhi
3. Long Range Weather Forecasting :- for more than 10 days.
Agro-climatic Regional Planning :-
 Initiated in 1988 by Planning Commission under 7th Five Year Plan
 Planning Commission headed by PM
 Now, NITI Aayog (1 Jan 2015)
Agro-climatic Zones :-
 India :- 15 agro-climatic zones according to planning commission
 India :- 131 agro-climatic zones according to NARP/ICAR
 Rajasthan :- 10 agro-climatic zones
Agro-ecological Region :- India
 According to NBSS & LUP :- 21
 According to ICAR :- 8
Agroclimatic Zones of India :-
Zone Name of Zone State/Area Important Points
i Western Himalayan Zone Jammu & Kashmir, H.P., Silty loam soils.
U.P. Lands of region have steep
slopes in undulating terrain.
ii Eastern Himalayan Zone Sikkim, Darjeeling Hills of Shifting cultivation is practiced
Arunachal Pradesh, in 1/3 of cultivated area.
 Meghalaya, Nagaland,
Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram,
Assam & Jalpaiguri
iii. Lower Gangetic Palins West – lower Gangetic Soils are mostly alluvial and are
plains prone to floods.
iv Middle Gangetic Plains 12 districts of UP, 27 Cropping intensity of this zone
districts of Bihar is 142 %.
v Upper Gangetic Plains 32 districts of UP A good potential for
exploitation of ground water
exists.
vi Trans – Gangetic Plains Punjab, Haryana, Union Highest net sown area.
Territories of Delhi, Highest irrigated area.
Chandigarh, Sriganganagar High cropping intensity.
district of Rajasthan High ground water utilization.
vii Eastern Plateau & Hills Eastern part of MP, Topography is undulating.
Southern part of WB, most Irrigation is through tanks and
of Inland Orissa. tube-wells.
viii Central Plateau & Hills 46 districts of MP, Semi - arid dry to sub - humid
Chatisgarh, UP, Rajasthan climate.
ix Western Plateau & Hills Major parts of MH, parts of Average rainfall is 904 mm.
MP, one district of
Rajasthan
x Southern Plateau & Hills 35 districts of Andhra Semi – arid zones.
Pradesh, Karnataka, TN
xi East Coast Plains & Hills East coast of TN, Andhra Soils are mainly alluvial and
Pradesh and Orissa. coastal sands.
Irrigation is through canals and
tanks.
xii West Coast Plains & West coast of TN, Kerala, Variety of crop patterns, rainfall
Ghats Karnataka, Maharashtra and and soil types.
Goa
xiii Gujarat Plains & Hills 19 districts of Gujarat Arid zone.
Irrigation through wells & tube-
wells
xiv Western Dry Zone 9 districts of Rajasthan Hot sandy desert, erratic rainfall
Famine & drought common
features.
xv Islands Zone Island territories of Largely forest zone with
Andaman & Nicobar and undulated lands.
Lakshadeep

Dryland Agriculture
 Cultivation of crops entirely under rainfed condition.
 Types of dryland agriculture :-
1. Dry Farming :- annual rainfall < 750 mm, crop failure due to prolonged dry spells.
 Practiced in arid regions. Alternate land use system is suggested.
2. Dryland Farming :- annual rainfall 750 – 1150 mm. Practiced in semi – arid regions.
 Drainage facility required especially in black soils.
3. Rainfed Farming :- annual rainfall > 1150 mm. less chances of crop failure.
 This farming is practiced in humid regions.
Difference between Dryland and Rainfed Farming :-
S. No. Particulars Dryland Farming Rainfed Farming
1. Rainfall 750 – 1150 mm > 1150 mm
2. Cropping period < 200 days > 200 days
3. Area of cultivation Arid and Semi-arid Humid and Sub-humid
4. Cropping system Single crop or Intercropping or double
intercropping cropping
5. Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion

Principles of dry farming :-

A. Moisture conservation principles :-
 Increase water holding capacity of soil.
  Use of mulching
 Use of anti-transpirants :-
1. Stomata closing type :- Phenyl Mercuric Acetate (PMA), Atrazine, ABA, CO2
2. Film forming type :- Mobileaf, Waxes, Oils, Silicone, Hexadecanol
3. Reflecting type :- Kaolin (5 %), Celite (a diatomaceous earth product)
4. Growth retardants :- Cycocel (ccc)
B. Crop Management Principles :-
 Selection of crop :- Sorghum, Bajra, Castor, Guar, Til, Sarson etc.
 Use of high seed rate (10 – 15 %)
 Selection of drought resistant varieties.
S. No. Crop Varieties best for dry farming
1. Pearl Millet WCC – 75, RHB – 90
2. Sorghum CSH – 6, CSH – 14, SPV – 96, CSV - 17
3. Sesamum RT – 127, RT – 46, TC – 25
4. Groundnut GG – 2, JL – 24
5. Soybean NRC – 37
6. Mustard Aravali, Pusa Bold, Durgamani, R.H. – 30
7. Gram Dahod Yellow, C – 235
8. Wheat Mukta
9. Barley RD – 31
10. Guar Durgapura Safed, Durgapura Jay, RGC – 936
11. Green gram K - 851, RMG – 62, Pusa Baisakhi
12. Moth bean RMO – 40, Jadia, Jwala
13. Pigeon pea Prabhat
14. Black gram T – 9, Barkha
15. Cowpea FS – 68, C – 152

Irrigation
 95 % part of protoplasm of plant made by water.
 Water plays an important role in all metabolic activities of plant.
 Life saving irrigation :- Kharif crops
  Supplementary irrigation :- Rabi crops
 Duty of water :- a form of expression for the quantity of water required for
irrigation to bring a crop to maturity.
8.64 𝑥 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
 Duty of Water :- 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 (∆)

 Base :- Period of irrigation which crop requires for full maturity.

 Delta :- total depth of water required by a crop during the entire period of the
crop.
Water requirement of crop :-
S. No. Name of crop Water requirement (mm)
1. Rapeseed 250 – 300
2. Pulses 300 – 500
3. Cabbage 300 – 500
4. Pea & Onion 350 – 500
5. Tobacco 400 – 600
6. Wheat & Sorghum 450 – 650
7. Soybean 450 – 750
8. Groundnut & Potato 500 – 700
9. Maize 500 – 800
10. Sugar beet 550 – 750
11. Tomato 600 – 800
12. Cotton 700 – 1300
13. Rice 900 – 2500
14. Citrus 900 - 1200
15. Banana 1200 – 2200
16. Sugarcane 1500 – 2500
Methods of Irrigation Scheduling :-
1. Transpiration ratio approach :-
 Amount of water transpired by a crop to produce unit amount of dry matter.
 This is also known as absolute approach.
2. Soil moisture deficit approach :-
 For maize and wheat :- 25 % depletion of available soil moisture.
 For drought resistant crops :- 50 % depletion of available soil moisture.
3. Climatological approach or IW/CPE Ratio :-
 Known as soil moisture index approach.
 IW/CPE ratio serve as soil moisture stress index.
 Lower the IW/CPE ratio will be more stress.
 It is scientific approach but not practically important.
4. Critical Stage of Crops:-
 The state of growth when plants are most sensitive to shortage of water.
S.No. Name of Crop Critical stage for water IW/CPE Ratio
1. Rice Panicle formation, flowering time 1.2 (highest)
2. Wheat CRI, Tillering, Jointing, Flowering, Milking, Dough 0.9
3. Maize Tasseling and Silking 0.9
4. Cotton Flowering and boll formation stage 0.7
5. Groundnut Flowering, pegging, grain formation stage 0.6
6. Safflower Flowering stage 0.4 (lowest)

Methods of Irrigation :-
A. Surface method :- mostly used in India.
1. Check Basin :- mostly used.
 Mostly used for close space crop like Wheat, Rice etc.
 Slope :- 2 – 3 %
2. Ring Basin :- mostly used in fruit crops.
3. Border Method :- slope : 0.5 – 1.0 %
4. Furrow Method :-
 In this method, only 1/2 to 1/5 part of soil is wetted.
 Mostly used in sugarcane, tuber crops.
 Highest efficiency among surface method.
 Corrugation :- small and shallow furrows are known as corrugations.
5. Flood Method :- easiest method.
  Mostly used in wet land Rice.
6. Surge Method :- on – off mode of irrigation.
7. Cablegation / automatic method :- form of gated – pipe system.
 The plug is allowed to move down slops through the pipe at a controlled rate.
B. Sub Surface :-
 In India, used in coconut orchard in Kerala.
 For vegetable cultivation in Gujarat & Kashmir.
 Costly method of irrigation and used in foreign countries.
C. Sprinkler Method :-
 Used in undulating field condition. Suitable for sandy soils.
 Suitable for saline soils to leach salts.
 Water flow rate :- 1000 litre/hour
 Pressure :- 2.5 – 4 kg/cm2
D. Drip /Micro/ Trickle irrigation Method :-
 Discovered in Israel.
 Herbigation :- Herbicide + Irrigation
 Fertigation :- Fertilizer + Irrigation
 Pressure :- 1 – 2 kg/cm2
 Water discharge :- 4 litre/hour
Drip Method Sprinkler Method
Water save 50 – 60 % 40 – 50 %
Water use efficiency 90 – 95 % 50 – 60 %

E. Tayphoon :- modified drip system. Used in sugarcane crop.

Water Use Efficiency :-
1. Crop :- WUE (crop) :- Y/ET
 Where, Y :- Yield, ET :- Evapotranspiration
2. Field :- WUE (field) :- Y/WR
 Where, Y :- Yield, WR :- Water Requirement
S. No. Name of crop Water use efficiency (kg/ha mm)
1. Finger millet 13.4 (highest)
2. Wheat 12.6
3. Groundnut 9.2
4. Sorghum 9.0
5. Bajra & Maize 8.0
6. Rice 3.7 (lowest)

Methods of Measurement of Irrigation Water:-

1. Orifices :-
 Measure water in small streams like flow into border stripes furrow/ check basin.
2. Weirs :-
 Measure the flow in an irrigation channel.
 Discharge through weir :- Q = CLHm
 Discharged relationship for suppressed weirs :- 0.0184 LH3/2

900 V – notch Weir :- excellent for measuring small flows. Q = 0.0138 H25
3. Parshall flume/ Venture flume :-
 Combination of orifice and weir.
 Used even in relatively shallow channels like irrigation furrows with flat grades.
Measurement of irrigation water :-
 1 Cusec :- 28.3 litres
 1 Cumec :- 1000 litres or 103
 1 ha mm :- 10, 000 litres or 104
 1 ha cm :- 1,00,000 litres or 105
 1 ha m :- 100, 000, 00 litres or 107

Measures of Water height :-

 1 Atm. :- 1036 cm of water
 1 Bar :- 1023 cm of water
Conservation units :-
 1 ha :- 10,000 m2
  1 ha :- 5 Bigha
 1 Bigha :- 2,000 m2 (0.2 ha)
 1 ha :- 2.47 acre
 1 Acre :- 0.405 ha
Classification of Watershed :-
1. Mini watershed :- 10 - 100 ha
2. Micro watershed :- 100 - 1000 ha
3. Mili watershed :- 1000 - 10,000 ha
4. Sub-micro watershed :- 10,000 - 50,000 ha
5. Macro watershed :- > 50,000 ha
Drainage
 Removal of excess water form field is known as drainage.
A. Surface Drainage :- simplest method.
 Most common method of drainage, used in India.
 Bedding system :- small furrows are formed at known intervals parallel to the slope for
drainage.
 Parallel field ditch :- similar to bedding system. Effective and suited for both irrigated
and rainfed.
 Parallel open field ditch :- deeper in depth and steeper side slopes than parallel field
ditch.
 BBF :- Broad Bed and Furrow system, used in groundnut and maize.
B. Sub – Surface Drainage :-
 Mole drainage :- it is egg shaped, made by Mole plough in clay soil.
 Tile drains including perforated pipes. Arrangement of tiles are natural or random,
herring bone type (no submain), gridiron type (one side arrangement) and cut off or
interceptor.
 Vertical drainage :- drainage by wells.
 Deep open drains are made in which water is collected by seepage, which drain out form
the field.
 Combinations of tiles and open drains.
 Buried drainage also made, drains filled with tiles, fibres or plastics.
 Seed
 Seed is a fertilized ovule (ripened ovule) consisting of intact embryo, stored food and
seed coat which is viable.
 Any plant part used for sowing is known as seed.
 ISTA :- International Seed Testing Association, Geneva, Switzerland (1924)
 India becomes member of ISTA in 1961.
 National Seed Corporation, New Delhi (7 Nov. 1963)
 Seed Act :- passed on 29 October 1966 and enforced on 2 October 1969.
 Seed Rule formed in 1968.
 National seed project :- 1976
 The seed control order :- 1983
 Farmer’s Right Act :- 2001
 PPV & FR :- Protection of plant variety and farmer’s right act :- 2001
 Patent Act :- 2002
 The seed bill :- 2004
Classes of Seed :-
1. Nucleolus Seed :-
 Seeds are produced by plant breeder.
 100 % genetic purity.
2. Breeder Seed :-
 Produced form nucleus seed by plant breeder.
 100 % genetic purity.
 Golden yellow tag.
3. Foundation Seed :-
 Produced from breeder seed by NSC or SSC.
 Also known as mother seed.
 99.5 % genetic purity and 98 % physical purity.
 White colour tag denotes foundation seed.
4. Registered Seed :-
 Produced form foundation seeds.
 Purple colour tag denotes registered seed.
  This class of seeds not produced in India.
5. Certified Seed :-
 Produced form registered/foundation seeds at farmers’ field in the supervision of NSC or
SSC.
 Genetic purity :- 99.1 %
 Blue colour tag denotes certified seed.
 This seed is available for general distribution to farmers for commercial crop production.
Characteristics of Improved Seed:-
1. Genetic Purity :- it is permitted upto 0.1 % only.
2. Physical Purity :- physical impurities is known as dockage.
3. High seed vigour
4. High germination per cent :-
S. No. Name of Crop Germination %
1. Maize 90 % (highest)
2. Wheat, Barley, Gram 85 %
3. Rice, Sorghum, Sesamum, Berseem, Lucern 80 %
4. Bajra, Moong, Urd, Moth bean, Arhar, Cowpea 75 %
5. Groundnut, Soybean, Sunflower, Cluster bean 70 %
6. Cotton, Okra 65 %

5. Moisture content :- seeds should be store at 8- 10 per cent moisture content.

 Below 8 per cent moisture content no storage pest damage the seeds except Khapra
Beetle, Trogoderma grenarium damage the seed below 8 per cent moisture content.
6. Real value of seed :-
Germination % x Purity %
 Real Value :- 100

 Real value of seed should be more than 75 %.

 Seeds having a real value below 70 % are usually not preferred for sowing purposes
because of poor germination and purity values.
 Real value is also known as “utility percentage of seed”.
Isolation Distance :-
  The distance between two varieties of same crop for maintaining genetic and physical
purity of hybrid seed, is known as isolation distance.
S. Foundation Certified
Name of Crop
No. seed (m) seed (m)
1. Wheat, Barley, Rice, Oat, Groundnut, Soybean 3 3
2. Potato 5 5
3. Greengram, Blackgram, Khesari, Gram, Field Pea 20 10
4. Guar, Frenchbean, Cowpea, Linseed, Tomato 50 25
5. Hybrid Cotton 50 30
6. Sorghum, Arhar, Brinjal 200 100
7. Rapeseed & Mustard, Safflower, Sunflower 400 200
8. Maize, Okra, Chilli, Chrysanthemum, Marigold 400 200
9. Bajra 1000 200
10. Cucurbits 1000 600
11. Onion, Carrot 1000 800
12. Cabbage, Cauliflower, Radish, Turnip, Sugarbeet 1600 1000

Seed Index :- weight of 100 seeds. In case of bold seeds like maize.
Test Weight :- weight of 1000 seeds. In case of small seeds like wheat.
Seed Viability Test :-
1. Potassium Permagnate Method (KMnO4):-
 Qualitative test to find out whether seeds are viable.
 Increase in the proportion of dead seed, increase the discolouration of the solution.
2. Indigocarmine method:-
 Portion of dead seeds is determined by counting the number of stained.
3. Tetrazolium Chloride Test :-
 It is also known as biological test.
 Seeds soaked in 0.5 – 2.0 % solution of 2, 3, 5 Triphenyl Tetrazolium Chloride.
 The viable or living seeds take bright colour and the colour becomes more intense in
the embryo.
4. Grodex Test :-
  It is a seed germination indicator and is a brand name of Triphenyl Tetrazolium Bromide
in powder form.
Grow out test :- for genetic purity.
Germination test :- working sample involve (25 gm)
Types of Seed:-
1. Orthodox seed 2. Recalcitrant seed
Long lived seeds Short lived seeds
Can be successfully dried to moisture contents as Can be dried to moisture contents as 20
low as 5 % without injury and are able to tolerate – 30 % and are able to sensitive
freezing. freezing.
Orthodox seed is also known as “Desiccation Recalcitrant seed is also known as
Tolerant Seeds”. “Desiccation Sensitive Seeds”.
Eg. Cereal & Legume crops, Citrus, Chilli, Guava, Eg. Tea, Mango, Litchi, Coconut

Seed Dormancy :-
 The period of inactivity or arrested development of seed is known as seed dormancy.
Types of dormancy :-
1. Innate dormancy :- genetically controlled dormancy.
2. Enforced dormancy :- due to deeper placement of seeds.
3. Induced dormancy :- due to sudden physiological changes like water logging.
Dormancy management :-
A. Physical Treatment :-
 Heat treatment at 40 – 45 0C
 Low temperature treatment at 2 – 8 0C for 12 – 24 hours
 Alternate drying and wetting of seeds for several times.
 Dehusking or removal of seed coat (scarification) by rubbing to make it permeable to
water.
 Alternate heating and cooling of seeds for several times.
B. Chemicals :-
 KNO3 (1 - 3 %) :- strongest and used for immediate dormancy break after harvesting.
 Thiourea (1 % in potato), Ascorbic acid.
  GA3 :- hormone used to break dormancy.
 Kinetin (1 – 100 PPM), Ethylene
 Dehumidification :- removal of water vapour form the air in storage. Silica gel is most
common desiccant used as chemical dehumidifier.
Weed
 Weed is a plant growing out of place and out of time.
 Father of weed science :- Jethrotull.
 Book :- “Horse Hoeing Husbandry” written by Jethrotull.
 NRC on Weed :- Jabalpur (MP)
 King of weed :- Congress grass/Parthenium
 Toxic substance in congress grass :- Parthenin
 Wild oat has all three type of dormancy (Innate, Induced & enforced).
 Censer mechanism :- present in mexican poppy, Argemone mexicana.
 Dropsy Disease :- Mexican poppy, Argemone mexicana seeds mixed with mustard seeds
and crushed, brought death and blindness in human being.
 In Baru/Johnson grass (Sorghum halpense), HCN formation during tillering stage.
Seed production capacity of weeds:-
 Congress grass & Mexican poppy :- 5,000/plant
 Cuscuta/dodder :- 16,000/plant
 Bathua/Chenopodium :- 72,000/plant
 Makoy :- 1,75,000/plant
 Wild Amaranthus :- 1,96,000/plant
Classification of weeds :-
A. Based on life cycle :-
1. Annual weed :- kharif and rabi season weeds.
S. No. Kharif Season Rabi Season
1. Junglee Chaulai, Amaranthus viridis Krishna nil, Anagalis arvensis
2. Motha, Cyperus rotundus Tinpatia, Desmodium trifolium
3. Lahsua, Digera arvensis Hiran Khuri, Convolvulus arvensis
4. Datura festoosa Vanpyaji, Asphodelus tenuifolius
5. Vishkhopra, Boerhavia diffusa Mexican poppy, Argemone mexicana
 6. Kasaundhi, Cassia occidentalis Bathua, Chenopodium album
7. Chhoti duddhi, Euphorbia thymiloia Cuscuta reflexa

2. Biennial weed:- Kasani (Chicorium intybus), wild carrot etc.

3. Perennial weed :- Johanson grass, Motha.
B. Based on Seed Coat :-
1. Monocot :- Kans, Pyaji, Water hyacinth, Phalaris minor
2. Dicot :- Bathua, Hiran khuri, Cuscuta, Satyanashi
C. Based on Leaves :-
1. Narrow leaf :- Phalaris minor, Cyperus rotundus
2. Broad leaf :- Hiran Khuri, Bathua, Mexican poppy
D. Based on crop – weed relationship :-
1. Micro-climatic weed :- Kasani, Chicorium intybus in Berseem.
2. Parasitic weeds :-
 Total stem parasite :- C : Cuscuta reflexa in Lucern
 Partial stem parasite :- L : Loranthus in Mango & Citrus
 Total root parasite :- O : Orobanchae/Broom rape in Tobacco, Mustard
 Partial root parasite :- S : Striga/witch weed in Sorghum, Bajra, Maize
3. Crop related weeds :-
 Crop specific weeds :- Chicory in Berseem
 Mimicry weeds :- Wild rice in paddy. Wild oat and canary grass in Wheat.
 Relative weed :- growing of other crop plants. Eg Barley plant in Wheat field.
 Absolute weed :- All weeds i.e. these are always weeds.
 Rogue weed :- other variety plant in the same crop.
 Volunteer weed :- such weeds are grown from the fallen seeds of previous or preceding
crop in the field.
E. Based on growing :-
1. Obligate weed :- occurs only in cultivated land. Eg. Chenopodium sp.
2. Facultative weed :- such weed grown both as wild and in cultivated habits. Eg. Lantana.
3. Noxious weed :- undesirable troublesome and difficult to control.
 Eg. Cyperus rotandus, Lanatana, Parthenium hysterophorus, Cynodon dactylon etc.
Satellite / Objectionable weed :-
 A noxious weed, whose seeds are difficult to separate, once mixed with crop seed.
 Eg. Avena fatua, Chicory, Cuscuta, Canary grass etc.
Propagation of weeds:-
 Hiran Khuri :- Roots Cuscuta :- Stem
 Carrot grass :- Crown Motha :- Suckers
 Bermuda grass :- Rhizome/Runners/Stolons Tiger grass :- Rhizome
 Water hyacinth :- Offshoot Johanson grass :- Rhizome
 Purple nut sedge :- Tubers
Critical Period of Weed Competition :-
S. No. Name of Crop Critical period (days after sowing)
From To
1. Upland Rice Entire period
2. Transplanted Rice, Maize, Sorghum, 15 45
Soybean, Sesame
3. Wheat, Sunflower, Blackgram 30 45
4. Cotton 15 60
5. Sugarcane 30 120
6. Groundnut 30 50
7. Castor 30 60

Weed as host for insect-pest and diseases :-

S. No. Name of Weed Name of Insect-Pest or Name of Crop affected
Disease
1. Berberis & Mahonia Black or stem rust Wheat
2. Thalictrum Leaf or brown rust Wheat
3. Anjan grass, Cenchurus ciliaris Ergot Pearl Millet
4. Kans, Saccharum spontaneum Downy Mildew Maize
5. Bathua, Chenopodium album Helicoverpa armigera Cotton, Pea, Tomato
6. Agropyron portulaca Wilt Tomato
7. Leersia oryzoides Bacterial leaf blight Rice
8. Echinochloa colonum Stem borer Rice
Weed Management :-
A. Cultural Method :-
1. Tillage
2. Stale Seed Bed :-
 The irrigation is applied in field at before sowing of crop, to allow the germination of
weeds and destroyed emerging weeds.
3. Hand Hoeing; 4. Flooding; 5. Mulching
B. Biological Method:-
1. Use of bioherbicides :-
 Collego (fungal spores of Colletorichum gleospoides) :- cause stem and leaf blight in
weed.
 Bipolaris (fungal spores of Biopolaris sorghicola) :- effective against Sorghum halpense.
 Devine (fungal spores of Phytopthora palmivora) :- cause root rot in weeds.
 Biophos :- it is fermented product of Streptomyces hygroscopicus.
2. Bioagents :-
 Most of bioagents belong to Hymenoptera order.
 Control of weeds by use of bioagents is known as “parabiological control”.
S. No. Name of Weed Name of Bioagent Year
Bioagent introduced from
1. Jarayan, Lantana camara Crocidosema Mexico 1921
lantana
Teleonemia Australia 1941
scrupulosa
2. Prickly pear, Dactylopies Brazil 1795
Opuntia vulgaris ceylonicus
Cactoblastis Argentina 1925
cactorum
Dactylopius Srilanka 1926
opuntiae
3. Water hyacinth, Orthogalumna Florida 1982
Eichhornia crassipes terebrantis
Neochetina Argentina 1983
eichhorniae & N.
bruchi
4. Congress grass, Chrysomelidae Mexico 1983
Parthenium hysterophorus beetle,
First time reported in Pune Zygogramma
(MH), 1955 bicolorata
5. Water fern, Curculionidae Australia 1982
Salvinia molesta weevil,
Cryptobagous
salvinae

C. Chemical Method:-
1. Based on Selectivity :-
i. Selective herbicides :- 2, 4 – D, Isoproturon, Fluchloralin, Triazines, Pendimethalin.
ii. Non selective herbicides :- Paraquat, diquat, Glyphosate.
2. Based on mode of action :-
i. Contact herbicides :- Paraquat, diquat, Glyphosate.
ii. Systemic herbicides :- Fluchloralin, Pendimethalin, 2, 4- D, Triazines, Simeazine
3. Based on time of application :-
i. PPI :- pre plant incorporated
 eg. Fluchloralin (Basalin), Trifluralin, Alachlor
ii. PE :- Pre Emergence
 Eg. :- Atrazine, Pendimethalin, Simeazin, most of selective herbicides
iii. POE :- Post Emergence
 Eg. :- 2, 4 – D, Isoproturon, Paraquat, Diquat, Glyphosate, Benthiocarb
iv. Lay by application :- application of herbicide after last cultivation.
4. Based on chemical nature :-
S. No. Group Examples of herbicides
1. Amides Alachlor, Propanil, Butachlor
2. Aliphatics Dalapon
3. Bipyridilliums Paraquat, Diquat
4. Dinitro anilines Fluchloralin, Pendimethalin
5. Phenoxy 2, 4 – D, MCPA
6. Phenols Dinoseb
7. Thiocarbamates Benthiocarb
8. Triazines Atrazine, Simazine, Metribuzin, Terbutryn
9. Sulfonyl Ureas Sulfosulfuron, Metsulfuron
10. Phenyl Ureas Monuron, Diuron
11. Uracils Bromacil, Terbacil
12. Diphenyl ethers Nitrofen (Tok-E- 25)
Important herbicides and their trade names :-
S. No. Name of herbicide Trade Name
1. Alachlor Lasso
2. Atrazine Atratex, Atrataf
3. Butachlor Machete
4. Dalapon Dowpon, Hexapon
5. Diuron Karmex
6. Fluchloralin Basalin
7. Glyphosate Roundup, Ranger
8. Imazethyapyr Pursuit, Hammer
9. Isoproturon Arelon
10. Metachlor Dual
11. Metribuzin Sencor
12. Nitrofen Tok – E - 25
13. Oxadiazon Ronstar
14. Oxyfluorfen Goal
 15. Paraquat Gramoxone, Weedol
16. Pendimethalin Stomp
17. Propanil Stamp F - 34
18. Simazine Aquazine
19. Sulfosulfuron Leader
20. 2, 4 - D Plantgard, Weedar, Weedone, Planotox

Wheat
 Botanical Name :- Triticum aestivum (Auto-polyploidy)
 Family :- Gramniae /Poaceae
 Origin :- South West Asia or Turkey or Asia Minor
 Flower :- Spike Fruit Type :- Caryopsis
 Wheat is C3, monocot, qualitative long day plant.
 Wheat is king of cereal crops.
 Wheat is staple food of world.
 Due to cleistogamy, wheat is self-pollinated crop.
 Protein :- 8 – 10 % (Wheat protein is known as “Gluten”)
 Wheat chapati quality depend on gluten content.
 Haploid chromosome number (x) in wheat is 07.
 Number of chromosome number in embryo sac of wheat is (3n) 63.
 Directorate of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal, Hariyana.
Triticale:- 2n :- 56
 First man made cereal (intergeneric)
 Developed by Rimpu (1890)
 Triticale :- Wheat x Rye
 First variety of triticale :- DT – 46
 New variety of triticale :- T – 1419 from PAU, Ludhiana.
Pseudo / Buck Wheat:- Fagopyrum esculentum, Family :- Polygonaceae
 Sowing time ;- June – July, Variety :- Tokiyo
 Infloresence :- Achene, Day neutral plant (DNP)
 Alkaloid present in leaf and flower is “Rutin”.
Classification of wheat:-
A. Diploid :- 2n = 2x = 14
 Triticum monococcum, grown 1 % area of India.
B. Tetraploid :- 2n = 4x = 28
i. Triticum dicoccum (emmer wheat):- for Uppumav in South India.
ii. Triticum durum (macroni wheat):- used for preparation of suji and semya.
 It is grown in 12 % area of India.
C. Hexaploid:- 2n = 6x = 42
i. Triticum aestivum :- Mexican /dwarf wheat
 It is grown in 87 % area of India.
ii. Triticum spherococcum :- Indian dwarf wheat
Climate :-
 For vegetative growth cold and moist climate
 For reproductive growth hot and dry climate.
 Below 15 0C temperature is harmful during flowering stage of wheat.
S. No. Name of crop growth stage Optimum Temperature
1. G – Germination stage 20 – 25 0C
2. T – Tillering stage 16 – 20 0C
3. G – Growth stage 20 – 23 0C
4. R – Ripening stage 23 – 25 0C

Sowing Time:- first to third week of November

For sowing of wheat, the implement is famous:- Seed drill
Seed Rate:-
 Timely sowing :- 100 kg/ha
 Late sowing :- 125 kg/ha
 By dibbler :- 25 – 30 kg/ha
 For zero tillage sowing :- 140 – 150 kg/ha
 Hybrid wheat seed rate :- 65 kg/ha
Spacing:-
 Normal timely sown crop:- R x R = 22.5 cm, P x P = 8 – 10 cm
  Late sown crop :- R x R = 20 cm, P x P = 8 – 10 cm
Depth of Sowing:-
 Depth of sowing in wheat is depend on length of coleoptiles.
 For dwarf varieties 4 – 5 cm depth.
 For tall varieties 7 – 9 cm depth.
Seed Treatment:- FIR
 Fungicide, Insecticide and Rhizobium culture (Azetobactor is used in wheat)
Fertilizer Management:-
 Irrigated condition :- 120 : 60 : 40 (N : P : K)
 Unirrigated condition:- 60 : 40 : 20 (N : P : K)
 Zn in wheat :- 25 kg/ha
Fertilizer application method:-
 Half N, full P & K at the time of sowing as basal dose.
 Half N, divide into two parts. Apply at first and second irrigations, respectively.
FIRB:- Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed System
 New method of wheat sowing .
 Bed :- 37.5 cm and Furrow :- 30 cm, Total 67.5 cm
 Bed may be 90 or 120 cm wide.
 Give higher yield of crop and save water as compare to other method of sowing.
BBF:- Broad Bed and Furrow Method
 Mostly applied in maize and groundnut crop.
 Broad Bed :- 90 cm, Furrow :- 45 cm and Raised bed :- 30 cm
 Adopt at 0.5 % slope and clay soil.
Irrigation Management:- 6 critical stages. Water requirement:- 450 – 650 mm
S. No. Name of critical stage Days after sowing (DAS)
1. CRI – Crown Root Initiation 20 – 25 DAS (21 DAS)
2. Tillering stage 40 – 45 DAS
3. Jointing/booting stage 60 – 65 DAS
4. Flowering stage 80 – 85 DAS
5. Milking stage 100 – 105 DAS
6. Dough stage 115 – 120 DAS
  If one irrigation available :- CRI
 If two irrigation available :- CRI & Late jointing/ Pre flowering stage
 If three irrigation available :- CRI, Late jointing/Pre flowering and Milking stage.
Varieties:-
1. Single gene dwarf varieties:-
 Sonalika, Sujata, Rohini, Girja, Pusa lerma (mutant of Lerma Roja 64 – A),
 C – 306 (tallest and best for rainfed), UP – 262
2. Double gene dwarf varieties:-
 Cheoti lerma :- resistant to all three type of rust
 Kalyan Sona :- Sensitive to all three type of rust.
 Sonaro – 64, Sarbati Sonaro (mutant variety), HD 2329 (Janak),
 HD 2009 (Arjun), HD 1981 (Pratap)
3. Triple gene dwarf varieties:-
 Heera, moti, jawahar, jyoti, lal bahadur, UP 301
4. Timely sown in irrigated areas:- Raj. 3077, Raj. 3777, Sonalika
5. Late sowing:- Lok-1, Raj. 3765, Sonalika
6. Rainfed condition:- Sujata, C 306, WH 533
7. Saline susceptible:- K – 65, Raj. 3077
8. Hybrid Wheat :- Hyprex 007 (Japan)
9. Other:-
 Raj. 4120 variety is resistant to UG – 99 rust.
 Best chapatti quality wheat varieties :- WH – 147, Raj. 3077
 In 1963, Lerma Roja 64-A and Sonaro 64 released in India, HD 2329 (Janak); all three
varieties has great importance in green revolution in India.
Triticum durum / macroni wheat varieties:-
 Raj. 1911, jayraj, malvraj, meghdoot, malvika (16 % protein, highest)
Weed:-
 Canary grass/mimicry weed/monocot/ narrow leaf weed of wheat :- Phalaris minor
 Test weight of Phalaris minor is 2 gm, while wheat is 40 gm.
 Objectionable weed :- Hirankhuri, Convonvules arvensis (field bind weed)
Weed Management:-
A. Management of broad leaf weeds:-
 2, 4 – D ester @ 500 gm/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
 2, 4 – D amine @ 750 gm/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
 2, 4 – D Na salt @ 1.0 kg/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
 Metsulfuron @ 4 gm/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
 Trisulfuron (carfentrozen) @ 20 gm/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
B. Management of narrow leaf weeds:-
 Isoproturon @ 750 gm/ha at 30 – 35 DAS
 In Hisar, Dr. R.K. Malik observed that Phalaris minor developed resistant against
isoproturon.
 Now a days, Sulfosulfuron @ 25 – 30 gm/ha is used against Phalaris minor.
Harvest Index:-
 Concept developed by Donald.
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
 H.I. : 𝑥 100
𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

 H.I. of wheat is 40 – 45 %.
 Grain : Straw ratio of Mexican dwarf Wheat is 1 : 1.5
 Normal wheat grain : straw ratio is 1 : 2
Yield:-
 Irrigated condition:- 40 – 50 q/ha
 Unirrigated condition :- 20 – 25 q/ha
Other special point:-
 To measure hardness of wheat grain by Perling index.
 The dwarfing agent in wheat is cycocel (ccc).
 Shelling % of wheat is 60.
 Wheat and Mustard intercropping at 9 : 1 ratio, respectively.
Barley
 Botanical Name :- Hordeum vulgare
 Family :- Graminae/Poaceae
 Origin :- Ethopia
 2n :- 14
  Long day plant
 Flower :- Spike Fruit type :- Caryopsis
 Barley protein: - Hordin
 Barley protein contains negligible amount of gluten. So, chapatti of barely is easily
digestible that’s good for diabities patients.
 Saline tolerant crop :- Barley > Sugarbeet > Dhaincha
 Bulbosum technique in barely for haploid production.
 In India, normally six row barley is cultivated.
Classification:- n = 7, 2n = 14
1. Hordeum irregular :- two row barely (rows are not continue)
2. Hordeum distection:- two row barley (both the rows are continue)
3. Hordeum vulgare:- six row barley (rows are continue)
Climate:-
 Temperature for growth :- 12 – 15 0C
 Temperature for ripening :- 30 0C
Sowing Time :- 15 Oct. – 15 Nov.
Seed Rate :- 100 kg/ha, problematic soil/late sowing :- 125 kg/ha
Spacing :- Timely sowing :- R x R :- 22.5 cm, P x P :- 8 – 10 cm
Depth of Sowing :- 4 – 5 cm
Varieties:-
 Molya resistant varieties:- Rajkiran (RD-387), RD – 2052, RD – 2035, RD – 2624
 Huskless varieties:- Dolma, Kailash, Himani, Karan-3
 For timely sowing :- Jyoti, RD – 2035, RD – 2552, RD – 2592
 Saline tolerant :- BL – 2 (Bilara-2)
 For malting purpose :- RS – 6 (ARS, Durgapura, Jaipur), Amber
 For chapatti making :- Karan- 16, Karan – 19
 Drought resistant :- RD – 31
 Dual purpose variety :- RD – 2715 (grain + straw)
 Mutant variety:- RDB – 1
 Foreign variety:- Clipper (Australian variety)
 Fodder varieties :- Ratna, Karan – 2, 5, 10
  For late sowing :- RS -6
Critical stages for water :-
 Active tillering stage :- 30 – 35 DAS
 Flag leaf/ booting/ jointing stage :- 60 – 65 DAS
 Milking / grain filling stage :- 80 – 85 DAS
Yield :- Irrigated condition :- 30 – 35 q/ha, Un-irrigated condition:- 10 – 15 q/ha
BTT :- Balanced Tertiary Trisomic (2n + 1)
 Developed by R.T. Ramage (1956 – 1960)
 No need of emasculation
 For hybrid seed production of barley.
Rice
 Botanical Name :- Oryza sativa
 Family :- Graminae / Poaceae
 Origin :- Indo-Burma/ South East Asia
 Fruit type :- Caryopsis
 2n :- 24, AICRP on Rice 1965
 Protein :- 6 – 7 % (oryzin)
 Short day plant and self-pollinated crop
 India staple food is Rice
 Dwarfing gene of rice :- Dee – geo – woo – gen
 Test weight of rice :- 25 gm
 Test weight of basmati rice :- 21 gm
 Aroma in rice due to Diacetyl 1 – propenil
 Brown manure related with which crop :- Rice
 Para (W. Bengal & Bihar) and Utera (MP) related to rice.
 Which gas emits from rice field :- Methane/ CH4 /Marsh gas
 Browning of rice due to Fe toxicity.
 White eye of rice due to Fe deficiency.
 Ivory disease of rice due to S deficiency.
 Akiochi disease of rice due to H2S toxicity.
 Rice leaves have parenchyma tissue.
  Rice stem is known as haulm or culm
 Non-traditional areas of rice cultivation :- Punjab, Hariyana
 Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI), Cuttack, Orissa (1946)
 International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Manila, Philippines (1960)
 Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad.
Hulling:- obtain white rice from brown rice.
 Hulled rice :- brown rice, de-hulled rice :- white rice
 Rice grain is tightly covered by lema and palea, that is known as hull.
𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑅𝑖𝑐𝑒
 Hulling % :- 𝑥 100
𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑅𝑖𝑐𝑒

 Hulling % of rice :- 66 % or 2/3 of paddy

 In rice, grain : straw (hull) ratio :- 2 : 1
Milling % :- 50 – 55 %, flour / rice x 100
Golden rice :- Ingo potricas
 Rice source of vitamin – A (𝛽 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑒)
 Vitamin – A in golden rice :- 37 PPM
Super rice :- G.S. Khus
 Highly nutritive rice (> 25 %)
Hybrid rice :- Yuvan Long Ping
 First in China in 1970 by CMS lines
 Secondly hybrid rice developed by India.
Parboiling :- heat treatment of rice.
 It conserve Vit.- B12, In parboiling Vit. – A lost.
V-shaped Rice Cultivation :- concept developed by Matsushima, 1967
Drum Culture in Rice:-
 Developed by International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines
 For water saving and timely transplanting, this method is adopt
 In this method germinated seeds are used for sowing.
 Seed rate :- 35 – 40 kg/ha, spacing of row to row is 20 cm
Classification:- Oryza have 24 species, in which 2 species are cultivated
1. Oryza sativa :- normal rice, highly cultivated rice in world. Oryza sativa has 22 sub species.
Classification of Oryza sativa according to climate :-
 i. Indica :- Oryza sativa var. indica, grown in India
 Having leaves slightly pubescent and pale green in colour.
 Awnless or possess short and smooth awns.
ii. Japonica:- Oryza sativa var. japonica, grown in Japan.
 Adapted for cultivation in the sub-tropical and warm temperate regions.
 May be awned or awnless. Leaves narrow and dark green in colour.
iii. Javanica:- Oryza sativa var. javanica, grown in Indonesia
 stiff straw, long panicle with awned grains, sparse tillering habit, long duration
2. Oryza glaberrima :- grown in South Africa.
Climate:-
 Hot and humid climate.
 Blooming temperature :- 26.5 – 29.5 0C
 Ripening temperature :- 20 – 25 0C
Soil:- clay loam soil (black soil is best for rice, cotton cultivation)
 pH :- 4 – 6 (slightly acidic soil best for rice, tea and potato cultivation)
Classification of rice:- according to sowing time
S. Season Local Name Part of country Sowing time Harvesting
No. time
1. Autumn Aus West Bengal, Bihar May - June Sep. – Oct.
2. Kharif/winter Aman/Aghani Bihar, Orrisa June - July Nov. – Dec.
3. Summer Boro W. Bengal Nov. – Dec. March - April
Dalua Orrisa

Varieties:-
TN – 1 :- First dwarf variety of rice in world :- TN – 1 (Taichung Native), 1965
 TN – 1 :- Dee – geo – woo – gen x Tarai yung chug
 TN – 1 (1965) :- first time in India brought by G.V. Chalam from IRRI
IR - 8 :- First high yielding dwarf variety of rice in world :- IR – 8
 IR – 8 :- Dee – geo – woo – gen x Peta (Indonesia) by Bichel (1966)
 IR – 8 was introduced in India in 1966 by IRRI
 IR – 8, also known as “Miracle Rice of World”
  Dee – geo – woo – gen :- brown tipped short legged
Jaya:- first high yielding dwarf variety of rice in India.
 Jaya :- TN – 1 (Taiwan) x Type – 141 (Indian variety) by Dr. Shastry (1968)
 Jaya is also known as “Miracle Rice of India”.
Padma :- Type – 141 x TN – 1
Mutant varieties:- Jaggnath (first), other :- Satavari, prbhavati
Direct sowing :- Bala, Pusa 2 – 21
Drought tolerant :- Bala, Kanchan, Kiran, Bhavani
Saline resistant:- IR – 8, Lunishree (super rice)
Waterlogged areas :- Jalmagna, Madhukar, Chakiya – 59, Jalpriya
Form IARI :- Norin – 8 , Norin – 18, Pusa 2 – 21, Basmati – 370 etc.
PRH- 10 :- first hybrid variety of basmati rice in world.
Phalguna:- gall midge resistant variety.
TKM – 6 :- Yellow stem borer resistant variety.
Mudgo :- BPH resistant variety
Sabarmati:- highest protein content.
Blast resistant varieties :- Jaya, Varanasi, Saket – 4, Prasad, Govind
By private institute :- PHB – 71
Hybrid Rice :- APRH – I/II (Andhra), MGR – 1 (CORH-1), KRH – 1 (Karnatka)
Seed Rate:-
 Broadcasting method :- 100 kg/ha
 Hybrid rice :- 15 kg/ha
 SRI method :- 5 kg/ha
 Basmati Rice :- 45 kg/ha
Type of rice cultivation:-
A. Upland :- no puddling require.
B. Low land :- Puddling require
C. Nursery Method :-
i. Dry Bed Method:- useful in rainfed areas, no puddling
ii. Wet Bed Method:- irrigated areas. Do puddling.
 Nursery area required :- 1000 m2 (1/10)
  Bed :- length 8 m and width 1.25 – 1.5 m
 Plant ready for transplanting :- 20 – 25 days
 Plants ready for transplanting: - 15 – 20 cm height, 4 – 5 leaf stage.
 Incubation period :- 24 – 36 hours
iii. Dapog Method:-
 Developed by IRRI, Manila, Philippines
 In India mostly used in southern states specially in Andhra Pradesh
 Nursery prepared on soil-less medium
 Incubation period :- 36 – 48 hours
 Nursery area :- 25 – 30 m2
 Seed rate :- 3 kg/m2 (75 – 90 kg/ha)
 1 m2 seedling sufficient for 200 m2 field.
 Plants ready for transplanting :- 11 – 13 days
 Met nursery related with rice.
 35 days old plants are not used for transplanting in rice.
Puddling:- By puddler
 Destroying soil structure
 Reduce deep percolation
 Increase bulk density about 1.4 to 1.7 g/cc
 Control weeds and increase nutrient availability and soil aeration
Zones in Rice :-
1. Upper Zone :- 1 – 10 mm
 O2 supply good, oxidized zone.
 Nitrate fertilizer should be apply in this zone.
2. Lower Zone :- > 10 mm
 O2 not present, reduced zone
 Ammonical fertilizer should be apply in this zone.
Water Management:-
 Water requirement:- 900 – 2500 mm
 Critical stage for water :- Booting
 In cereal crop require 400 – 500 litres of water for production of 1 kg dry matter.
  In Rice, require 5000 litres of water for production of 1 kg dry matter.
 Always maintain 5 cm water level in rice field.
 Before maturity (10 – 15 days) of rice, water drain from field.
Fertilizer Management:-
 N : 80 – 120 kg/ha, P :- 40 – 60 kg/ha, K : 30 – 40 kg/ha
 N fertilizer best for rice :- Ammonium Sulphate (N : 20.4 %, S : 24.5 %)
 Ammonical fertilizer should be apply in reduced zone.
 Rice absorb N as Ammonia/NH4+
 Rice can be absorb N as NH4+ and NO3-
 Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in rice :- 30 – 40 %, in other crops :- 40 – 50 %
Bio-fertilizer :-
i. Azolla :- water fern
 before transplanting as green manure @ 1 – 2 ton/ha
 after transplanting @ 0.5 – 1 ton/ha
ii. BGA :- Blue Green Algae
 N- fixation require Ca
 Apply at 7 – 10 DAT @ 15 kg/ha, it save 20 kg N/ha
iii. Azospirillum
Bushening:-
 Ploughing at 25 – 45 days (4 – 6 weeks) after transplanting in standing crop (rice) by
plough.
 Main purpose is weed management, better soil aeration, increase plant stability.
Weed:-
 Mimicry weed:- barn yard grass :- Echinochloa crusgalli
 Wild rice :- Echinochloa colonum
 Water hyacinth :- Eicchornia crassipes
Weed Management:-
 Propanil (Stam F-34) @ 3 kg/ha at 6 – 8 DAT (POE)
 Butachlor as PE
 Benthiocarb
Yield :- 40 – 45 q/ha
SRI :- System of Rice Intensification
 Originated in Madagascar in 1983.
 1983, French Jesuit Father Henri De Laulanie in Madagascar.
 Seed Rate :- 5 kg/ha,
 Plants/m2 :- 16, spacing :- 25 x 25 cm
 For produce 1 kg of dry matter require 1571 litre of water.
 Transplanting of single seedling at 2 leaf stage (8 – 12 days).
 Transplant one plant per hill.
 High productivity of irrigated rice.
Khaira/Fe Rust:-
 Firstly observed by Dr. Y.L. Nene (1966) at Pantnagar, UK
 Due to Zn deficiency
 Apply zinc sulphate @ 25 kg/ha or spray 0.5 % zinc sulphate.
Fouling crop:- High weed problem in direct sowing rice crop, is known as fouling crop.
Maize
 Botanical Name :- Zea mays
 Family :- Graminae/Poaceae
 Origin :- Mexico
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 20
 Maize is known as “queen of cereal crop”.
 Maize is also known as “Miracle Crop”, because its higher production capacity.
 Inflorescence :- Spike,
 male flower : Tassal (45 – 50 DAS), female flower : Silk (5 – 7 days after tasseling)
 Short day plant.
 Monoceious plant and have protoandry condition (male flower mature first)
 Maize is cross pollinated crop
 Detasseling :- removal of male part from the plant
 Fruit type : caryopsis
 Gene related to maize :- opaque -2 , flory -2
 Test weight :- 200 – 250 gm
 Protein :- 10 % (zein)
  Two amino acids viz., lysine and tryptophan absent in maize protein.
 Fat :- 4 %, Carbohydrate :- 70 %
 Non tillering plants :- Maize, sorghum and pearlmillet.
 Brace and prope roots present in maize.
 Ancestor of maize :- Teosinate
 AICRP on Maize :- first in 1957.
 DMR :- Directorate of Maize Research, New Delhi.
 CIMMYT :- Mexico, work on wheat and maize
 Number of rows in cob of maize :- 16 – 20
 Number of grain in per row :- 50 – 60
Classification of Maize :- Kipps (1959), as grain characteristics
1. Flint corn :- Zea mays indurata, mostly grown in india, it is also known as yellow maize
2. Dent cron :- Zea mays indentata, mostly grown in USA (95 % area)
3. Pop corn :- Zea mays averta, grains are soft
4. Soft corn/flour maize :- Zea mays amylacea, used for flour
5. Sweet corn :- Zea mays saccharata, sweetness in grain
6. Waxy corn :- Zea mays ceretina, grain used for preparation of waxy material
7. Pod corn :- Zea mays tunicata, husk on every grain of maize, it is primitive type of maize.
HQPM /QPM :- High Quality Protein Maize
 Absence of two amino acids viz., lysine and trypthophan in normal maize. So, quality of
maize is not good.
 Dr. S.K. Vasal do work on HQPM/QPM
 Dr. S.K. Vasal, maize breeder at CIMMYT, Mexico and used Opaque – 2 gene.
 In HQPM/QPM maize have both amino acids viz., lysine and tryptophan. So, quality of
maize protein is increased.
 For this work Dr. S.K. Vasal awarded as world food prize in 2000.
 HQPM/QPM varieties :- HQPM – 1, HQPM – 5, Shaktiman -1, Shaktiman – 2
Qpaque-2 composite varieties:- released three varieties like Protina, Shakti and Ratna in 1970.
Techniques of hybrid seed production:-
1. Single cross technique:-
 Given by E.M. East and G.H. Shull in 1910.
  East and Shull also give concept of hybrid maize.
2. Double cross technique:-
 Given by D.F. Jones in 1920.
 Mostly used in India.
 In India 1961, there were four varieties viz., Ganga -1, Ganga -101, Deccan and Ranjeet
developed by double cross techniques and released.
3. Triple cross technique or top cross:-
 Cross between single cross variety and open pollinated variety.
 Varieties :- Ganga-2, Ganga-4, Hi-starch
Climate :-
 Optimum temperature for germination :- 21 - 23 0C
 Optimum temperature for growth :- 23 0C
Varieties:-
1. Local varieties :- Malan (Kumbalgarh), Sati, Basi, Nagari etc.
2. Hybrid varieties:- Ganga Safed – 2 (double top cross variety)
 Ganga – 1, Ganga – 101, Ranjeet, Deccan,
 PEHM (pusa early hybrid maize) – 1, PEHM – 2
3. Composite varieties:- Released in 1967 were vikram, vijay and amber
 Mahi Kanchan and Mahi Dhawal :- Dungrapura and Banswara region of Rajasthan.
 Navjot, Kiran, Surya, Jawahar, Kisan etc.
4. HQPM :- Shaktiman – 1, Shaktiman – 2, HQPM – 1, HQPM – 1, 5
5. Opaque – 2 composites:- Protina, Shakti and Ratna
6. Pop corn :- Amber, Jawahar pop corn -11, Pearl pop corn
7. Sweet corn :- Madhuri (composite variety), Priya, Sugar – 75
 Sweet corn contains ferulic acid, that is act as antioxidant.
8. Fodder varieties :- African tall, Ganga – 5.
9. Top cross varieties :- Ganga -2, Hi-starch
10. Baby corn varieties :- Prakash, HM-4, Him – 129, VL – 42
Sowing time :- Kharif :- June – July, Rabi :- Nov. – Dec.
Seed Rate :-
 Hybrid maize :- 20 – 25 kg/ha
  Composite maize :- 18 – 20 kg/ha
 For fodder purpose :- 35 – 40 kg/ha
 Rabi maize :- 35 kg/ha
 Baby corn (for vegetable) :- 25 kg/ha
 Pop corn :- 10 – 12 kg/ha
 Sweet corn :- 6 kg/ha
Spacing:-
 Kharif :- R x R :- 60 cm, P x P :- 25 cm, plant population :- 66, 666 per ha
 Rabi :- R x R :- 60 cm, P x P :- 18 cm, plant population :- 92, 592 per ha
Fertilizer Management:-
 Irrigated :- 90 – 120 kg/ha N, 40 kg/ha P and 30 kg/ha K
 Rainfed :- 60 – 90 kg/ha N, 30 kg/ha P and 20 kg/ha K
 Hybrid :- 120 kg/ha N, 60 kg/ha P and 40 kg/ha K
 Composite :- 80 kg/ha N, 30 kg/ha P and 20 kg/ha K
 1/3 N, full P and K should be apply at the time of sowing as basal dose.
 1/3 N at knee height stage of crop
 1/3 N at tasseling stage of crop
 In maize, after tasseling stage there is no use of nitrogen i.e. plant uses negligible amount
of nitrogen.
Water Management:- Water requirement:- 500 – 800 mm
 Critical stages for water :- i. Tasseling (45 – 50 DAS), ii. Silking (5 – 7 days after
tasseling)
Weed Management :- initial 45 – 50 are critical for crop.
 For broad leaf weeds in maize :- Atrazine @ 0.5 kg/ha
 For narrow leaf weeds in maize :- Alachlor (Lasso) @ 2 kg/ha
 For both broad and narrow leaf weeds in maize :- Smimeazin @ 0.5 kg/ha, Tembotrin
(Loudis)
Yield :- Kharif : 40 q/ha, Rabi :- 45 – 55 q/ha
Rabi Maize :-
 In which state of India rabi maize is grown more than other state :- Bihar
 Laxmi variety mostly used as rabi maize in Bihar.
  In Rajasthan, rabi maize grown in Banswara, Dungarpur, Udaipur and Chittorgarh
districts.
 Spacing :- 60 x 18 cm
Physiological disorder of Maize:-
 White bud of maize :- Zn deficiency
 Purpling of leaves :- P deficiency
 “V” shaped chlorosis :- N deficiency
 Lodging of plant :- high N and deficiency of K

Sorghum
 Botanical Name :- Sorghum bicolar
 Family :- Graminae / Poaceae
 Origin :- Africa
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 20
 Infloresence :- Panicle
 Fruit type :- Caryopsis
 Monoecious plant, protogyny condition present.
 Sorghum is often cross pollinated crop.
 C4 and short day plant.
 Sorghum is king of coarse millet.
 Protein :- 10.4 (high lucin amino acid i.e. 7.4 – 17 %)
 Due to high lucin amino acid Pallegra disease.
 Sorghum is known as “camel crop”.
 Carbohydrate :- 72 %, fat :- 1.9 %
 Rabi sorghum grown in Maharashtra, Bihar
 At initial stage of crop contain high HCN/prussic acid/ dhurin.
 Formation of HCN in roots and synthesis in leaves.
 HCN found in leaves.
 Due to high HCN content, the fodder of crop at initial stage, not feed to animals.
 200 PPM prussic acid kill a calf.
 500 PPM prussic acid kill a cow.
Varieties:-
 First hybrid variety :- CSH – 1 (1964)
 Male sterile line :- Combine Kafir – 60
 Drought resistant variety :- CSV – 17 (composite)
 Best variety for rabi sorghum :- M 35 – 1
 Composite varieties :- SPV – 96, 245, CSV – 10
 Sweet sorghum variety :- RSSV – 24, 45, 56, 59
 Striga resistant variety :- BC – 9
 Anthracnose, leaf bligh, brown leaf spot resistant variety :- CSV – 17
 Best for intercropping :- CSH – 14
 Fodder varieties :-
i. Single cut :- Pusa Chari – 1, Hariyana Chari 171
ii. Double cut :- MP Chari – 1
iii. Multicut :- SSG – 59 – 3 (Meethi sudan), Maldandi, Proagro chari
Temperature :- optimum temp. for growth :- 26 – 30 0C
Sowing Time :- June – July
Seed Rate :- For grain :- 12 – 15 kg/ha, for fodder :- 35 – 40 kg/ha
Spacing :- R x R :- 30 - 45 cm, P x P : 12 – 15 cm
Biofertilizer :- Azetobactor, Azospirillium
Fertilizer Management:- 80 kg/ha N, 40 kg/ha P and 30 kg/ha K
Water Management:- Most critical stage for water:- post flowing stage
Weed Management:-
 Striga/witch weed :- Partial root parasite, have suicidal germination
 Striga problem mainly in sorghum, maize, sugarcane and sunflower
 Weed management for borad leaf weed :- 2, 4 – D @ 0.5 – 0.75 kg/ha
Yield :- Hybrid :- 35 – 40 q/ha, composite :- 25 – 35 q/ha

Pearl Millet
 Botanical Name :- Pennisetum glucum
 Family :- Graminae/ Poaceae
 Origin :- Africa
  Chromosome number (2n) :- 14
 C4 and short day plant
 Protogyny condition present, crop is cross pollinated.
 Carbohydrate :- 67 %, Protein :- 11.6 %
 Fat :- 5 % (highest among cereal crop)
 Infloresece :- Spike, fruit type :- Caryopsis
 Bajra is also known as “Poor Man’s Food”.
 Highest production in world :- India
 Highest production in India :- Rajasthan
 Highest production in Rajasthan :- Barmer
 Gene related to bajra :- Tift 23 – A
 Pearl millet is self-irrigated crop.
Climate :- optimum temperature for growth :- 20 – 28 0C
Varieties :-
 HB -1 :- first hybrid variety (1965).
 HB – 1 :- Tift 23 A (male sterile) x Bil 3 B
 First hybrid developed from local parent :- HB – 41
 Best for low rainfall area :- WCC – 75, Pusa – 605
 Pusa Moti :- from Pusa, New Delhi
 Composite varieties :- RCB – 2 (Durgapura), Raj. 171, ICTP – 8203 (early maturing)
 RCB – 2, RHB – 30, RHB – 90 (ARS, Durgapura)
 Fodder varities :- Raj. 121, Raj. 173, Raj. 177
Sowing Time :- June – July
Seed Rate :- 4 – 5 kg/ha
Spacing :- R x R : 45 cm, R x R : 10 – 15 cm
Nursery:- R.D. Gautum
 Area :- 500 – 600 m2
 Seed rate :- 1.5 – 2.5 kg/ha
 Plants ready for transplanting :- 20 – 21 days after.
Fertilizer Management :- 60 – 90 : 30 : 30 kg/ha (N : P : K)
Water Management:-
  2/3 (66%) area of bajra based on rainfall
 Critical stage for water :- flowering stage.
Weedicide :- Atrazin @ 0.5 kg/ha
Yield :- Dryland : 12 – 15 q/ha, Improved technique :- 20 – 30 q/ha
Minor Millets
 Family :- Graminae
 Kodo millet is coarsest of all food grains.
 Kodo millet is highly drought resistant crop.
 Ragi/finger millet is good for diabetes patient.
 Proso millet has high protein content (12.5 %).
S. Name of minor Botanical Seed Rate Varieties
No. millet name
1. Finger millet/ Eleusine Line sowing : 8 – 10 Padmavathi, Gautami (AP),
Ragi/ Mandua coracana kg/ha JNR – 852 (MP), GN – 3
Transplanting : 4 kg/ha (Gujarat), RAU – 5 (Bihar)
2. Proso millet / Panicum 8 – 12 kg/ha Sagar, Nagarjuna, Bhawna,
Cheena miliaceum (line sowing) CO – 1, TNAU - 63
3. Barnyard millet / Echinochloa 8 – 10 kg/ha K – 1, T – 46, VL – 1,
Sawan frumentacea Kanchan, Chandan, IPM - 151
4. Kodo millet / Paspalum 10 – 15 kg/ha JK – 62, 76 (MP), JK – 2 (Guj.)
Varagu/ Haraka/ scrobiculatum APK – 1 & KMV – 20 (TN),
Arikalu
5. Foxtail millet / Setaria italica 8 – 10 kg/ha Krishna, Arjuna, AK-132 -1
Kakun/ Italian/ (AP)
German Gavari (SR – 11) :- Rajasthan
6. Little millet / Panicum 10 kg/ha : line sowing CO – 3, CO – 4 (Samai),
Kutki/ Samai sumatrense 12.5 kg/ha : broadcast Paiyur – 1, Paiyur – 2

Groundnut
 Botanical Name :- Arachis hypogaea
 Family :- Leguminosae
  Origin :- Brazil
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 40
 Also known as :- Peanut, Monkeynut, Earthnut, Manila nut
 Fruit type :- Lomentum/pod
 Oil :- 46 %, Protein :- 26 %
 Germination type :- Epigeal
 Groundnut is known as king of oilseed crop.
 All pulses are legume. Eg. Gram, greengram, blackgram
 But all legume are not pulses. Eg. Groundut, sunhemp
 Groundnut is C3 plant and short day plant.
 Groundnut is self - pollinated crop.
 Highest nitrogen content in cake of which oilseed crop :- Groundnut (7.3 %)
 NRC on groundnut at Junagarh, Gujrat. First NRC, 1 Oct. 1979
 Due to positive geotropism, the pegs are formed inside the ground.
 The pagging process in groundnut started at 55 DAS
 Shelling % of groundut :- 68 – 75 %
 Flowers opens at 6 to 8 AM.
 The flowers are yellow, complete, papilonate and sessile. Usually flowering takes place
between 24 to 30 DAS, which is earlier in bunch type than in spreading ones.
 Yellowing of leaves of groundnut :- Fe deficiency
 For initiating flower in groundnut spray planofix or NAA @ 40 ppm at 40 DAS.
 Pungency in oil of groundnut due to oxidation.
 In India, the area and production of groundnut is highest among oilseed crop.
Growth Habitat :-
1. Determinate growth habit:- vegetative and reproductive growth in different time.
2. Indeterminate growth habit :- vegetative and reproductive growth at same time.
 Eg. Groundnut.
Classification of groundnut :-
1. Bunch/ Erect/ Spanish/ Valencia group :-
 Arachis hypogaea sub sp. fastigiata
 Erect type groundnut is supposed to originate from Arachis pusilla.
  There is no dormancy in seeds.
 Flowering period lasts for 3 – 8 weeks.
 Induced dormancy by MH @ 250 PPM
2. Spreading /Trailing / Running/ Virginia group :-
 Arachis hypogaea sub sp. procumbens
 This is supposed to originate from Arachis prostrate.
 Flowering period lasts for 6 – 10 weeks.
 There is dormancy in seeds.
 Dormancy can be break by high temperature, 0.7 % ethylene chlorohydrins, seed soaking
in 10 PPM solution of NAA / IAA.
Climate:-
 For germination:- 27 – 30 0C, for flowering :- 24 – 27 0C
 For pegging :- 20 – 23 0C, at grain formation in pod :- 20 – 34 0C
Soil:- sandy loam and black cotton soil is best for groundnut cultivation.
Field preparation :-
 use of Phorate 10 G or Carbofuron 3 G or Quinolphos 5 % D at 20 – 25 kg/ha at the time
of sowing for management of termite and white grub.
Varieties:-
1. Bunch type :- AK – 12 – 24, GG – 2, J – 30 (GG – 7), Jyoti, JL – 24 (short duration)
2. Spreading type:- M – 13 (Tikka resistant), RS -1 (pink grain),
 MA – 10 (Chitra), Chandra, GAUG – 10,
3. Semi-spreading type :- HNG – 10, TMV – 10
4. For Zaid :- TAG – 24 (Tikka resistant), GG – 2, M – 13
Sowing Time :- June – July
Seed Treatment :- Rhizobium culture :- Rhizobium leguminosarum
Seed Rate:-
 Bunch type :- 80 – 100 kg/ha
 Spreading type :- 60 – 80 kg/ha
Spacing :-
 Bunch type:- 30 x 10 cm
 Spreading type:- 45 x 15 cm
Fertilizer Management:-
 N : P : K @ 20 : 60 : 40 kg/ha
 Phosphorus applied as SSP (S: 12 %, P : 16 %, Ca: 19 %).
 Zypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) @ 250 kg/ha should be apply.
 Popping :- Ca deficiency
 Hollow heart in peanut :- B deficiency
Water Management :- Critical stages:- i. pre flowering stage and ii. Pegging stage
Weed Management:- Tok – E – 25 (Nitrofen) @ 1.5 – 2 kg/ha
Earthing up :- 30 DAS
Losses in storage :-
 Due to high moisture content in grain, there is fungi, Aspergillus flavus grows. So,
“Aflatoxin” develop, due to this grains are bitter in taste.
 10 – 20 PPM aflatoxin can kill a cow.
Yield:- Bunch type :- 10 – 12 q/ha, Spreading type :- 15 – 17 q/ha
Soybean
 Botanical Name :- Glycine max
 Family :- Leguminosae
 Origin :- China
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 40
 Germination type :- Egigeal
 Inflorescence :- Raceme
 Fruit :- Pod
 Protein :- 40 % (nodulin)
 Oil :- 20 %
 Carbohydrate :- 21 %, Fat :- 19.5 %
 Most of soybean protein is globulin
 Toxic substance found in soybean :- Goitrogen
 The highest area of which crop in world among genetically modified plants :- Soybean
 Soybean is wonder crop or yellow jewel, poor man’s meat
 Boneless meat, high protein content.
 Soybean is an pulse cum oilseed crop.
  Soybean have low amount of Sulphur amino acids like Methionine (1.2 %) and Cysteine
(0.8 %).
 Lysine (6.2 %) and tryptophan (1.4 %) found in soybean.
 Lysine amino acid :- low in cereal crops.
 Methionine amino acid :- low in oilseed and pulse crops.
 Soybean is not used as dal, because of presence of trypsin inhibitor and enzyme
lipoxidase (due to this off flavor in soybean).
 NRC on Soybean :- Indore, M.P. (1987)
 Soya state :- M.P.
 Growth gene related with soybean :- Dt1 and Dt2
 Growth habit :- Indeterminate growth habit.
 C3, Short day plant, self - pollinated crop.
 Soybean has enough amount of Vit. B.
 Leaves of soybean and berseem are trifoliate.
 Black colour of soybean due to presence of anthocyanin.
 In water logging condition, the arenchymatous tissue formation in soybean.
 Bradyrhizobium japonicum present in roots of soybean, which fixes nitrogen.
 Unsaturated fatty acids:- Linoleic acid/ omega – 6 fatty acid (56 – 60 %) and Linolenic
acid/ omega – 3 fatty acid (5 – 10 %)
 Saturated fatty acids :- 12 – 14 % Palmitic and Steric acid.
Varieties:-
 Alankar, Gourav, Moneta
 Best for rainfed area :- NRC – 37 (Ahilya)
 Girdle beetle resistant :- NRC – 12
 Ankur, Shilajeet, Soya – 1, Pratap Raj Soya – 3, NRC – 7, JS series, Pusa – 16, Pusa – 20
 American Varieties :- Bragg, Lee, Kent
Sowing Time :- June – July
Seed Rate :- 80 kg/ha
Spacing :- 30 – 45 x 10 – 15 cm (R x P)
Biofertilizer :- Rhizobium japonicum
Fertilizer Management:-
  N : 20 kg/ha; P2O5 : 60 kg/ha; K2O : 20 kg/ha
 Nodule formation in soybean is more in case of which nutrient :- P
 Zypsum :- 250 kg/ha or Zinc Sulphate :- 25 kg/ha
Water Management :- water requirement : 450 – 700 mm
 Critical stages for water :- i. Pre flowering and ii. Pod formation stage.
Weed Management:-
 Main weed of soybean :- Safed Murga, Celosia argentia.
 Herbicides:- Fluchloralin @ 0.75 – 1.0 kg/ha (PPI), Pendimethalin @ 0.75 – 1.0 kg/ha
(PE) and Imezathyper @ 75 - 100 gm/ha (POE).
Mixed Cropping :- Soybean (Moneta) + Pigeonpea (ICPL – 87/ Pragati).
Other product of Soybean :-
1. Soya Flour :- 10 %
 9 kg of wheat flour + 1 kg of soybean flour.
2. Soya Milk :-
 6 – 8 litre soya milk obtain from 1 kg of soybean.
 Cost :- 4 – 5 rupees per kg of soybean.
 Fat :- 2.5 % and Protein :- 3.5 %
3. Soya Paneer :-
 Prepare form soya milk.
 In China and Japan, soya paneer is known as “Tofu”.
 Fat :- 9 % and Protein :- 14 %
4. Soya Biscuit:-
 Wheat or Soybean flour + Maida @ 1 : 3 ratio.
Yield :- Un-irrigated : 10 – 15 q/ha, irrigated : 25 – 30 q/ha.
Sesamum/Til
 Botanical Name :- Sesamum indicum
 Family :- Pedaliaceae
 Origin :- South West Africa
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 26
 Inflorescence :- Raceme
 Fruit :- Capsule
  Self – pollinated crop.
 Sesamum is also known as “Queen of oilseed crop”.
 Sesamum is a poor man’s ghee.
 Oil :- 46 – 54 %
 Protein :- 18 – 20 %
 Sesamum oil store more time due to which substance :- Sisemol
 Flavour in sesamum oil like pop - corn :- Acetyl pyrizin.
Oil/protein Groundnut Soybean Sesamum
Oil 46 % 20 % 46 – 54 %
Protein 26 % 40 % 18 – 20 %

Sowing Time :- June – July

Seed Rate :-
 Normal seed rate :- 3 – 4 kg/ha
 Non – branching type :- 4 – 5 kg/ha
 Branching type :- 2 – 2.5 kg/ha
Spacing :-- 30 x 10 cm (R x P)
Sowing depth :- 2 – 3 cm
Varieties:-
 Black seeded variety :- TA – 22
 White seeded variety :- TC – 25 (branching type), Pratap /C – 50 (non - branching type),
TA – 130, RT – 46, RT – 125, RT – 103 (branching type), RT – 25.
 Drought tolerant and high export quality :- RT – 127
 RT – 351 :- Quadric capsules variety. Seed white, mature in 85 days. Capsule per plant :
47 and oil : 49.7 %.
Fertilizer Management:- N : 20 – 40 kg/ha; P2O5 : 20 kg/ha.
Weedicide:- Fluchloralin @ 0.75 – 1.0 kg/ha (PPI), Pendimethalin @ 0.75 – 1.0 kg/ha (PE)
Water Management:- critical stages:- i. flowering stage and ii. Grain formation in capsule.
Yield :- 8 – 10 q/ha
Other important points:-
 Highest consumption of which oil in World :- Oil palm
  Highest consumption of which oil in India :- Groundnut
 Highest consumption of which sugar in World :- Sugarbeet.
 Highest consumption of which sugar in India :- Sugarcane
 Sugarcane production in World :- India.
 Bowl of sugar :- Cuba (highest productivity)
Castor
 Botanical Name :- Ricinus communis
 Family :- Euphorbiaceae
 Origin :- Africa/Ethiopia
 Inflorescence :- Raceme
 Fruit :- Capsule
 Oil :- 45 % (ricinoleic acid : 85 %)
 Castor is an important industrial oilseed crop.
 Castor oil is the chief material for the production of sebacic acid which is the basic
ingredient in the production of synthetic resins and fibres.
 Castor oil is used as a lubricant in all moving parts of machinery, and for internal
combustion engines especially those used in aeroplanes.
 In dyeing industries, it is used for the preparation of “Turkey Red”.
 Castor oil cake contains “Ricin”, which is toxic for cattle.
 Castor cake contain 5.5 % N; 1.8 – 1.9 % P and 1.1 % K.
 Rearing of silkworm on castor :- Eri-silk.
Varieties:-
 Aruna :- mutant variety.
 Bhagya, Sobhagya, Gauch-1, Gauch-2
 GCH – 3 (Gujarat Castor Hybrid - 3):- first hybrid in India, 1968
Sowing Time :- June – July
Seed Rate :- 12 – 15 kg/ha
Spacing:- 60 – 90 x 45 cm (R x P).
Depth of Sowing :- 5 – 6 cm.
Fertilizer Management:- N: 60 kg/ha; P2O5 : 40 kg/ha; K2O : 40 kg/ha
Nipping:- removal of upper portion of plant for promoting reproductive growth of plant.
Water Management:- Mass flowering stage is very critical for water.
Weed Management:- Eptan @ 3 – 4 kg/ha, generally used in castor.
Botrytis:- it is fungal disease of castor due to cloudy weather during the flowering period.
Yield :- 20 – 25 q/ha.
Linseed
 Botanical Name :- Linum usitatissimum
 Family :- Linaceae
 Origin :- Mediterranean region
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 30
 Inflorescence :- Raceme
 Fruit :- Capsule / Seed ball (globular in shape)
 Oil content :- 33 – 47 %
 Oil cake contains:- 36 % protein, N : 5 %; P : 1.4 %; K : 1.8 %
 Linseed is a self – pollinated crop.
 Linseed is an important oilseed and fibre crop.
 Linseed grown for seed as well as fibre (flex), which is used for the manufacture of linen.
 Wild flax Linum angustifolium is ancestor of cultivated species Linum usitatissimum.
 At the time of flowering, frost is very harmful to the crop.
 Fatty acids in oil :- Omega - 3 - fatty acid.
 Temperature :- 21 – 26.5 0C
 Linseed grown with rice as relay cropping, which is paira cropping in West Bengal &
Bihar, while in M.P. known as utera cropping.
 Seed rate of linseed in relay cropping :- 10 kg/ha
Varieties:-
 Neelam, Hira, Mukta, Padmani,
 LC – 185 :- particularly used for cultivation under broadcast sowing in standing rice.
Flower blue colour.
 Himalini, Garima, Sweta, Kiran, Chambal, Surabhi, Sheetal
 Dual Purpose Varieties (grain + fibre):- Jeewan, Nagarkot, LCK – 8528, Gaurav
(resistant to rust)
Time of Sowing :- First week of October to First week of November
Seed Rate:- 20 – 30 kg/ha
Spacing:- 30 x 5 cm (R x P)
Fertilizer Management:- N : 50 kg/ha; P2O5 : 40 kg/ha
Water Management:- first at 30 – 40 DAS & second at just before flowering.
Retting:- temperature : 40 0C; (Sunhemp : 27 0C, Jute : 34 0C)
Yield:- 15 – 20 q/ha (seed).
Sunflower
 Botanical Name :- Helianthus annuus
 Family :- Compositae/Asteraceae
 Origin :- Mexico
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 34
 Infloresence :- Head/Capitulum
 Fruit :- Achene
 Germination type :- Epigeal
 Oil content :- 45 – 50 %
 Sunflower is an day neutral plant (DNP).
 Sunflower is an Boron indicator plant.
 Sunflower is an drought indicator plant.
 Pungency in sunflower oil due to oxidation.
 Sunflower grown in all three season.
 Sunflower is an ideal catch crop during the periods when land is otherwise left fallow.
 Oil is rich source of linoleic acid (64 %), which is good for heart patients.
 Oil cakes contain :- 40 – 44 % protein.
 Sunflower protein is known as inulin.
 Heiotropism :- Head towards sun.
 Protandrous condition, so crop is cross pollinated.
 Honey bee plays an important role in pollination.
 Hand pollination is an important in morning hours for proper pollination.
Varieties:-
 BSH – 1 (Bangalore Sunflower Hybrid):- First hybrid variety of sunflower in 1980.
 Open pollinated varieties:- Surya, modern, EC – 68414 (Peredovik)
  Badshah, Divyamukhi, CO-1, CO-2, MSFH – 8, MSFH – 30
 Laxmi, Vinimik, Armaverts, sunrise selection
Sowing Time:-
 Kharif :- first fortnight of July
 Rabi :- second fortnight of October
 Zaid :- first fortnight of March
Seed Rate:- 8 – 10 kg/ha
Spacing:- Kharif: 60 x 20 cm; Rabi & Zaid :- 45 x 20 cm
Fertilizer Management:- N: 60 – 80 kg/ha; P2O5 :60 kg/ha; K2O : 40 kg/ha
 N : vegetative growth; P : improve seed size, proper filling and increase oil content;
 K : grain filling and disease resistant.
Water Management:-
 Critical stages for water :- (i.) 4 – 5 leaf stage (40 – 50 DAS), (ii.) Flowering stage (75
DAS) and (iii.) Grain flowering stage (110 DAS).
 Crop is highly sensitive to water stress between flowering and grain filling stages. So,
atleast one of irrigation must be apply during this period.
Weed Management:-
 Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI); Alachlor or Pendimethalin @ 1.5 kg/ha (PE)
Yield:- 15 – 20 q/ha
Safflower
 Botanical Name :- Carthamus tinctorius
 Family :- Compositae/Asteraceae
 Origin :- India, Afghanistan and Ethiopia
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 20, 24, 44 & 64
 Inflorescence :- Head/Capitulum
 Fruit :- Achene (single seeded fruit)
 Safflower is more or less a DNP, but is thermo-sensitive.
 Oil content :- 24 – 36 %
 Oil has enough amount of linoleic acid (78 %), which is good for heart patients.
 Oil cake, particularly from decorticated seeds is used as a cattle feed. It contains 40 – 45
% protein, 7.9 % N, 2.2 % P and 1.9 % K.
  Cake obtained from un-decorticated seeds is used as manure, it contains 5 % N, 1.44 % P
and 1.23 % K.
 Rabi season crop, Long day plant.
Climate:- Optimum temperature for germination :- 15.5 0C
Varieties:-
 DSH – 129 :- first hybrid (1997)
 DSH – 185 :- first public sector CGMS safflower hybrid
 JSF – 7, JSF – 99 :- Spineless variety.
 Malavia – 305, Nag-7, Tara, Manjira, Bhima, Annagiri
Sowing Time :- first week of October to first week of November
Seed Rate :- 15 – 20 kg/ha
Spacing :- R x R :- 45 cm
Fertilizer Management :- 40 kg/ha N; 40 kg/ha P2O5 and 20 kg/ha K2O
Water Management:- Critical for water :- (i) flowering and (ii) grain filling stage.
Yield:- Un-irrigated : 6 – 8 q/ha; Irrigated :- 15 – 20 q/ha.
Mustard and Rapeseed
 Botanical Name :- Brassica sp.
 Family :- Cruciferae
 Origin :- China
 Oil content :- 37 – 49 %
 Mustard and Rapeseed is Rabi oilseed crop.
 Toxic substance in oil :- Glucosinate
 Pungency in oil :- Singrin/isothiocynate
 Linoleic acid :- 4.7 - 13 %
 Erucic acid (saturated fatty acids) in mustard and rapeseed :- 38 – 57 % (harmful for
body)
 Protein content in cake :- 35 %
 TMO :- Technology Mission on Oilseed start in 1986, now “ISOPOM” :- Integrated
Scheme on Pulses, Oilpalm, Oilseeds and Maize.
 Toria is a best catch crop.
 Glucosinolate in cake causes “Goiter disease”.
Difference between Mustard and Rapeseed :-
S. No. Mustard Rapeseed
1. Botanical name: Brassica juncea Botanical name: Brassica campestris
2. Plant height : 90 – 150 cm Plant height : 1 – 4 meter
3. Leaves are stalked Leaves are sessile
4. Fruit :- Siliqua Fruit :- Siliqua
5. Seeds are small in size and dark or Seeds are comparatively large in size and
red brown in colour. yellow or red brown in colour
6. Seed coat is rough Seed coat is smooth
7. High yield Low yield
Classification:-
Name of Common Local name Botanical name Ch. no. Oil
crop name (2n) %
A. Mustard Indian Rai/Raya/ Laha Brassica juncea 36 35
Mustard
Hill Mustard Paharai Rai B. juncea var. rugosa 36 35
Black Banarsi Rai B. nigra 16 35
Mustard
B. Sarson Turnip Rape Yellow sarson Brassica campestris 20 35 -
var. yellow sarson 48
Turnip Rape Brown sarson Brassica campestris 20 35 -
var. brown sarson 48
C. Toria Indian rape Yellow toria Brassica campestris 20 33 -
var. yellow toria 46
Indian rape Black toria or Brassica campestris 20 33 -
lahi var. black toria 46
D. Rocket, Garden Rocket, Rocket Eruca sativa 22 35
Taramira salad
E. White Ujali Sarson Brassica alba/ B. - 25
Mustard hilta
Mustard Triangle :-
 Given by Nagaheru.
Brassica nigra

(2n = 16 BB)

Brassica
B. juncea
carinata
2n = 36
2n = 34
AABB
BBCC

U – Cycle

Brassica Brassica
B. napus
oleracea compestris
2n: 38, AACC
2n = 18 CC 2n = 20 AA

Climate :-
 Germination :- 26 – 28 0C
 Vegetative growth :- 18 – 25 0C
Varieties :-
A. Mustard :-
 Pusa Jai Kisan (Bio-902) :- somaclonal variety of mustard developed by V.L. Chopra.
 Varuna (T – 59), Vashundhara, Pusa Bold, Aravali, Aashirwad, Rohini, Pusa Bahar,
 First hybrid of mustard :- NRCHB – 506 (DRMR, Sewar, Bhartpur)
 Late sown variety of mustard: - NRCHB – 101.
B. Rapeseed/Sarson:-
 Brown sarson :- Pusa Kalyani, BSH – 1
 Yellow sarson :- Vinoy, Pusa Gold, Ragini
C. Toria :- Bhavani, Sangam, Panchali
D. Taramira :- T – 27, RTM – 314, RTM – 2002 (Narendra Tara)
Sowing Time:-
 Toria :- mid to last week of September
 Sarson and Rai :- first fortnight of October.
Seed Rate :-
 Rapeseed and Mustard :- 4 – 5 kg/ha
 Taramira :- 5 kg/ha
Spacing:-
 Toria :- 30 x 10 cm (R x P)
 Sarson and Rai :- 45 x 10 – 15 (R x P)
Fertilizer Management:- 60 – 90 kg/ha N, 60 kg/ha P2O5; 40 kg/ha K2O
 Zypsum :- 250 kg/ha
 Spray of 0.1 % thiourea at 45 and 60 DAS that increase oil content.
Water Management:- critical stage for water :- Pre-bloom and Pod filling stage.
Weed Management:- cause 20 – 30 % reduction in yield of mustard crop.
 Orobanche :- total root parasite
 Mexican poppy (satyanashi) :- Argimone mexicana, objectionable weeds.
 Mixing of Mexican poppy seed with mustard cause “dropsy” disease.
 Nitrofen @ 1 – 1.5 kg/ha or Isoproturon @ 1 kg/ha (PE)
Canola:-
 Brassica napus and Brassica campestris contain 38 – 52 % erusic acid.
 Brassica juncea contain erusic acid (< 2 %) and glucosinolate (< 30 PPM), it is called as
double low or double zero (“00”) canola.
 Variety of double zero canola:- PDZM – 31 (Pusa Double Zero Mustard)
Yield:-
 Rapeseed :- 14 – 20 q/ha
 Mustard :- 20 – 25 q/ha
Pulse Crops
A. Chromosome number :-
 Kharif pulse :- 2n = 22, except horse gram 2n = 24
 Rabi pulse :- 2n = 14, except chickpea 2n = 14, 16
B. Germination type:-
S. Epigeal Hypogeal
No.
1. Epi : above; geal : earth surface Hypo : below, geal : earth surface
2. Germination outside the soil Germination inside the soil
3. Elongation of hypocotyl Elongation of epicotyl
4. Energy from cotyledon Energy form endosperm
5. Most kharif pulses except arhar Most rabi pulses except frenchbean
6. Other eg.:- Okra, Mustard, Cotton, Jute, Other eg. :- Rice, Lathyrus, Wheat, Barley, Pea
Castor, Tomato, Pumpkin, Cucumber

Pigeon Pea
 Botanical Name :- Cajanus cajan
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- Africa
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 22
 Protein :- 20.9 %
 Inflorescence :- Raceme, fruit : Pod
 Pigeon pea contributes about 15 % in total pulses area as well as production of India.
 Often cross pollinated crop.
Classification :-
S. No. Cajanus cajan var. bicolor Cajanus cajan var. flavus
1. Arhar Tur
2. Perennial plant Annual plant
3. Tall bushy plants Small plant
4. Late maturing Early maturing
5. 4 – 5 seeds per pod 2 – 3 seeds per pod
6. Mostly grown in North India Mostly grown in South India

Varieties :-
A. Early maturing varieties :-
 Prabhat :- extra early (115 – 135 days) maturing variety.
 UPAS – 120 (mature in 120 days), Manak, ICPL – 87 (Pragati)
 ICPH – 8 :- first hybrid variety developed by GMS line at ICRISAT, Hyderabad (1991)
B. Medium duration varieties:- Mukta (wilt resistant), BDN-1, BDN-2
C. Long duration varieties:- Pusa – 9, Bahar (265 days)
Sowing Time :- first fortnight of June
Seed Rate :- 12 – 15 kg/ha (sole crop); 6 – 8 kg (mixed/intercropping)
Spacing:- 60 – 75 x 15 – 20 cm (R x P)
Fertilizer Management:- 20 kg/ha N; 40 – 60 kg/ha P2O5; 30 kg/ha K2O
Weed Management:-
 Alachlor (Lasso) @ 3 litres/ha (PE) or Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Harvest index :- 19 % (lowest), Grain : Straw ratio :- 1 : 4.2
Yield:- 20 – 25 q/ha (grain)
Green Gram
 Botanical Name :- Vigna radiata
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Subfamily :- Papilionaceae
 Origin :- India
 Protein content :- 25 %
 C3, SDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Egigeal type of germination.
 Green gram allowed to sprout, ascorbic acid (Vit. C) is synthesized.
 No irrigation should be given when the crop is in full bloom stage.
Varieties :-
 Pusa Baisakhi, SML – 668, K – 851 (60 – 65 days), RMG – 344
 Sunena, Ganga – 8 (Gangotri), Asha, PDM – 11, Pant Moong – 1, Varsha,
 R 288-8 :- local selection from Rajasthan. Mature in 70 – 75 days.
 ML – 267, Kopergaon,
Sowing Time :- Kharif : June – July, Rabi : Oct. – Nov.; Zaid : March – April
Seed Rate :- Kharif :- 12 – 15 kg/ha; Rabi & Zaid :- 20 kg/ha
Spacing :- Kharif : 45 cm row to row; Rabi & Zaid : 30 cm row to row.
Fertilizer Management:- 15 – 20 kg/ha N; 40 – 50 kg/ha P2O5
Weed Management:- Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Yield:- 6 – 10 q/ha. Well managed crop :- 12 – 15 q/ha.
 Black Gram
 Botanical Name :- Vigna mungo
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Subfamily :- Papilionaceae
 Origin :- India
 Protein content :- 24 %
 C3, SDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Egigeal type of germination.
 High amount of phosphoric acid found in black gram.
Varieties:-
 Pant U – 19, Pant U – 30, Naveen, Krishna (T-9), Kulu-4, PDU-1, RBU – 38 (Barkha)
Sowing Time :- Kharif : June – July, Zaid : March – April
Seed Rate :- Kharif :- 12 – 15 kg/ha; Zaid :- 20 kg/ha
Spacing :- Kharif : 45 cm row to row; Rabi & Zaid : 30 cm row to row.
Fertilizer Management:- 15 – 20 kg/ha N; 40 – 50 kg/ha P2O5
Weed Management:- Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Yield:- 6 – 10 q/ha. Well managed crop :- 12 – 15 q/ha.
Mothbean
 Botanical Name :- Vigna aconitifolia
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- India
 Protein content :- 18 – 22.5%
 C3, SDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Egigeal type of germination.
 Drought resistant pulse crop.
Varieties:-
 IPCMO – 912 (Vikas), RMO – 225 (Maru vardan), RMO – 435 (Maru Bahar), Cazari
moth – 1, Sweet grain :- RMO – 40 & FMM – 96
 RMO – 40 :- Rajasthan Moth – 40, developed from Jwala variety by treating with gamma
rays. Released in 1994.
 Jadia and Jwala developed from Jobner ag. university.
Sowing Time :- June - July
Seed Rate :- Normal : 10 kg/ha; RMO – 40 & FMM – 96 : 15 kg/ha
Spacing :- 45 x 15 – 20 cm (R x P)
Fertilizer Management :- 10 : 30 : 30 (N: P : K)
Yield :- grain : 3 – 5 q/ha; straw : 5 – 8 q/ha.
Cowpea/Lobia
 Botanical Name :- Vigna sinensis
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Subfamily :- Papilionaceae
 Origin :- Central Africa
 Protein content :- 23.4 %
 C3, SDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Egigeal type of germination.
 Indian cowpea :- Vigna sinesis sub. sp. catjang
Climate :-
 Germination :- 12 – 15 0C
 Optimum temperature for growth :- 27 – 35 0C
Varieties:-
A. Vegetable varieties :-
 Pusa barsati, Pusa phalguni, Pusa dofasli, Pusa rituraj (Kharif & Zaid), C – 152 , FS - 68
B. Fodder varieties:- Russian Giant, Sirsa – 10, UPC – 287, FOS – 1, CO – 2.
Sowing Time:- Kharif :- middle of June to last of July; Summer/Zaid :- March – April
Seed Rate :-
 For grain and vegetable purpose :- 20 – 25 kg/ha
 Fodder purpose :- 35 – 45 kg/ha
 Green manuring purpose :- 35 – 40 kg/ha
Spacing :- Kharif :- 35 – 45 x 8 – 10 cm; Zaid : 25 – 30 x 8 – 10 cm
Fertilizer Management:- 15 – 20 kg/ha N (starter dose); 50 – 60 kg/ha P2O5
Weed Management :- Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Yield :-
 Grain :- 12 – 15 q/ha
  Vegetable :- 50 – 60 q/ha
 Fodder purpose :- 250 – 350 q/ha
French bean
 Botanical Name :- Vigna radiata
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- Mexico
 C3, LDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Egigeal type of germination.
 French bean does not fix atmospheric Nitrogen, it is called as shy nodular crop.
Varieties:-
 Contender, Pusa Parvati, Arka Komal, Arka suvidha, Amber, PDR – 14, Ooty – 1
Sowing Time :- second fortnight of October.
Seed Rate :- 100 – 120 kg/ha
Fertilizer Management :- 120 kg/ha N; 80 kg/ha P2O5
Yield :- 15 – 20 q/ha
Gram/Chickpea/Bengal gram
 Botanical Name :- Cicer arietinum
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- South – West Asia
 Protein :- 21.1 %
 C3, LDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Hypogeal type of germination. Fruit :- pod.
 Leaves contain malic (90 – 96 %) and oxalic acid (4-10 %).
 Chickpea require rough seed bed.
 Chickpea have tap root system.
 Deeper sowing of gram escape or absence of wilt disease.
 India alone has nearly 52.5 per cent of total world acreage and production of gram.
 Sprouts grain of gram contain Vit. – C.
 Intercropping of Gram and Mustard, ratio of rows 3 : 1.
 Intercropping of Gram and Safflower, ratio of rows 7 : 1.
  Frost at the time of flowering results in the failure of the flowers to develop seeds or in
the killing of the seeds inside the pods.
Classification:-
A. Desi or brown gram :- Cicer arietinum
 Most widely grown gram.
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 14, 16
B. Kabuli or White gram :- Cicer kabulicum
 Plants are generally taller than the desi gram and stand more or less erect.
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 16
Varieties :-
A. Desi or brown gram :-
 Avrodhi & ICCV – 10 :- wilt disease resistant variety.
 Gaurav :- moderately resistant to rust and blight diseases.
 C – 235 :- blight resistant variety. Suitable for Punjab and Hariyana.
 RS – 10 :- drought resistant variety.
 RS – 11 :- Mutant from RS – 10.
 Dahod yellow (for rainfed), GNG – 469, GNG – 1581, Aprna (grain are green in colour).
 Double podded variety :- RSG – 44.
 Pusa – 209, Radhey, K – 850.
B. Kabuli or White gram :-
 C – 104, L – 550, L – 144, Sadabahar
 Pusa – 1003, Pusa – 1053 :- wilt resistant variety.
Sowing Time :- second fortnight of October.
Seed Rate :-

 Desi gram :- 80 kg/ha

 Kabuli gram :- 100 kg/ha
Spacing :- Desi gram :- 30 x 10 cm; Kabuli gram :- 45 x 15 cm
Depth of Sowing :- 8 – 10 cm
 Deep sowing of gram because the shallow sown crop is more liable to be damaged by
wilt.
Seed Treatment :- Rhizobium leguminosarum
Fertilizer Management :-
 N :- 20 – 25 kg/ha as starter dose which can meet plant requirement before formation of
nodules.
 P2O5 :- 40 – 60 kg/ha; K2O :- 20 kg/ha
Water Management:- mostly sown as rainfed crop.
 One irrigation at pre-flowering stage and another at pod development stage.
Weed Management:- Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Nipping :-
 Removal of upper portion of plant at 40 – 50 DAS (20 cm height) for promoting
reproductive growth of plant.
 For nipping spray :- TIBA @ 75 PPM
Yield :- 20 – 25 q/ha
Pea
 Botanical Name :- Pisum sativum
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- Mediterranean region (field pea)
 Protein :- 22.5 %
 C3, LDP, Self-pollinated crop, 2n :- 14
 Hypogeal type of germination. Fruit :- pod.
 Optimum temperature for germination :- 22 0C, for growth :- 13 – 18 0C.
Classification :-
A. Garden/Table Pea :- Pisum sativum var. hortense
 Mendal work on this pea.
 Mostly used for canning purpose.
B. Field Pea :- Pisum sativum var. arvense
 Mostly used for Dal.
Varieties :-
 Sylvia :- whole pod is edible
 Swarn Rekha, Aparna (dwarf variety)
 Hans :- mutant variety
  Harbhajan :- extra early variety.
 Bonville :- best for dehydration
 Arka Ajeet & Rachna :- resistant against powdery mildew.
 Pusa Pragati, Pant Upkar, Sapna
Sowing Time :- 15 October to 30 October.
Seed Rate :-
 For vegetable :- early sowing :- 100 – 120 kg/ha; mid/late sowing :- 80 – 90 kg/ha
 For grain :- 60 – 80 kg/ha
Fertilizer Management :- N : 20 kg/ha; P2O5 : 60 kg/ha; K2O : 40 kg/ha
Weed Management :- Fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Yield :-
 Grain :- 20 – 25 q/ha
 Vegetable :- 100 – 125 q/ha
Lentil
 Botanical Name :- Lens esculenta
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- Asia Miner
 Protein :- 25 %
 C3, LDP, Self-pollinated crop
 Hypogeal type of germination. Fruit :- pod, inflorescence :- Raceme
 Optimum temperature for growth is 18 – 30 0C.
 Lentil seeds should be sown at a shallow depth (3 – 4 cm).
Varieties :-
 Shivalik, Malika, Sapana, Priya (DPL-15), Pusa Vabhav, Pusa – 6,
 Pant L – 406, Sihor – 74-7, C – 31, S – 256
Sowing Time :- Mid October
Seed Rate :- normal : 30 – 40 kg/ha; late sowing :- 50 – 60 kg/ha
Fertilizer Management :- 20 – 25 kg/ha N; 50 – 60 kg/ha P2O5.
Irrigation Management :- first at 45 DAS, second at pod filling stage.
Weed Management :-
 Fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha or Metribuzin/Prometryen @ 1.0 – 1.5 kg/ha (PPI)
Yield :- 20 q/ha
Berseem/ Egytian Clover
 Botanical Name :- Trifolium alexandrinum
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- Egypt (Asia Miner)
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 16
 King of fodder crop.
 Berseem is also known as milk enrichment.
 Berseem has 20 % crude protein & 70 % dry matter digestibility.
 Optimum temperature for germination :- 25 – 30 0C, for growth : 18 – 21 0C
Varieties :-
A. Diploid :- Mascavi, Khadravi, Sahidi, Fahli, BL-1, IGFRI – 99 – 1/Vardan
B. Tetraploid :- Pusa Giant (Auto tetraploid), T – 678
 Mix seeds of tetraploid and diploid at ratio of 2 : 1
Sowing Time :- first fortnight of October
Seed Rate :- 25 – 30 kg/ha; for early & late sowing :- 35 kg/ha
Seed Treatment :-
 For Kasani (Cichorium intybus) :- soaking of seed in 5 % NaCl solution for 20 minute.
 Rhizobium Culture :- Rhizobium trifolii
Weed Management :-
 Micro climatic weed :- Cichorium intybus (Kasani), for management of kasani, apply
Dainocel acetate @ 1.5 kg/ha.
 Oxyflorfen @ 0.2 kg/ha (PE) can also be used.
Fertilizer Management :- N :- 20 – 25 kg/ha; P2O5 :- 50 – 60 kg/ha
Harvesting :-
 First cutting at 55 DAS (60 cm height)
 Subsequent cuttings at 20 – 25 days interval.
Seed Production :-
 If the crop is to be left for seed, no cutting should be taken after middle of March.
 The crop left for seed production after 3 – 4 cuttings.
Yield :-
  Green fodder crop :- 1000 – 1200 q/ha
 Seed crop:- 3 – 5 q/ha; forage :- 400 – 500 q/ha
Lucern/Alfalfa
 Botanical Name :- Medicago sativa
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- South West Asia
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 32
 Lucern first time cultivated in Persia (Iran). Alfalfa is an Arabic word.
 Queen of fodder crop.
 Lucern has 15 - 20 % crude protein.
 Deep root system makes the plant drought resistant.
 Alkaloid present in lucern :- Saponin/Oxalic
 Yellowing of lucern (Lucerne Yellow):- deficiency of Boron.
Varieties :-
 Anand – 2, Anand – 3, NDRI Selection – 1, LLC – 5, Rambler, Moopa,
 Sirsa – 8, Sirsa – 9, Chetak (S – 244)
 For cold areas :- Hunter river, Ladakhi
Sowing Time :- mid October to first week of November
Seed Rate :- Broadcast method : 20 – 25 kg/ha; line sowing : 12 – 15 kg/ha
Seed Treatment :- Seeds should be treated with Rhizobium melilotii.
Fertilizer Management :- N : 20 – 25 kg/ha; P2O5 :- 60 – 75 kg/ha
Weed Management :- imp. weed :- Cuscuta/dodder (completely stem parasite)
 For cuscuta, spray paraquat or diquat after harvesting of crop.
Harvesting:- first at 55 – 60 DAS, subsequent at 25 – 35 days interval.
Yield :- forage crop :- 700 – 100 q/ha fodder; seed crop :- 2 – 3 q/ha seed.
Oat
 Botanical Name :- Avena sativa
 Family :- Graminae/Poaceae
 Origin :- Asia Miner
 Chromosome number (2n) :- 42
 Inflorescence :- loose open panicle of spikelets.
  Grain :- Caryopsis
 Green fodder contains 10 – 12 % and 30 – 35 % dry matter.
 Alkaloids present in oat :- NO3
 Optimum temperature for growth :- 15 – 25 0C.
Varieties :-
 Kent, Algerian, FOS-1/29, HFO – 114, UPO – 50, OS – 6, Flemming gold, Coachmen
Sowing Time :- 15 October – 15 December
Seed Rate :- 100 kg/ha
Spacing :- 20 – 25 cm (row to row)
Fertilizer Management :- N : 80 kg/ha; P2O5 : 40 kg/ha
Harvesting :- first cutting at 50 – 55 DAS (60 cm height of plant) & Second at dough stage.
Yield :-
 Forage crop : 500 – 600 q/ha;
 Seed crop : 30 – 35 q/ha seed, 250 q/ha green fodder, 25 – 30 q/ha straw

Napier / Elephant / Uganda grass

 Botanical Name :- Pennisetum purpureum
 Family :- Graminae/Poaceae
 Origin :- Rhodesia of South Africa
 C4 Plant, perennial grass
 Pusa Giant :- developed by cross between Pennisetum purpureum and Pennisetum
typhoideum (African bajra).
 Other varieties :- NB – 21, Gajraj, Pusa Napier – 1.
 Seed Rate :- 27,800 root slips or stem cuttings/ha
 Sowing time :- end of February to end of August. Best :- end of February
 Yield :- 1200 – 1500 q/ha green fodder
Cotton
 Botanical Name :- Gossypium sp.
 Family :- Malvaceae
 Origin :- India
 King of fibre crop, white gold
  Fruit type :- Capsule (ball have 4 locule)
 Inflorescence :- Square (square period : 18 – 24 days)
 Square consists of 3 triangular shaped leafy structure known as “Bracteoles” and the
flower bud.
 Male sterile line :- Grigg – 399
 Seed Cotton (Seeded cotton):- seed + fibre
 Cotton Seed :- only seed /Binola (without fibre)
 Cotton fibre is simply an elongation or outgrowth of an epidermal cell of the seed coat.
 Marketable cotton fibre :- Lint (long fibre)
 Unmarketable cotton fibre :- Fuzz (short fibre)
 AICRP on Cotton :- Coimbatore (1967)
 CICR :- Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, MH (1976)
 Terminator technique related to which crop :- Cotton
 Cotton committee in India :- 1921 (first committee in India)
 B.t. first isolated by S. Ishiwata.
 Area of Bt cotton in India :- 11.07 million ha (2017 – 18)
 Oil content in cotton seed :- 15 – 25 %
 Cotton seed cake contain :- N : 6 %; P : 3 %; K : 2 %
 One seed cotton have 60 – 80 thousand fibres.
 Pollination type :- Often Cross Pollination
 Insect pollinator in Cotton :- Honey bee
 Weight of one bale of cotton :- 170 kg (Jute : 180 kg & Mesta : 181 kg)
 Toxic substance present in cotton seed :- Gossypol
Classification :- Hutchindon (1947)
A. Desi / old world / Asiatic / Diploid Cotton :-
i. Gossypium arboreum :- 2n :- 26
ii. Gossypium herbaceum :- 2n :- 26
B. New world / Egyptian / Tetraploid Cotton :-
i. Gossypium hirsutum /American cotton:- 2n :- 52
ii. Gossypium barbadense / Sea island cotton:- 2n :- 52. Highest fibre length : 3.6 - 5.0 cm.
Branching type in Cotton :-
1. Monopodial/Racemose :- Vegetative branches
 Mostly present in Gossypium arboreum.
 Main stem continues grow.
2. Sympodial/Cyamose :- Reproductive branches
 Main stem growth stops after certain height.
 Zig – zag appearance of branches in plant.
 This type of branches good for production.
 Present in G. herbaceum, G. hirsutum & G. barbadense.
Climate :- Cotton is a warm season crop.
 Minimum temperature for germination :- 16 0C
 Minimum temp. for vegetative growth :- 21 – 27 0C
 Minimum temp. required during fruiting phase :- 27 – 32 0C
Soil :- Black cotton soils are ideal for crop. pH of soil :- 5.5 – 8.5
Varieties :-
1. Gossypium arboreum :- Lohit, Jyoti, Virnar, G – 27, RG – 8, G – 1, Gcot - 15
2. Gossypium herbaceum :- Digvijay, Kalyan, Laxmi, Sanjay
3. Gossypium hirsutum :- Bikaneri Nerma, Ganaganagar Ageti, MCU – 4, 5, 8, 9, Khandwa - 2.
 MCU – 5 :- Extra - long staple variety
4. Gossypium barbadense :-
 Sujata :- first Egyptian cotton variety for spinning in India.
 Suvin :- in present under cultivation.
5. Hybrid Varieties :-
i. Intraspecific Hybrid :- only single species is used for hybrid seed production.
 G. hirsutum x G. hirsutum
 H – 4 :- First variety of cotton developed by C.T. Patel in 1970 in Surat, Gujarat.
 H – 4 :- G – 67 x American Nectroless
 Other varieties :- Surya, Fateh, Savitha, Dhanlaxmi, NHH – 44, H – 6, H – 8
 Maruvikas (Raj HH – 16) :- First G. hirsutum variety of Rajasthan.
ii. Interspecific Hybrid :- two species are used for hybrid seed production.
 Mostly cross between G. hirsutum x G. barbadense
 Varalaxmi :- UAS, Dharwad by S.A. Patel in 1976
  Sruti, DCH – 32, NHB – 12, DHB – 105
Cotton grown in India :-
 Hybrid Cotton :- 40 %
 Gossypium hirsutum :- 36 %
 Gossypium arboreum :- 16 %
 Gossypium herbaceum :- 8%
 Gossypium barbadense :- 0.2 %
Sowing Time :-
 Northern region :- first fortnight of May
 Central region :- 15th – 25th May
 Tamil Nadu :- September – October
 Karnataka & AP :- Desi cotton in August – September
 Rajasthan :- Desi : first week of April – first week of May;
 Rajasthan :- American : 15th April – 15th May
Seed Rate :-
 Desi Cotton :- 12 – 15 kg/ha
 American Cotton :- 15 – 17 kg/ha
 Hybrid Cotton :- 2 – 3 kg/ha
 Bt Cotton :- 1 – 1.5 kg/ha
 For RST – 9 variety :- 20 – 25 kg/ha
Seed Treatment :-
 Delinting :- seed should be delinted before sowing with concentrated sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) at 10 : 1 ratio.
 Soaking of seeds thoroughly for 2 hours in the solution of 5 g Emisan, 1 g streptocycline,
1 g succinic acid in 10 litres of water at the rate of 6 – 8 kg delinted seed.
Spacing :-
 Desi Cotton :- 60 x 30 cm
 American Cotton :- 60 – 75 x 30 – 45 cm
 Hybrid Cotton :- 100 x 60 cm
Plant population / ha :- Normal : 50,000 – 80,000 and Bt. Cotton :- 10,000
Ultra Narrow Row :- Concept developed in USA.
  Spacing :- 19 x 19 cm2; Plant Population :- 2, 77, 000 per ha.
Fertilizer Management :-
S. No. Type of Cotton N P2O5
1. Desi Cotton 50 kg/ha 25 kg/ha
2. American Cotton 75 kg/ha 45 kg/ha
3. Hybrid Cotton 100 – 120 kg/ha 40 – 50 kg/ha
Water Management :- water requirement :- 700 – 1300 mm
 Critical stages :- i. Flowering stage, ii. Ball formation stage
 Firs irrigation at 40 – 45 DAS
Weed Management :-
 Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha
 Diuron :- 0.5 – 1.0 kg/ha (mostly used in cotton)
 Alachlor (Lasso) :- 1.5 – 3.0 kg/ha
Physiological disorders :-
1. Tirak/ Bad ball opening/ pre mature defective opening of ball :- due to early sowing,
 water deficiency, deficiency of nitrogen, alkaline soils (Udaipur region)
2. Red Leaf :- highly in American cotton.
 Highest incidence in H – 4 and Varalaxi variety of cotton
 Due to nitrogen deficiency.
3. Little leaf in Cotton :- Zinc deficiency
4. Crnckle leaf of Cotton :- Mn toxicity
5. Purple Red Leaf :- Mg deficiency
Fibre quality :-
1. Staple length :-
 Measured by Hall sledge sorter, bear sorter or fibro graph.
 Long staple fibre (> 2.50 cm); medium fibre (2 – 2.50 cm) and short fibre (< 2cm)
2. Fibre fineness :-
Fibre quality depend on fineness of fibre.
Instrument used for measuring fineness of fibre :- Micronair, measured in microgram.
3. Fibre strength :- fibre is strong if breaking point is > 95 kg/cm2.
4. Ginning % :-
  Separation of fibre from the seed of cotton.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑡
 Ginning % :- 𝑋 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑛

 Ginning % of desi cotton :- 30 – 43 %

 Ginning % of American cotton :- 30 – 35 %
 Ginning % of hybrid cotton :- 32 – 34 %
5. Lint Index :-
100 𝑆𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑥 𝐺𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 %
 Lint Index :- 100 − 𝐺𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 %

 Lint obtain from 100 seed cotton.

6. Number of counts:-
 Number of hanks present in 450 g or 1 pond lint, is called number of hanks.
 1 hanks :- 770.6 m / 840 yard long fibre
 Indian cotton, number of counts :- 22
Special Points :-
 Fibre maturity is measured by arelometer.
 Fibre thickness is measured by nepiness.
 Fibre length and fibre fineness are important genetic trait of fibre.
Topping :-
 Removal of upper portion of plant (Cotton).
 Main purpose is to promote reproductive growth of plant.
 Usually at 80 – 90 DAS (1 – 1.2 meter height)
Yield :- Seed Cotton :- 8 – 10 q/ha; from hybrid varieties : 15 q/ha
Jute
 Botanical Name :- Corchorus sp.
 Family :- Tiliaceae
 Origin :- India
 Jute is an important fibre crop next to cotton.
 CRIJAF :- Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Nilganj, Barrackpore,
WB
 National Institute of Research on Jute and Allied Fibre Technology, Kolkata.
Classification:-
1. Corchorus capsularis :- White Jute
 Hardy in naure, tolerate to waterlogging conditions.
 More popular and 70 % of area in India. Mostly found in Indo-Burma region.
 Bitter in taste due to presence of “Corchorin” , a bitter substance, known as “Tita Pat”
 Varieties :- Baldev, Joydev, Sabuj Sona, Sonali, Shymali
2. Corchorus olitorius :- Tossa/ Mitha Pat, found in Africa.
 Varieties :- Baisakhi Tossa, Chaitali Tossa, Basudev, Navin, Mahadev, Rebati, Savitri.
Sowing Time :- February to June
 Optimum time for Capsularis type (white jute) :- March – April
 Optimum time for Olitorius type (Tossa jute) :- April – May
Seed Rate :- for white jute 6 – 8 kg/ha and for tossa jute 4 – 5 kg/ha
Steeping/Soaking :-
 After 2 – 4 days of harvesting the plant are shaken for complete leaf shedding and they
are tied in bundles of about 20 – 22 cm in diameter.
Retting :-
 It is a process by which the fibres in the bark get loosened and separated from the woody
stalk.
 Optimum temperature :- 34 0C
Yield :- 13 q/ha (fibre)
Sunhemp / Bombay hemp/ Banars hemp
 Botanical Name :- Crotalaria juncea
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- India
 Recently, used for currecncy as its contains high percentage of cellulose and lignin.
 Varieties :- K – 12, Narendra Sanni, M – 19, M – 35, ST – 55.
 Sowing time :- onset of monsoon or May – June.
 Seed Rate :- 20 – 25 kg/ha
 Steeping :- the bundles are brought to the nearest ponds, ditches, pools or streams and
arranged side by side to form a platform in water for steeping.
 Optimum temperature for retting :- 21 – 27 0C.
 Extraction of fibre is difficult in sunhemp than jute.\
  Yield :- 8 – 10 q/ha (fibre).
Sugarcane
 Botanical Name :- Saccharum officinarum
 Family :- Gramineae/ Poaceae
 Origin :- New Guinea/ India
 Inflorescence :- Arrow (open branched panicle)
 Grain :- Caryopsis
 The word “Sugar” is derived from “Sanskrit” word “Sakkara or Sarkara”.
 Noble cane :- Saccharum officinarum developed by T.S. Venketraman by cross between
S. barberi x S. spontaneum.
 Area in world :- Brazil and Production in world :- India
 Bowl of sugar :- Cuba (highest productivity).
 Sugarcane is a tall perennial plant.
 Sugarcane is an intermediate day plant (require 13 hours light for flowering).
 Arrowing in sugarcane is an indicator of maturity.
 The age of sugarcane setts used for sowing :- 8 – 10 month old.
 Length of sugarcane settts used for sowing :- 30 – 45 cm
 Recovery of gur/jiggery from juice :- 10 – 12 %
 Recovery of sugar form juice :- 8 – 10 %
 IISR :- Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow (UP) 1952
 SBI :- Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, TN
 ISI :- Indian Sugar Institute, Kanpur (UP)
 AICRP on Sugarcane started during 1970-71.
Classification :-
A. Cultivable Sugarcane :-
i. Noble Cane :- Saccharum officinarum, juicy cane; 2n : 80
ii. Indian Cane :- Saccharum barberi, fibre content more; 2n : 82 - 124
iii. Chinease Cane :- Saccharum sinense, fibre content more; 2n : 118
B. Wild Sugarcane :-
i. Saccharum spontaneum, sugar low and fibre content more; 2n : 40 - 128
ii. Saccharum robustum,
Classification :-
 Sugarcane is a tropical plant.
 Average mean temperature for growth :- 26 – 32 0C
Varieties :-
 First wonder cane :- CO – 419 (highest yield)
 Second wonder cane :- CO – 140
 Early maturing :- CO – 449, CO – 997 (best for ratoon crop)
 Medium duration varieties :- CO – 787 (best for gur), CO – 527
 Insect resistant :- CO – 1007
 Frost and drought resistant variety :- CO – 66 – 17
 Insect, red rot and smut resistant variety :- CO – 1111
Sowing Time :-
Autumn Spring Rainy/ Adsali
Sowing Time 15 Sep. – 15 Oct. 15 Feb. – 15 March June – July
Period 12 – 14 month 10 – 12 month 18 month
Area North India North India South India

Seed Selection :-
 Plant part used for sowing is known as seed cane or settts.
 The top 1/3 to 1/2 portion of a cane being comparatively immature, have high glucose
content. So this part is used for sowing.
 Due to top dominance, upper part will be germinated.
 Bottom portion of cane is rich in sugar (sucrose) and takes a long time in germination;
this should be used in jiggery making.
 To prevent fungal diseases, seed setts dipped into 0.5 % solution of Agallol (3%) or 0.25
% solution of Aretan (6 %).
Seed Rate :-
 2 - budded setts :- 60 – 70 thousand per ha.
 3 - budded setts :- 35 – 40 thousand per ha (75 – 80 q/ha)
Sowing Methods :-
1. Flat Planting :- Mostly in Northern India and some tract of Maharashtra.
  Spacing :- row to row 90 cm require.
2. Furrow Planting :- furrow 10 – 15 cm deep in Northern India and 20 cm deep in Sothern India.
 Practiced in parts of UP and in Penisular India, particularly in heavy soils.
3. Trench Planting :- in some coastal areas.
Planting of Sugarcane Setts :-
1. End to End System
2. Eye to Eye System or Bud to Bud System :- best method of sowing.
3. Double Sett System
Fertilizer Management :-
 N : 120 – 150 kg/ha; P2O5 : 60 kg/ha; K2O : 40 kg/ha
 1/3 N, full P & K at the time of sowing.
 1/3 N at tillering stage
 1/3 N at grand growth stage.
 K is required for cell structure, carbon assimilation, translocation of proteins and sugars
and normal functioning of plant.
Water Management :- water requirement : 1500 – 2500 mm
 Sugarcane growth stages :- (i) Germination :- 0 – 60 DAP, (ii) Formative stage :- 60 –
130 DAP, (iii) Grand Growth Stage :- 130 – 250 DAP, (iv) Maturity Stage : 250 – 365
DAP.
 Most critical stages for water is formative and garnd growth stages.
 The method of irrigation mostly used :- Furrow method.
Weed Management :- Simeazin @ 50 % @ 2 kg/ha (PE)
Blind Hoeing :- hoeing before germination i.e. between 0 – 45 DAP
Wrapping / Tying :- Do in August.
 Tying of sugarcane plants together to protect from strong wind.
Propping :- Covering of sugarcane plant with dry leaves.
Earthing Up :- mainly in July
Harvesting of Sugarcane :-
 Hand refrectometer reading :- 16 – 18 0B
 Brix ratio of mature cane :- 0.9
 Fehling test :- < 0.5 % glucose
Ratooning :-
 Economical to take only one ratoon.
 Nitrogen requirement of sugarcane ratoon is 20 % more as compared to planted crop.
Artificial Ripening of Sugarcane :- Use of Polaris/Glyphosate/Ethphon @ 4 – 5 kg/ha
Gasohol :- 80 % Petrol + 20 % Alcohol form the Sugarcane. Mostly used in automobiles.
By product of Sugarcane :-
i. Baggases :- used for fuel and paper making
ii. Molasses :- mostly used for alcohol.
iii. Press Mud :- acidic in nature, used for saline – alkaline soil reclamation.
Yield :-
 North India :- 80 – 100 ton/ha
 South India :- 100 – 120 ton/ha
Cluster Bean / Guar
 Botanical Name :- Cyamopsis tetragonoloba
 Family :- Leguminoseae
 Origin :- India
 Inflorescence :- Auxiliary Raceme
 Fruit :- Pod
 From cluster bean, about 33 % guar gum is obtained from the endosperm.
 Protein :- 45 %
 Optimum temperature for germination :- 25 – 30 0C.
 Rajasthan is alone accounts for almost 53 % of total guar seed production.
Varieties :-
 For Grain & Fodder :- RGC – 936, Durgapur Safed, FS – 277,
 For Vegetable :- Pusa Mosami, Pusa Sadabhar, Pusa Navbahar, Durga Bahar , Suvidha.
Sowing Time :- Kharif : June – July; Zaid/Summer : March
Seed Rate :-
 Grain crop :- 15 - 20 kg/ha
 For fodder crop :- 40 – 45 kg/ha
Fertilizer Management :- N : 20 kg/ha; P2O5 : 40 – 60 kg/ha
Weed Management :-
  Fluchloralin (Basalin) @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
 Pendimethalin @ 1 kg/ha (PE)
 Imezathypyr @ 75 – 100 gm/ha (POE)
Yield :- 10 – 15 q/ha grain. Green fodder :- 250 – 300 q/ha
Tobacco
 Botanical Name :- Nicotiana sp.
 Family :- Solanaceae
 Origin :- Mexico & Central America
 Temperature for germination :- 21 0C
 Temperature for growth :- 25 0C
 Seed Rate :- 2 – 3 kg/ha
Classification :-
1. Nicotiana tabacum :-
 derived from as an amphidiploid of a cross between N. sylvestris and a member of the
section Tomentosae.
 It is used in manufacture of Cigarettes, Cigars, Bidi, Chewing and Snuff purpose.
 Nicotine content in leaves :- 0.5 – 5.5 %
ii. Nicotiana rustica ;- used for hookah, chewing and snuff purposes.
 Derived from as an amphidiploid from a cross between N. undulata and U. paniculata.
 Nicotine content in leaves :- 3.5 – 8.0 %.
Varieties :-
 Flue – Cured :- Virginia Tobacco – 1158, Gauthami, Bhavya, Hema, Swarna,
 Bidi Tobacco :- GTH – 1,
 Cigar :- S – 5
Priming :- lower leaves mature first, harvesting of mature leaves.
Curing :- Tobacco leaves are cured after harvest.
 A drying process whereby most of the moisture of the leaf is removed.
 Four common type of curing:-
i. Flue curing :-
ii. Air curing
iii. Firing curing :- used in chewing type of tobacco.
Stalk – cut method :- Hookah, bidi, cigar, cheroot and chewing tobaccos are harvested by this
method.
Topping :-
 When flower heads begin to show, the plants are topped by removing off the top of the
plants.
De-suckering :-
 After the tops have been removed the buds in the axils of the leaves which otherwise
remain dormant become active and suckers soon develop in the axis of the leaves.
Removal of such suckers is known as de- suckering.
Seed Spices
 India is known as land of spices.
 Rajasthan stood first position in area and production of seed spices.
 AICRP on spices was initiated in 1971 but in 1986 its headquarter shifted to NRC on
Spices at Calicut.
 IISR :- Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut (1988)
 NRCSS :- National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Tabije, Ajmer (Raj.), 2000
Cumin Coriander
Botanical Name Cuminum cyminum Coriandrum sativum
Family Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae
Origin Mediterranean region Mediterranean region
Chromosome no. (2n) 14 22
Inflorescence Umbel Umbel
Pollination type Self - pollinated crop Cross – pollinated crop
Part used and substance Seed contain Cuminol & Cumin Seed contain Linalool &
contain aldehyde (2.5 %) Condriol (1 %)
Varieties RZ – 19 (Jobner) Swathi, Sadhana,
RS – 1 (Durgapura) Rajendra Swathi, CM – 2,
RZ – 209 (Jodhpur) :- blight and RCR – 20, 41 (Jobner)
wilt resistant variety Pusa Selection – 360
MC – 43 CO – 1, 2, Pant haritima,
GZ -1 (Gujarat Zeera) Hisar Anand, Hisar Sugandh,
 Hisar Surbhi, Sindhu
Sowing Time Mid Nov. – first week of Dec. Last week of October
Seed Rate 12 – 15 kg/ha 15 – 20 kg/ha
Spacing 25 x 10 cm 30 x 10-20 cm
Bed Size 2 x 3.5 m 2x3m
Fertilizer (N: P : K) 30 : 20 : 20 60 : 30 : 20
Weed Management Zeeri : Plantago pumill and Pendamethalin @ 1 kg/ha
Parrian (PE)
Fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha (PPI)
Leading district of Raj. Jalore Baran
Yield 8 – 10 q/ha Irrigated : 15 – 20 q/ha
Unirrigated : 6 – 8 q/ha
Other important points Seeds are rich in “Thymol”. It is a andromonoecious.
Iran is main cumin exporter. Rajasthan is leading state.
0.7 % essential oil, rich in
Linalol.

Fennel Fenugreek/ Methi

Botanical Name Foeniculum vulgare Common Methi:
Trigonella foenum graecum
Kasuri Methi: T. corniculata
Family Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae Fabaceae/ Leguminosae
Origin Mediterranean region Europe
Chromosome no. (2n) 22 16
Inflorescence Umbel Raceme
Pollination type Cross - Pollinated Crop Self - Pollinated Crop
Part used and substance Seed contain Anethole (80 %), Seed contain Diosgenin.
contain Estragole (10 %), Fenchone (7.5 Bitterness due to Oleoresin.
%), Limonene
Varieties S – 7 – 9 (long duration) RMT – 1, RMT – 16
PF – 35, Gujrat Fennel – 1, (Rajendra Kranti) :- SKRAU
CO – 1, UF – 32 Pusa Early Bunch,
RF – 101, RF - 125 Vallabh Chikni
Sowing Time 15 September – 15 October Last week of Oct. – first week
of Nov.
Seed Rate Direct sowing :- 8 – 10 kg/ha 20 – 25 kg/ha
Nursery :- 3 – 4 kg/ha
Nursery area : 100 m2 Seed treatment with
Time of nursery :- July – August Rhizobium meliloti
Plant ready for transplanting: 45-60
DAS
Spacing 80 – 100 x 45 – 60 cm (R x P) 30 x 10 cm (R x P)
Bed Size 2x3m 1.25 x 3.5 m
Fertilizer (N: P : K) 90 : 40 : 0 20 : 40 : 20
Weed Management Fluchloralin @ 1 kg/ha (PPI) Pendimethalin @ 1 kg/ha (PE)
Leading district of Raj. Sirohi Common Methi :- Sikar
Kasuri Methi :- Nagore
Yield 18 – 20 q/ha 10 – 15 q/ha
Green grain :- 8 – 10 q/ha
Other important points Protoandrous crop. Fenugreek is 3rd important
Varieties M – 1 & M – 3 developed seed spice in India after
by mutation breeding. coriander and cumin.
Sugary is a viral disease.
 Important Insect Pest of Crops )
S.
Name of Pest Nature of damage Special points
No.

Pest of WheatV
Armyworm,
1.  Damage leaves of plant.  Damage during night.
Mythimna separate
 Seed treatment with
 Social pest
Chlorpyriphos 20 EC
 Nuptial flight
Termite/White Ant @ 4 ml/kg seed
2.  Nymph & adult of worker
Odontotermes obesus  In standing crop, apply
damage crop
Chloropyriphos 20 EC
 Mutualism present.
@ 4 litre/ha.
 Adult stage cut the plant near
Ghujia Weevil  Important pest of
3. soil surface.
Tanymecus indicus wheat nursery.

Pest of RiceV
 Monophagous pest of
Yellow Stem Borer of  Dead heart symptom Rice.
Rice cause in young plant.  For biological control,
1.
Scirpophaga incertulas  White ear symptom cause release egg parasitoid,
in old plant. Trichogramma
japonicum.
Brown Plant Hopper
 Cause Hopper burn  Vector of “Grassy
2. (BPH)
symptom Stunt disease” of rice.
Nilaparvata lugens
Green Leaf Hopper  Yellowing of leaves form
 vector of Tungro
3. (GLH) tip to downward.
disease of rice (viral)
Nephotettix sp.  Plant stunted.
4. Gundhi Bug  bad smell form rice field
 Highly damage at
Leptocorisa acuta  Infected panicle colour
milking stage of crop.
changed.
Gall Midge  Silver shoot or onion leaf
5.  Secreate cecidogen.
Orseolia oryzae symptoms
Thrips
 Main pest of Rice
6. Stenchaetothrips  Sucking pest
nursery
biformis
Rice Hispa  Nymph & adult feed on  White lines parallel to
7.
Dicladispa armigera leaves leaves
 Used for rearing of
Rice moth  Storage pest of Rice.
8. Trichogrmma sp. in
Corcyra cephalonica  Laval stage cause damage
laboratory.

Pest of MaizeV
 Release,
Stem borer  Cause “dead heart Trichogramma sp.
1.
Chillo partellus symptom” (egg parasitoid) @
1.5 lakh/ha.
Pink Stem borer  Larvae cause “dead heart
2.  Stem easily broken
Sesamia inference symptom”
Shoot fly  Cause damage in
3.  Maggot cause dead heart.
Atherigona sp. initial stage of crop.
 Damage on leaves,
Kharif grasshooper  Damage at full leaf
4. sometime only remain
Hieroglyphus banian stage
midrib

 Grub feed on roots

5. White gurb  Adult feed on leaves of  White grub is an
Holotrichia host tree. National Pest
consanguinea,  Favorite host tree for  Bacillus papillae
H. serrata adult is Ber. (bacteria) used for
Family : Melolonthidae management
 At the time of
sowing, apply Phorate
10 G @ 25 kg/ha
Corn worm  Caterpillar feed inside the cob.
6. Helicoverpa armigera

Pest of Pearl millett

 Trenching around
1. Red Hairy Caterpillar  Feed on leaves field
Amsacta moorei,  Major pest of Kharif  Trichogramma sp and
A. albistriga crops Telenomus sp. (egg
parasitoid)
 Damage root of crop  Apply Chlorpyriphos
Termite
2.  Nymph and adult stage of 20 EC @ 4 litre/ha
Odontotermes obesus
worker cause damage with irrigation.
Shoot fly  Pest of initial stage of
 Maggot cause dead heart
3. Atherigona approximate crop.

Pest of SorghumV
 Damage mostly from
 Maggot cause dead heart
1. Shoot fly germination to 28
symptom
Atherigona soccata DAS
 Infected plant have more
 Early sowing, high
side tillers
seed rate, use of fish
meal trap.
  Caterpillar cause dead
2. Stem Borer heart
 Damage of this pest
Chillo partellus  Small holes on leaves and
after 1 month of crop
stem.
 Insect infested midrib
completely turns into red.
 Biological control,
3. Pink stem borer  Cause dead heart in stem release of
Sesamia inferens Trichogramma sp.

 Nymph and adult suck sap from grains.

4. Earhead bug  Chaffyness of grains
Calocoris angustatus  Grains are small in size & black in colour.
 Reduviid bug, Reduviolus sp. is predaceous on it.
 Pupal case observed
 Maggots feed on the
5. Sorghum Midge between infected
developing grains.
Contarinia sorghicola grains.

Pest of SesameV
 Maggot cause damage
1. Gall fly  Maggot feed inside the  Gall like of swelling
Asphondylia sesame capsule, so malformation on capsule due to
of pod without proper attack of this pest.
setting of seeds.
 Egg larvae roll top
2. Death Hawk Moth  Larvae is leaf feeder
leaves and later
Acherontia styx (defoliator)
damage to capsule
 Pest of GroundnutV
White grub
 Quinolphos @ 1 –
1. Holotrichia  Larvae/grub feed on roots
1.25 litre/ha spray or
consanguinea, of crop.
25 kg/ha dusting.
H. serrate
2. Termite  Nymph and adult of worker cause damage to roots.
Aphid, Aphis  Sucking pest (nymph and adult both)
3.
craccivora  Secrete honeydew.
4. Thrips, Caliothrips indicus, Retithrips syriacus, Scirtothrips dorsalis
RHC  Among oilseeds,
 Caterpillar feed on leaves
5. Amsacta moorei, severe damage to
of Kharif crops
A. albistriga groundnut

Pest of SoybeanV
 Early sowing and
 Female prefer feed on
1. Girdle Beetle high seed rate.
xylem part of plant.
Oberia brevis  Biological, Predator
 Female make two holes
Chrysoperla carnea
on stem at 3 – 7 cm
Family : Cerabycidae  Chemical:-
distance, in between
Order :- Coleoptera Quinolphos 25 EC @
holes make 3 holes and
litre or Trizophos 40
lay eggs in middle hole.
EC @ 1.25 – 1.50
 Grub feed inside the hole.
litre/ha
Tobacco caterpillar  Caterpillar damage to leaves of plant
2.
Spodoptera litura  Trap crop for tobacco caterpillar :- Castor

Pest of MustardV
 Sucking pest, secrete  ETL :- 40 – 50 %
1. Mustard Aphid honeydew, development plant show honeydew
Lipaphis erysimi of sooty mould on leaves. appearance.
  One of
 Feed on leaves, from
Mustard Sawfly Hymenopteran insect
2. margin of leaf to centre
Athalia lugens proxima that cause damage to
of leaf (midrib)
crop.
Painted bug  Sucking pest. Audlt secrete sticky substance.
3.
Bagrada cruciferarum  Insect infested plant show wilty appearance.

Pest of PigeonpeaV
 Maggot feed on the seeds
1. Red gram pod fly inside the pods.
Melanagromyza obtusa  Also infest lady’s finger  This pest completely
and safflower in which hide inside the pod of
the maggots mine into pigeon pea.
stem and cause wilting of
plants.

 Infest flower, leaves and  Caterpillar cause

2. Pod Borer
pods of red gram. damage to crop.
Helicoverpa armingera

3. Pod / Blue Butterfly  Feeds on flower buds and  Larvae is pale green
Lampides boeticus seeds of red gram, with a roughened skin
cowpea and Lab-lab and pupate on leaf,
niger. twig or pod.
 Caterpillar roll upper
 Female moth lay eggs
4. Leaf folder leaves and make web,
on leaves.
feed inside the web.
 Inside the pod, adult suck
 Insect infested seeds
5. Pod Bug sap from the grains.
not used for seed
 Infected grains smaller in
purpose and for
Clavigralla gibbosa size and turns black in
human consumption.
colour.
6. Pulse Beetle  Important storage pest of
Callosobruchus pulses.
chinensis  Grub feed on the seeds in
pods.
Pest of GramV
 Caterpillar firstly feed on
1. Gram pod borer young leaves, then enter
Helicoverpa armigera inside the pod, the half
body inside the pod and
remaining half outside
the pod, feed on the seeds
of pod.
 major pest of gram.
 Caterpillar cut the plant
2. Cutworm near soil surface.
Agrotis ipsilon  Minor pest of gram.
Pest of SugarcaneV
 Cause dead heart.
Root borer  Rarely bore into the root.
1.
Emmalocera depressella  Attack on stem which is
below the ground level.
 Cause reddish brown
charred “dead heart” and
Top borer
2. shot holes in the leaves
Scirpophaga excerptalis
and galleries in the
midribs.
 Larvae tunnels into the
Sugarcane Shoot Borer
3. stem causing “dead
Chilo infuscatellus
heart”.
 Cause damage from
field to storage.
 HaNPV @ 250 LE/ha
 Trichogramma sp.
(egg parasitoid), not
used in gram, because
gram leaves have
malic and oxalic acid
that is harmful for
Trichogramma sp.
 Nocturnal pest.
 Cannibalism present.
 Only species of borer
infesting the
underground portion
of sugarcane.
 Formation of side
shoots which give rise
to a “bunchy top” is
another symptom of
top borer infestation.
 Attacks 1 to 3 month
old crop of sugarcane.
 Multiplication is
favoured by high
temp. & low humidity
  Larva bores at the nodal
region and enters into the  Attack 1 to 3
Internode borer stem. internodes damags
4. Chilo sacchariphagus  Its feeding cause the and mostly attack is
indicus tissues turn red and the seen in the top 5
hole is usually plugged internodes.
with excreta.
 Biological control,
 Sucking pest.
5. Sugarcane leaf hopper/ release ectoparasitoid,
 Secrete honeydew, on
Pyrilla Epiricarnia
which sooty mold
Pyrilla perpusilla melanoleuca
develop.
(Lepidoptera) at
 Reduce quality of juice
Family : Lophopidae, 4000 – 5000 cocoons
and yield of crop.
Order : Hemiptera or 4 to 5 lakh eggs/ha.
Pest of CottonV
 Damage in standing
American bollworm  Caterpillar make large &
crop as well as in
Helicoverpa armigera irregular hole.
1. storage.
 Caterpillar feed inside the
 HaNPV @ 500
Family : Noctuidae boll.
LE/ha
 Flared square
 Make small and circular
2. Spotted bollworm symptoms produce.
hole on pod.
 Causes drooping and
 Enter inside the pod, the
Earias insulana drying of the shoot.
hole is surrounded by
 Lint from attacked
excreta of caterpillar.
bolls will not be
 Important pest of Okra
clean.
also.
 Lure : Gossyplure
Red bollworm  Pinkish stout larva scoops  Pupates in the soil in
3.
Rabila frontalis out the contents of bolls. an earthen cocoon.
  Larva enters the
4. Cotton Pink Bollworm developing boll through
 Serious pest of cotton
Pectinophora the tip portion and the
& Produce Double
gossypiella entrance hole gets closed
seed.
up as the boll matures.
 Make pin size bore
Family : Gelechiidae  It feed on the seeds and
hole.
move to adjacent locule by
 Rosette shaped bloom
making a hole through the
septum.
 Nymph & adult suck sap
Cotton leaf hopper  Yellowing, curling
from plant.
5. Amrasca biguttula and bronzing of
 Leaves shows “hopper
biguttula leaves.
burn” symptoms
Cotton Whitefly,  Secrete honeydew on
Bemisia tabaci and leaves, which leads to
6.  Nymph & adult suck sap
Cotton Aphid, Aphis development of sooty
gossypii mould.
 Cause staining of the
 Medium – sized reddish lint and make seeds
bug having white bands unfit for sowing.
Red cotton bug on the abdomen & black  Bacterium,
7.
Dysdercus cingulatus markings on wing. Nematospora gossypii
 Nymph & adult suck sap. enters at the site of
 Also infest lady’s finger. injury and stains the
cotton fibre.
 Grub attack the roots of  Weevil is small and
Ash Weevil,
8. cotton plants and adult has greyish white
Myllocerus sp.
feed on leaves. elytra with dark lines.
 Leaves are rolled by the
Cotton leaf roller,  Only one larva is seen
9. larvae which feed on
Syllepta derogata in each leaf roll.
green matter by scraping.
 Diseases of cropss
S. Symptoms of
Name of Disease Causal organism Other points
No. disease

Diseases of Wheatx
 Heteroecious
rust.
 Brown or
 Uredial & Telial
orange colour
Leaf/Brown/Orange :- Wheat &
Puccinia recondita spots on
1. Rust Grasses
leaves.
 Aecial &
 Firstly seen on
Pycnial :
wheat.
Thalictrum
(alternate host)
 Stripes of
Puccinia striiformis  Sonaro – 64
2. Yellow/Stripe Rust yellowish spots
susceptible
on leaves.
 Heteroecious
3. Black/Stem Rust Rust
 Black spots on  Uredial & Telial
stem. :- Wheat, Barley
Puccinia graminis  Also known as & Grasses
var. tritici “Killer  Pycnial &
disease” Aecial :-
 Management: Berberis,
Plantavax Mahonia
(oxycarboxin) (Alternate host/
Primary
infection)
 Hot water
4. Loose smut treatment
 Formation of
(Jensen, 1908)
black powder
Ustilago nuda  Solar heat
instead of
tritici treatment
grain.
(Luthra &
 Internally seed
Suttar, 1934)
borne disease
 Vitavax
(carboxin)
5. Karnal Bunt  First discovered
Neovossia indica  Grains turn
by Mitra (1931)
into black
from Karnal,
Severe at flowering powder.
Hariyana.
stage of crop.  Smell from
 Also known as
karnal bunt
“Cancer
Reduce export infested field
disease”
quality of wheat. due to
 Seed treatment
“Trimethyl
with Agrosan
amine”.
GN

 Secretion of gum like yellowish

6. Tundu disease of Anguina tritici substance from the infested flower of
Wheat (nematode) + the plant.
Corynebacterium
tritici (bacteria)

Diseases of Barleyx
 In India, first
1. Molya disease of Heterodera avenae time discovered
 Adult cysts
Barley or Wheat (Nematode) by Vasudev
observe at
(1958) from
maturity of
Neem Ka
crop.
Thana, Sikar
 This nematode
(Raj.)
causes molya
 Resistant
disease in
variety :
barley.
Rajkiran
(RD - 387)
 Formation of
 Externally seed
2. Covered smut Ustilago hordei black power
borne disease.
instead of grain
 Diseases of Ricex
 i. Leaf blast :
Pyricularia oryzae  Blighting of
1. Rice Blast spindle shaped
(fungi) leaves.
spot - burnt
 Neck and node
appearance,
Forecasting : Epi – blast also
 ii. Node blast,
Bla observe
 iii. Neck blast
 Bengal famine
Helminthosporium
2. Brown leaf Spot  Brown spots in 1943
oryzae
on leaves.  Seed borne
(fungi)
disease
Ditylenchus
3. Ufra disease agnustus  Infection is leaf chlorosis.
(Nematode)
Virus,  RTSV (Rice Tungro Spherical Virus)
4. Tungro disease Vector :- GLH,  RTBV (Rice Tungro Bacilliform
Nephotettix sp. Virus)

 3 important  TN-1 highly

5. Bacterial Blight of symptoms of susceptible
Rice disease :-  Management :-
Xanthomonas
1.Wilting/ spray
oryzae pv. oryzae
Kresek Streptocycline
(Bacteria)
2. Blighting, @ 25 gm in 500
3. Yellowing litre of water
Bacterial ooze.  Either wither per ha.
of plants or  Clipping of
leaf blight, seedling tip
Vascular or
systemic

Diseases of Maizex
 Fugus growth
RDM (Rajasthan Perenosclerospora on lower  Ridomil / Apron
1.
Downey Mildew) heteropogoni surface of 35 SD
leaves
PFSR  Cobs hanging from plant due to stalk rot.
2. (Post Flowering  More hybrid seed production of private institute without
stalk rot) proper technique.
 Diseases of Pearl milletx
Downy Mildew/
Sclerospora  Green ear
1. Green Ear disease
graminicola stage:
 Seed treatment
(Fungi) infloresence
Also known as with metaxyl or
remain green in
“Jogiya” disease. mencozeb.
 Seed and soil colour or turn
 Use of
borne disease, into leafy
First time Pseudomonas
sexual spore in structure.
discovered by E.J. fluorescens
the form of  DM Stage :-
Butler in 1907.  Resistant
Oospore) downy growth
variety: Pusa
 Cl reduces the on lower
E.J. Butler :- Father Moti, WCC-75
severity of surface of
of Indian plant
diseae. leaves.
pathology
 Formation of  Hot water
Tolyposporium
black spores treatment
2. Smut disease penicillariae
instead of  Seed treatment
(fungi)
grain. with fungicide

 Cream to pink
 Sclerotia take
3. Ergot Claviceps mucilaginous
about 30 – 45
fusiformis droplets of
days to
honeydew
germinate &
 Cu reduces ooze out of
severity of produce air
infected florets
disease. borne spores
on pearl millet
 Disease more which spread
panicles and
severe at primary
form sclerotia.
flowering stage. infection of
 Within 10 – 15
bajra crop.
days, droplets
 Secondary
dry and harden
spread through
and dark
conidia.
brown to black
 Causal
sclerotia
organism
develop in
survives on
place of seeds
anjan grass.
on the panicle.
 Diseases of Sorghumx
 CK 60 A line
1. Ergot Claviceps sorghi of sorghum is
 Secretion of
more
honeydew from
Individual spikelets susceptible to
the infected
infected in this this disease.
floret.
disease.  More damage
at flowering
stage.
 Formation of  Seed treatment
Grain Smut Spacelotheca black powder with Thiram
2.
sorghi instead of @ 4 gm/kg
grain. seed
 Discoloration of grains due to
Fusarium sp.,
Grain mould/ Head infection.
3. Aspergillus sp.
mould/ Head blight  Occur during flowering & grain
Alternaria sp. etc.
filling stages.

Diseases of Sesamex
 all floral parts are transformed into
1. Phyllody of Til MLO's (PLO'S) green leafy structure.
Mycoplasma/  Severe infestation, entire
Vector :- Leaf Phytoplasma inflorescences is replaced by short
hopper, twisted leaves closely arranged on a
Orosius albicinctus  stem with short internodes, abundant
abnormal branches bend down.
 Finally, plants looks like witches
broom.
 Diseases of Groundnutx

 Formation of  Spots form

1. Early Tikka or Leaf Cercospora
Yellow halo earlier.
Spot arachidicola
around spots.
(Fungi)
 1 month after
2. Late Tikka or Leaf Cercospora personeta early leaf spot  Seed treatment
Spot  Spots are large with Thiram @
in size. 4 gm/kg seed
 Lower surface  In standing
of leaves crop, spray
looks like Carbendazim @
carbon paper. 0.1 % or
 More loss in Mencozeb @
crop than 1.5 kg/ha
early leaf spot

Aspergillus niger
3. Collar Rot (Fungi)  Rotting of plant near soil surface.

Virus,
4. Rosette disease Vector: Aphid, Aphis  Rosette flower.
craccivora
Virus,
5. Bud Necrosis  Necrosis of buds.
Vector : Thrips
6. Wilt disease Fusarium sp. (Fungi)  Yellowing of plant and dry.

Diseases of Soybeanx
 Symptoms after floweing.
 Patches of stunted or wilted plants.
Macrophomina  Lower stem and tap roots disclored
phaseolina (light grey or silver).
 When, stems are split, black streak
1. Charcoal Rot Fungus is more are evident in the woody portion of
abundant in soil when stem.
pH is very acidic or  Black fungal structures
alkaline. “microsclerotia” that are scattered
throughout the pith and on the surface
of tap roots and lower stems.
  Mungbean Yellow Mosaic Virus,
2. Yellow Mosaic  Vector : Bemisia tabaci
 Mottled and deformed leaves.
 Development of tiny pale green spots
on the new leaves. These spots have
raised centers that may develop on
either surface of the leaf but are more
3. Bacterial Pustule Xanthomonas common on the lower leaf surface.
axonopodis pv. glycines  As the disease progresses, small light
colored pustules will form in the
center of the spots. These spots may
merge together to form irregular areas
that appear as lesions.
 Small, dark spots on the leaves.
 Spots eventually enlarge to a
diameter of about ¼ inch and the
centers of the lesions become gray to
4. Frogeye leaf spot Cercospora sojina brown and have a reddish purple
margin.
 Individual leaf spots can coalesce to
create irregular patterns of blighting
on the leaf.
 Diseases of Mustardx
 Both local and systemic infections are
1. White Rust/ White Albugo candida
observed.
Blister
 In case of local infection, white creamy
(Fungi)
 Resistant yellow raised pustules appear on the
variety : Kranti leaves which later coalesce to form
patches.
 In systemic infection, mixed infection of
white rust and downy mildew cause
swelling and distortion of the stem and
floral parts due to hypertrophy and
hyperplasia and develop “stag head”
structure.
Peronospora
2. Downey Mildew parasitica  Downy growth on lower leaves

3.  Growth of
Erysiphe fungus on  Use of Kerathane or
Mustard PM
cruciferarum upper surface sulphur dust
of leaf

Diseases of Gramx

1.  Infection at
Wilt of Gram
seedling stage.
Fusarium
 Leaves turns  Deep sowing.
oxysporum
into yellow  Roots turn into
 From upper black in colour.
Resistant Variety :-
part to lower
ICCV – 10,
part of plant
Avrodhi
2. Blight Ascochyta rabi  Resistant Variety :– C – 235] xkSjo

Diseases of Sugarcanex

1. Red Rot disease Colletotrichum  The 3rd and 4th leaves (from the top) of
falcatum the infected plants display yellowing and
Resistant varieties (Fungi) drying. At a later stage, show discoloured
:- CO – 419, CO –  Cross – wise
 449, CO - 1111 white patches. lesion on the rind
Split open stem
 If the diseased stalk split open, reddened
emit acidic-sour
odour internal tissues with intermingled white
spots may be seen. The internal colour
becomes brown, pith cavity become
larger, greyish hyphae inside pith become
visible.
 Growing point of the shoot shows many
Pseudomonas
2. Red Stripe disease dark red stripes with water – soaked
rubrilineans
appearance and undergoes rotting.

 Plant appear bushy & grass like

3. Grassy shoot MLOS/PLOS
 Sorghum as natural collateral
host
Vector : Aphids, Aphis maidis,
 numerous lanky fillers
Rhopalosiphum maidis
Sugarcane whip  Formation of black leaf on upper
4. Ustilago scitaminea
smut portion of plant.

Diseases of Cottonx
i. seedling blight,
1. Angular leaf ii. angular leaf spot ,
spot/ black arm
iii. vein blight or vein necrosis or
disease
black
Seed borne vein
disease
Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. iv. Black arm,
malvacearum v. square rot / boll rot
 Standing crop, spray of
Streptocyclin @ 25 gm or
Copper Oxychloride (COC) @ 2
kg/ha Leaf lesions - minute,
water soaked spots on the under
surface of young leaves
  Seedling is the yellowing and
2. Cotton Wilt Fusarium
browning of the cotyledons.
oxysporum f.sp. Vasinfevtum
 Leaves lose their turgidity first
turn yellow and then brown and
Soil and seed borne disease. finally drop off.
 The tap root stunted and laterals
are less abundant.
 Browning and blackening of
vascular tissues.
 Discolorations of leaves starts
from the margins and spread
towards midribs.
 Wilting may be complete or
partial.
Virus (Cotton leaf curl virus)
3. Cotton leaf curl Vector :- Whitefly, Bemisia  Curling of leaves.
tabaci
4. Root Rot Rhizoctonia sp.  Rotting of roots.
 Important Nematode of Crops )
1. Ear Cockle or Seed gall nematode :-
 Nametode :- Anguina tritici
 First discovered by Needham in 1743. In India, discovered by Milne from Punjab in
1919.
 It is first plant parasitic nematode.
 Grains are small in size, formation of galls on grains.
 Management :- Seed soaking in 20 % salt solution.
2. Tundu or Yellow slime disease :-
 Causal organism :- Anguina tritici (Nematode) + Corynebacterium tritici (Bacteria)
 In infected plant, no grain formation.
 Spike is irregular in shape.
 Secretion of yellow sticky substance form infected spike, is an important symptom of this
disease.
 Management :- seed soaking in 20 % salt solution.
3. Molya disease of Barley :- Causal organism :- Heterodera avenae (Nematode)
 Resistant variety of barley :- Rajkiran (RD - 387)
 Cyst of nematode seen between grains at maturity of wheat or barley.
 In India, first discovered by Vasudev (1958) from Neem Ka Thana, Sikar, Rajasthan.
 Management :- Seed soaking in salt solution.
3. Golden Nematode of Potato: Globodera rostrochinensis
 First time discovered by Jones (1961) from Nilgiri, TN.
 This nematode suck sap from roots and damage roots of crop.
 Resistant variety :- Kufri Swarna
4. Root-knot Nematode :- Meloidogyne incognita
 In World first time reported by Barkley in cucumber field.
 In India, first time reported by Barber in Tea crop from Kerala (1901).
 Presence of galls on the roots.
 Plants wilt rapidly especially under dry growing conditions and are often stunted.
 Growth may be retarded and leaves may be chlorotic.
  In cases where seedlings infection has taken place, numerous plants die in the seed bed
and seedlings do not survive transplanting.
 In those plants that do survive, flowering and fruit production is strongly reduced.
 The losses caused by Meloidogyne on root and tuber crops like carrot both quantitative
and qualitatively, because nematode galling affects marketability.
 Nematode cause hypertrophy in giant cells, so knots or galls are formed on roots.
 Resistant varities :- Chilli : Pusa Jwala; Tomato : Hisar Lalit, SL - 120
5. Citrus Nematode:- Tylenchulus semipenetrans
 Twig dieback, decline in growth and reduced fruit size and yield.
 Intercropping of marigold has repellent action and reduces the population of nematodes in
citrus.
6. Ufra disease of Rice:- Ditylenchus angustus
 First discovered by Butler in 1913.
 During vegetative growth form seedling to flag leaf, the principle symptom of infection is
leaf chlorosis.

.
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1Chapter - 14
General Agriculture)
Agriculture )
(Latin word, ager/agri = soil, cultura = cultivation)

1. Agronomy 2. Horticulture 3.Animal Husbandary 4. Entomology

Greek word Latin word Greek word
Agros = field Hortus = enclosed areaEntomon = insect
Nomos = to manage Cultura = culitvationLogos = discourse

i. Pomology ii. Olericulture iii.Floriculture 5. Plant Pathology

Latin + Greek Latin word Latin word 6. Nematology Ponum = Fruit
Oleris = Pot herb 7. Plant Physiology
Logos = Discourse Culture = Cultivation 8. Plant Breeding & Genetics

9. Soil Science 10. Extension Education 11.Ag.Statistics Latin word

Latin word 12.Ag. Economics
Solum = Ground/floorEx = Out
Tensio = Stretching 13. Biotechnology

i. Pedology ii. Edaphology

Greek word, Pedon = Soil or Earth

General Agriculture 1
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Important days)

S.
Date Day
No.
1. 28 Feb. World science day
2. 8 March World women day
3. 15 March Consumer day
4. 21 March World forest day
5. 22 March World water day
6. 23 March World meteorology day
7. 7 April World health day
8. 22 April World earth day
9. 22 May International biodiversity day
10. 1 June World milk day
11. 5 June World environment day
12. 21 June World yoga day
13. 1 July National agriculture day
14. 11 July World population day
15. 16 July Indian Council of Ag. Research/ ICAR fnol
16. 16 September World ozone day
17. 16 October World food day
18. 21 November World fish day
19. 26 November National milk day
20. 3 December Ag. Edu. Day, 2016 esa ICAR
21. 4 December Role of female farmers in agri.)
22. 5 December World soil day

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23. 23 December Kisan day

Important International Year)

S. International
Sector of International Year
No. Year
1. 2004 Rice year
2. 2005 Physics & micro-finance year
3. 2006 Desertification year
4. 2007 Water year
5. 2008 Potato year
6. 2009 Fibre year
7. 2010 Bio-divsersity
8. 2011 Forest year
9. 2012 Cooperative & Horticulture year
10. 2013 Water co-operation
11. 2014 Family farming
12. 2015 Soil year
13. 2016 Pulse year
14. 2017 Sustainable tourism year
15. 2018 Coarse millet year

Important Revolution)
1. Green revolution :-
 Term “Green Revolution” coined by William S. Gaud
 Related to Rice and Wheat.
 Father of Green Revolution in World: N.E. Borlaug

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 Father of Green Revoultion in India: M.S. Swaminathan
 In India, green revolution during 1966-67 due to HYVP.
 State: Punjab and Hariyana
 Dwarfing gene of wheat :- Norin-10, isolated by Dr. Borlaug
 Dwarfing gene of wheat in India :- Rht-1 & Rht-2,
 Rht-2 isolated by M.S. Swaminathan. (Rht means “reduce hight”)
 Dwarfing gene of rice: Dee geo woo gen.
 In 1998, C. Subramanyam awarded as Bharat Ratan for contribution in green
revolution in India.
2. Yellow Revolution:- Oilseed production
 Father of yellow revolution: Sam Pitroda
3. White Revolution:- Milk and its products
 Father of white revolution in India: V. Kurein (Ist chairman of NDDB)
 Operation flood in India from 1970 to 1996 in 3 stages.
4. Blue Revolution:- Fishes
 Father of blue revolution in India: Dr. Arun Krishna
5. Pink Revolution: Prawn and onion production
6. Grey Revolution: Fertilizers
7. Brown Revolution:- Food processing
8. Silvery Revolution:- Egg/poultry production
9. Black Revolution:- Biodieasel/ Bio-fuel/Jetropha production
10. Red Revolution:- Meat and Tomato
 Father of red revolution in India: Vishal Tiwari
11. Round Revolution:- Potato production
12. Golden Revolution:- Fruit production
13. Orange Revolution:- Citrus fruits
14. Rainbow Revolution:- Overall sectors of agriculture.
 Father of rainbow revolution in India: Nitish Kumar

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15. Prabhani Revolution:- Okra production
16. Total Revolution Concept:- Jai Prakash Narayan
Other Names of Crops )
 King of cereal crop:- Wheat
 Queen of cereal crop:- Maize
 King of coarse cereal:- Sorghum
 King of pulses:- Gram/chickpea
 Queen of pulses:- Pea
 King of oilseeds:- Groundnut
 Queen of oilseeds:- Til
 King of fruits:- Mango
 Queen of fruits:- Litchi
 King of temperate fruits:- Apple
 King of spices:- Black pepper
 Queen of spices:- Cardamom
 King of vegetables:- Potato
 Queen of vegetables:- Okra/Lady finger
 Meat for poor men’s:- Soybean
 Famine reserves:- Millets
 King of fodder crops:- Berseem
 Queen of fodder crops:- Lucern
 Vegetable meat:- Cowpea
 Poor men’s fruit:- Ber
 Poor men’s ghee:- Oil of Til
 Poor men’s friend:- Potato
 Poor men’s food:- Pearl-millet
 King of arid & semi-arid fruits:- Ber
 Egg plant/Eubergin:- Brinjal

General Agriculture 5
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 King of flower:- Rose
 Love of apple of England and Poor man’s orange in India:- Tomato
 Miracle fruit of China:- Kiwi fruit
 Yellow gold of America:- Soybean
 Backbone of America:- Maize
 Thorny oilseed crop:- Safflower

Important Terminology
Crop rotation:-
 Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of different types of crops in the same
area across a sequenced of growing seasons. It reduces reliance on one set of nutrients,
pest and weed pressure, and the probability of developing resistant pest and weeds.
Intercropping:-
 Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land in rows.
Mixed cropping:-
 Mixed cropping is a system of sowing two or three crops together on the same land,
one being the main crop and the others the subsidiaries.
Mixed farming:-
 The growing of food or cash crops, feed crops and livestock on the same farm.
Monocropping/monoculture:-
 Growing a single crop year after year on the same land.
Sole crop:-
 Growing one crop alone or in pure stand, either as a single crop or as a sequence of
single crops within the year.

Relay cropping:-

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 Relay cropping is essentially a special version of double cropping, where the second
crop is planted into the first crop before harvest, rather than waiting until after harvest
as in true double-cropping.
 Winter wheat, could be inserted into the seed corn-soybean rotation to use the solar
energy and heat units available between corn harvest in September and soybean
planting in May.
Lay farming:-
 The growing of grass or legumes in rotation with grain or tilled crops as a soil
conservation measure.
Arable crop:-
Eg. Wheat, Barley etc.
Alley crop:-
 Growing herbaceous (agricultural) crops in the wide alleys between rows of trees that
are planted in single or grouped rows.
Augmenting crop :-
 When different sub crops are sown for the purpose of supplement the yield of the
main crop, then the sub crops are known as augmenting crops.
Catch/Contingent crop:-

A crop grown in the space between two main crops or at a time when no main crops
are being grown.
Cole crops:-
 Eg. Cabbage, Cauliflower etc.
Cover crops:-
 Cover crops are plants that are planted to cover the soil rather than for the purpose of
being harvested. Cover crops manage soil erosion, soil fertility, soil quality, water,
weeds, pests, diseases, biodiversity and wildlife in an agroecosystem
Trap crops:-

General Agriculture 7
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 A trap crop is a plant that attracts agricultural pests, usually insects, away from nearby
crops. This form of companion planting can save the main crop from decimation by
pests without the use of pesticides.
S. No. Main crop Trap crop Target Insect Pest
1 Okra/ African
Cotton Bollworm complex
Marigold
2. Tomato Marigold Tomato fruit borer
Cabbage and
3. Sarson Diamond Back Moth/ DBM
Cauliflower
4. Cucurbits Maize Fruit fly

Agrostology:-
Arboriculture:-
Arviculture:-
Olericulture:-
Oliveculture:-
Tsiology:-
Seriology:-
Sericultue:-
Apiculture:-
Moriculture:-
Lac culture:-
Vermiculture:-
Pisciculture Aquaculture:-
Roughing:-

Thinning:-
General Agriculture 8
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Jhuming cultivation:-
Curing:-
Stripping:-
Retting:-
Nipping:-
Propping:-
Earthing up:-
Blind hoeing:-
Staking:-
Arrowing:-
Ratooning:-
Ginning:-
Disuckering:-

Fertilizers Status
N P K
Production 85 % 40 – 50 % 0%
Import 15 % 50 – 60 % 100 %

Photoperiodismk
1. Long Day Plants:
 Plant that require more than 12 hour’s sunlight for flowering.
 Eg. Mostly Rabi crops: Wheat, Barley, Chickpea, Pea, Mustard.
 Onion, Garlic, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Carrot, Spinach, Banana, Apple,
2. Short Day Plants:
 Plant that require less than 12 hour’s sunlight for flowering.
 Mostly Kharif crops: Rice, Pearl millet, Sorghum.

General Agriculture 9
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 Bean, Strawberry, Coffee
3. Intermediate Day Plant:
 Plant that require 13 hours sunlight for flowering.
 Eg. Sugarcane.
4. Day Neutral Plant:
 The plans have no effect of sunlight on flowering.
 Sunflower, Cotton, Brinjal, Okra, Tomato, Chilli, Cucurbits, Papaya, Gauva.

Pollination in crops )
1. Self Pollinated:-
 The crop having less than 5% plants are cross pollinated, that crop is called as self
pollinated.
 Eg.: Wheat, Barley, Rice, Tomato, Pea, Lobia, Fenugreek, Potato
2. Often Cross Pollinated:-
 The crop having 5 to 25 % plants are cross pollinated, that crop is called as often
cross pollinated.
 Eg.: Sorghum, Cotton, Arhar, Triticale, Chilli, Okra, Brinjal, Tobacco.
3. Cross Pollinated:-
 The crop having more than 25 % plants is cross pollinated, that crop is called as
cross pollinated.
 Eg.: Maize, Pearl millet, Cole crops, Cucurbits, Carrot
Types of chemical toxicity )
Ø- la- fo"kkDrk dk jax Toxicity type
1- yky (Red) vR;Ur@csgn fo"kkDr (Extremely toxic)
2- ihyk (Yellow) vR;f/kd fo"kkDr (Highly toxic)
3- uhyk (Blue) e/;e fo"kkDr (Moderately toxic)

General Agriculture 10
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4- gjk (Green) de fo"kSyk (less toxic)

jlk;uks ds fNMdko esa d.kksa dk vkdkj (Droplet size) )

1. mMus okys dhVks ds fu;a=.k gsrq %& 10 ls 50 ekbØksu
2. lrg ij jgus okys dhVks ds fu;a=.k gsrq %& 30 ls 150 ekbØksu
3. ikni jksxks ds fu;a=.k gsrq %& 30 ls 150 ekbØksu
4. [kjirokjks ds fu;a=.k gsrq %& 100 ls 300 ekbØksu
Ø- la- d.kks dk izdkj d.kks dk vkdkj ¼ekbØksu esa½ dke es vkus okyh ÅtkZ
1- ok"Ik (Vapour) 0.001 – 0.01 rkih; ÅtkZ
2- /kqvk (Smoke) 0.01 – 1.0 rkih; ÅtkZ
dksgjk ;k ,sjkslksy
3- 1.0 – 50 rkih; ÅtkZ
(Fog/Aerosol)
4- /kq/a k (Mist) 51 – 100 xSlh; ÅtkZ
5- eghu fNMdko (Fine spray) 101 – 200 &
e/;e fNMdko (Medium
6- 201 – 400 &
spray)
7- eksVk fNMdko (Coarse spray) > 400 &

Qlyks esa xq.klw= la[;k (Chromosome number in crops) )

Ø- xq.klw= la[;k
Qly dk uke (Name of crops)
la- (Ch. no.) 2n
1- 12 foyk;rh ikyd
2- 14 xqykc] [khjk] eVj] jkbZ] tkS] elqj] cktjk
3- 16 cjlhe] I;kt] yglqu] lubZ] esFkh
4- 18 xktj] ewyh] iihrk] pqdqUnj] QqyxksHkh] irkxksHkh] vukj] ikyd
5- 20 eDdk] Tokj] ’kyte] dqlqe
6- 22 eqax] mMn] yksfc;k] vjgj] jktek] djsyk] ykSdh] ijoy] rjcqt] ve:n] djkSnk]

General Agriculture 11
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7- 24 VekVj] cSxu] fepZ] [kjcqt] fV.Mk] isBk] dqlqe] pkoy
8- 26 fpduh rksjbZ] /kkjhnkj rksjbZ] fry] ns’kh dikl] jkxh
9- 28 vkaoyk] pks&pks] lst
a uk
10- 30 fyph] pk;] vylh
11- 32 ukfj;y] lqikjh] v[kjksV] fjtdk
12- 33 dsyk ¼f=xqf.kr½
13- 34 lso] uk”kikrh] lqjteq[kh
14- 36 csy] Qkylk] [ktqj] phdw
15- 38 vaxqj
16- 40 lks;kchu] eqaxQyh] vke] tkequ] dn~nw
17- 42 xsgWw] dktq
18- 44 dkWQh
19- 48 vkyq] rEckdw] csj
20- 50 vUukl
21- 51 lqjteq[kh ¼f=xqf.kr½
22- 56 dVgy] LVªkcsjh
23- 58 fdohQzqV
24- 80 lSdsje vkWQhflusje] foykbZdksyEcu
25- 90 “kdjdan
26- 130 fHkMha

Qlyks ds mRifr LFkkuu

Ø- la- Qly dk uke mRifr LFkku

1- Wheat/ xsgWw South West Asia/ n- i- ,f”k;k
2- Rice/ pkoy Indo-Burma/ Hkkjr&cekZ@n-iw- ,f”k;k
3- Sugarcane/ xUuk India/New Guinea/ Hkkjr@U;q fxfu;k

General Agriculture 12
Errorless
4- Gram/ puk South West Asia/ n- i- ,f”k;k
5- Maize/ eDdk Mexico/Central America/ eSfDldks
6- Tobacco/ rEckdw Central America / e/; vesfjdk
7- Potato/ vkyw South America/ nf{k.kh vesfjdk@is:
8- Groundnut/ ewaxQyh Brazil/ czkthy
Soybean / Mustard (lks;kchu o eLVMZ),
9- China/ phu
pk;
10- dikl] cSxu] ewx
a ]mMn India/ Hkkjr
11- cktjk] Tokj] vjgj Africa / vQzhdk

Qlyks ds dqy (Family) )

Ø-la- Qly dk uke dqy

1- vj.Mh] jrutksr] vkaoyk ;wQksjfc,lh
2- lkSaQ] xktj] /kfu;k] thjk vEcsyhQsjh@,sih,lh
3- twV] Qkylk fVyh,lh
4- lwjteq[kh] dqlqe dEiksftVh@,LVjslh
5- rEckdw] vkyw] VekVj] cSxu] fepZ lksysuslh
6- dikl] fHk.Mh] iVlu ekyoslh
7- ljlks]a ewyh] 'kyte] irkxksHkh] QwyxksHkh ØqlhQsjh
8- “kdjdUn dksuoksuoqyl
s h
9- fry isMhfy,lh
10- esFkh] lHkh nyguh Qlys] fjtdk] cjlhe ysX;wfeukslh

[kk|kUuks es izksVhu (Protein) dh ek=k k

General Agriculture 13
Errorless
Ø- la- Qly izksVhu izfr”kr izksVhu dk uke
1- Pkkoy 6 & 7 % ¼T;knk lkcjerh fdLe½ vksjkbthu
2- eDdk 10 % thu (Zein)
3- cktjk 11&12 % &
4- tkS 11-5 % gksfMZu@,YC;qfeuksbMl
5- xsgw¡ 11&12 % XywVhu ¼ekyfodk & 16 % ½

fryguh Qlyks es izksVhu dh ek=k k

Ø- la- Qly dk uke izksVhu izfr”kr

1- lks;kchu 40 & 42 % (Boneless meat)
2- ewaxQyh 26 %
3- fry 18& 20 %
4- vylh 36 %
5- dqlqe 40 & 45 %

nyguh Qlyks es izksVhu dh ek=k k

Ø- la- Qly dk uke (Name of crops) izksVhu (Protein) %

1- puk (Gram/Chickpea) 21.1 %
2- eVj (Pea) 22.5 %
3- poyk (Cowpea) 23.4 %
4- mM+n (Blackgram) 24 %
5- ewax (Greengram) 25 %
6- elwj (Lentil) 25 %
7- vjgj (Pigeonpea) 21-25% (23)

General Agriculture 14
Errorless
Qlyks es rsy dh ek=k (Oil content of crops) )
Ø- la- Qly dk uke (Name of crops) rsy (oil) %
1- ukfj;y (Coconut) 60%
2- fry (Sesamum) 46&52%
3- ewaxQyh (Groundnut) 44&50%
4- vj.Mh (Castor) 45&55%
5- dqlqe (Safflower) 24&36%
6- lks;kchu (Soybean) 20%
7- Lkjlks (Mustard) 33 %

jkT; o mudh e`nkvks esrRoks dh deh ;k vf/kdrk k

Ø- la- jkT; dk uke rRo dh deh ;k vf/kdrk
1- dukZVd eSxuht dh deh (Mn deficiency)
2- ia- caxky vklsZfud dh fo"kkDrk (As toxicity)
3- iatkc ftad dh deh (Zn deficiency)
4- mÙkjh iwohZ {ks= ,Y;qfefu;e dh fo"kkDrk (Al toxicity)
5- rfeyukMq vk;ju dh deh (Fe deficiency)

egRoiw.kZ Qlyks dk ijh{k.k Hkkj (Test weight of important crops))

Ø- la- Qly dk uke (Name of crops) ijh{k.k Hkkj (Test weight)
1- lkekU; pkoy (Normal Rice) 25 gm
2- cklerh pkoy (Basmati Rice) 21 gm
3- xsgWw (Wheat) 40 gm
4- dikl] vjgj (Cotton, Arhar) 70 gm
5- eVj (Field Pea) 100 gm
6- eLVMZ (Sarson & Mustard) 3 – 5 gm
7- TOkkj (Sorghum) 25 – 30 gm

General Agriculture 15
Errorless
8- cktjk (Bajra) 5 – 7 gm
9- vylh] dqlqe (Linseed, Safflower) 10 gm
10- fjtdk (Lucern) 2 – 4 gm

Qlyks es mifLFkr egRoiw.kZ rRoo

Ø- la- Qly dk uke (Name of crops) rRo dk uke (Name of element)
1- lks;kchu (Soybean) xksbVªkstu
2- dikl (Cotton) xkslhiksy
3- fjtdk] egqvk (Lucern, Mahua) lsiksfuu
4- TOkkj (Sorghum) HCN/ /kqfju@izqfld vEy
5- tbZ (Oat) ukbVªsV
6- cktjk] usfi;j ?kkl (Bajra, Napier grass) vkWDtsfyd vEy
7- ySFkkbjl (Lathyrus) ysFkkbjkstu@U;wjksVkWfDlu (BOAA)
8- vkyq (Potato) lksysfuu
9- vj.Mh dh [kyh (Castor cake) fjlhu
10- ljlksa o eLVMZ (Sarson & Musard) b:fld vEy
11- vjgj o paoyk (Arhar & Cowpea) fVªIlhu
12- vke (Mango) jsftUl
13- dqlqe (Safflower) ikWyhfQukWYl

Qlyks dh igyh ladj fdLesesa

Ø- la- Qly dk uke (Name of crops) fdLe dk uke
1- eDdk (Maize) xaxk&1] 1961
2- Tokj (Sorghum) CSH – 1 (1964)
3- cktjk (Bajra) HB – 1 (1965), Atwal
4- dikl (Cotton) H – 4 (1970), C.T. Patel
5- pkoy (Rice) CORH – 1, 1994

General Agriculture 16
Errorless
6- rEckdw (Tobacco) GTH – 1
7- lqjteq[kh (Sunflower) BSH – 1, 1980
8- vjgj (Arhar) ICPH – 8, 1991
9- xUuk (Sugarcane) CO – 205, 1926
10- vj.Mh (Castor) v:.kk
11- cklerh pkoy (Basmati Rice) PRH – 10

12- vke (Mango) vkezikyh] efYydk] R.N. Singh

13- eLVMZ (Mustard) NRCHB – 506
14- dqlqe (Safflower) DSH - 129

Hkkjr es Qlyks dk flfpar {kS==

Ø-la- Crop ¼Qly dk uke½ flafpr {ks= (Irrigated Area) %
1- Sugarcane 93%
2- Wheat 85%
3- Rice 50%
4- fryguh Qlys 25%
5- nyguh Qlys 10%

fofHkUu midj.k ,oa mudk dk;Z;Z

Ø- la- midj.k dk uke dk;Z
1- gkbxzksehVj ¼lkbØksehVj½ vkisf{kr vknzZrk
2- FkekZehVj rkiØe ekius es
3- cSjksehVj ok;qnkc ekius esa
4- VsfUl;ksehVj e`nkueh ruko ¼0-85 ckj ij½
5- fo.M oSu ok;q dh fn'kk ekius esa ¼ok;q fnd~ lwpd
a ;a=½
6- ,feuksehVj ok;q dh xfr ekius gsrq
7- vYVhehVj Å¡pkbZ ekius dk ;a=

General Agriculture 17
Errorless
8- ykblhehVj ok"iks ok"iksRltZu ¼ok"ihdj.k $ ok"iksRltZu½
9- iksVksehVj ok"iksRltZu
10- eSuksehVj ewynkc Kkr djus dk ;a=
11- gkbMªksehVj ikuh dk vkisf{kd ?kuRo
12- ikbjsuksehVj lw;Z ls vkus okyh dqy fdj.kksa dks ekius dk ;a=
13- ik;jgsfy;ksehVj lw;Z ls vkus okyh lh/kh fdj.kksa dks ekius dk ;a=
14- doZ dkMZ lw;Z dh jks'kuh
15- Beaulfort scale Wind force /ok;q nkc

egRoiw.kZ oSKkfud (Important Scientists) )

 fofy;e ,l- xkSM %& gfjr Økafr “kCn fn;kA
 ukWjeu bZ- cksjykWx %& fo’o esa gfjr Økafr ds tud] vesfjdu oSKkfud] ikni jksx oSKkfud (pathologist)]
1970 esa “kkfUr (peace) ds {ks= esa ukscsy iq:Ldkj ls lEekfur fd;k x;kA
 MkW- ,e-,l- LokehukFku %& Hkkjr eas gfjr Økafr ds tud] xsgWw ds iztud] lr~r gfjr Økafr (evergreen)
“kCn fn;k] 1987 eas fo”o [kk| iq:Ldkj ls lEekfur fd;k x;kA o"kZ 2000 eas iwoZ iz/kkuea=h vVy fcgkjh
oktis;h usa feysfu;e iq:Ldkj ls budksa lEekfur fd;k FkkA iqLrd :- Wheat Revolution
 oxhZl dqfj;u %& Hkkjr esa “osr Økafr dk tud] Hkkjr eas vkWIkjs”ku ¶yM ¼1970 & 1996½ ds tud] 1963 eas
eSXlsls iq:Ldkj ls lEekfur fd;k x;kA o"kZ 1989 esa fo”o [kk| iq:Ldkj ls lEekfurA
 ,l-ds- oly %& eDdk iztud] flesV] eSfDldksAa mPp xq.kork ;qDr izksVhu eDdk ds tud] o"kZ 2000 eas
fo’o [kk| iq:Ldkj ls lEekfurA
 MkW- ds-,y- pM~Mk %& Qy oSKkfud] lqugjh Økafr ds tudA
 MkW- vkj-,l- ijksnk %& pkjs okyh Qlyksa ds iztudA jktLFkku fuoklh ICAR ds izFke egkfuns”kd (DG)
jg pqds gSA
 lat; jktkjke %& vUrjjk"Vhª; xsgWw iztudA budksa o"kZ 2001 esa phu dk QzsUMf’ki esMy ls lEekfur fd;k
x;kA
 MkW- th-,l- [kq”k %& pkoy iztud o lqij pkoy dh vo/kkj.kk nhA budks o"kZ 2000 esa oksYQ iq:Ldkj ls
lEekfur fd;k x;kA
 MkW- ,u-th- nLrkuk %& flapkbZ fu/kkZj.k ij dk;Z fd;kA
 MkW- ,l-,l- fcUl %& fjys ØkWfiax o Qly i}fr ij dk;Z fd;kA

General Agriculture 18
Errorless
 MkW- jktsUnz izlkn %& slow release nitrogen fertilizer
 MkW- ch-,y- Hkkj}kt %& xsgWw dh ØkfUrd voLFkkvkas ds ckjs esa dk;Z fd;kA
 fudksyl %& dk;kZRed iks"kd rRo] 1963
 vkjukWu o LVkmV %& 1939 eas iks"kd rRo dh vko”;drk dh dlkSVh (criteria of essentiality) nhA
vkjukWu us bls 1954 esa iqu% ifjHkkf"kr fd;kA
 ifjgkj %& IW/CPE ratio, 1974
 MkW- xkSre %& cktjs dh ulZjh
 MkW- lh-Vh- iVsy %& dikl dh vf/kd mit nsus okyh igyh ladj fdLe :- H – 4 (1970), alqjr] xqtjkr
ls fodflr dh xbZA
 fyfox %& d`f"k jlk;u dk tud] U;wurk dk fl}kUr (law of minimum) fn;kA
 CySdesu %& lhekdkjh dkjd dk fl}kUr (law of limiting factor) fn;kA
 czsl %& iks"kd rRoksa dh xfr”khyrk dh ifjdYiuk nhA
 Mhu o QzkbM %& A value dh vo/kkj.kk nhA Qlyksa esa QkWLQksjl dh ek=k Kkr djus gsrqA
 MksUkkYM %& dVkbZ lwp
a dkd dh ifjdYiuk nh
 :MksYQ LVsuj %& tSoxfrdh ds firkekg (father of biodynamics)
 gkoMZ o okMZ %& tSfod [ksrh ds firkekg (father of organic farming)
 MkW- jkenkl %& Hkkjrh; tyok;q foKku ds firkekg (father of indian meterology)
 Hopkins :- Bio Climate Law
 xkMZuj ,oa ,ykMZ %& Photoperiodism concept in 1920.
 F. W. osUV %& Thermoperiodism concept
 yk;lsUdks %& olUrhdj.k (Vernilization concept)
 ckWlhUxqYV %& Father of field plot technique
 V.V. Mksdqpos %& isMksyksth ds firkekg
 tsFkzksVqy %& Hkw&ifj"dj.k ds firkekg] [kjirokj foKku dk tudA Book : Horse hoeing
husbandary.
 fVªIysV %& “kwU; Hkw&ifj"dj.k
 M. L. VªUx %& e`nk ijh{k.k rduhd ds tud
 fouksxzkMLdh %& e`nk lw{ethoh ds tud

General Agriculture 19
Errorless
 fiVj fMØslUs th %& lL; foKku ds firkekg
 vkFkZj ;ax %& Book : “Annals of Agriculture”
 lksjsULku %& pH concept
 fczDl o LukVt %& Permanent Wilting Point
 LdksfQYM %& PF – concept (measure in cm)
 lkbysu %& PE concept. PE = Eh/0.0591
 “kwesdj %& pwuk ¼vEyh; e`nk gsrq½ 1961 esa
 LØquj %& ftIle ¼{kkjh; e`nk gsrq½ 1952 eas
 Y.L. usus %& /kku ds [kSjk jksx dks [kkstk] 1966 esa
 Dr. R.K. efyd %& fglkj eas QSyfs jl ekbuj dh vkblksizksV;qjkWu ds izfr izfrjks/kdrk ns[khA
 bZLV o ’ky %& 1910 esa] eDdk dh ,dy ladj.k (single cross) rduhd nhA ladj eDdk (hybrid
maize) dh ifjdYiuk nhA
 D.F. tksUl %& eDdk dh f}ladj.k rduhd (double cross technique) 1920 esa nhA
 H.F. DyseUs V %& crop logging concept in Sugarcane, gokbZ uked LFkku ij] ifr;ksa ds fo”ys"k.k ds
vk/kkj ij iks"kd rRoksa dh ek=k Kkr djukA
 T.S. osd
a Vjeu %& ukscyhd`r xUuk ¼lSdsje vkWQhflusje½ fodflr fd;kA
 jkekuqtu %& lR; vkyw cht rduhd (true potato seed) fodflr dhA chtnj @ 100 – 150 gm/ha
 iq"djukFk %& developed “seed plot technique in potato”, eq[; mns”; % fo"kk.kq jfgr vkyq dk cht
izkIr djukA
 Dr. K.C. esgrk %& Hkkjr esa xsgWw dh jksyh jksx ij dk;Z gSA
 fjEiq %& igyk ekuo fufeZr [kk|kUu fVªVhdsy fodflr fd;kA
 ukxkgs: %& ljlksa dk f=dks.k fn;kA
 E. J. cVyj %& cktjs dk gfjrckyh jksx dh [kkst dh RkFkk Hkkjr esa ikni jksx foKku ds firkekg dgs tkrs
gSA
 baxksiksfVªdl %& lqugjk pkoy (golden rice concept) dh ifjdYiuk
 S. ukxjktu %& lqij xsgWw (super wheat concept) dh ifjdYiuk nhA
 C.D. ek;h %& Bt- Cotton in India.
 uhrh”k dqekj %& bUnz/kuq"k Økafr ds tud

General Agriculture 20
Errorless
 fgYVuj %& jkbtksLih;j “kCn fn;kA
 Qad (Funk) %& foVkfeu “kCn fn;kA
 Qszad (Frank) %& ekbdksjkbtk “kCn fn;kA
 dqgus (Kuhne) :- ,atkbe “kCn fn;kA
 G. Kaloo & C.M. Rick :- Improvement in Tomato
 Gresof & Doy :- VekVj eas gsIyksbM@vxqf.kr ikS/ks dh ifjdYiuk nhA
 MkW- gjHktu %& fHk.Mh esa lq/kkj
 MkW- tsUlu %& 1822 eas loZizFke yUnu ls QwyxksHkh Hkkjr yk;kA
 tksUl o eku :- selfing & massing method of improvement in Onion.
 K.V. ihVj :- Hkkjrh; elkyksa es lq/kkj
 R.S. Amin :- soft wood grafting concept in Mango.
 ih;jlu %& QwyxksHkh esa uj c/;ark (male sterility)
 D.E. dsUMksys :- father of systematic pomology.
 Marigowda %&Hkkjrh; m|ku foKku ds firkekg (father of Indian horticulture)
 ch-ih- ikWy %& xqykc dk iztud] Book :- “The Rose in India”.
 MkW- f=osnh %& Ikebana.
 “kkbeu ,oa ’ksQkMZ %& dsys dk oxhZdj.k
 rukdk ,oa fLoax %& flVªl dk oxhZdj.k
 fgfxUl %& iihrk ls lacf/kr
 phek %& vukj ls lacf/kr
 H.B. Frost :- fdUuksa ij dk;Z
 phek ,oa /kkuh %& Liksth ÅÙkd] vke ds ckjs eas crk;kA
 S.K. Roy :- Zero engery cool chamber

egRoiw.kZ vf/kfu;ee
 DIPA :- Destructive insect pest act, Feb. 1914 (Madras)
 Essential commodity act (vko”;d oLrq vf/kfu;e):- 1955
 Seed act (cht vf/kfu;e) :- 1966, ykxq gqvk 1969

General Agriculture 21
Errorless
 Insecticide act (dhVuk”kh vf/kfu;e) :- 1968, ykxq gqvk 1971
 Fertilizer control order (moZjd fu;a=.k vkns”k) :- 1957 (redefined 1985)
 Seed control order (cht fu;a=.k vkns”k) :- 1983
 Seed policy (cht uhfr) :- 2002

Confusion in Varitiess

iwlk Økafr %& cSxu] vktkn Økafr %& cSxu] fHk.Mh

iwlk xkSjo %& VekVj]
iwlk migkj %& VekVj]
iwlk “khry %& VekVj]
iwlk lnkcgkj %& VekVj] fepZ] Xokj]
iwlk T;ksfr %& ikyd]
iwlk fodkl %& dn~n]w
iwlk vyadkj %& Summer squash
iwlk dksey %& cSxu]
iwlk nhikyh %& QwyxksHkh] fepZ
iwlk csnkuk %& rjcwt]
fgekaxh %& [khjk]
iwlk fgekuh %& ewyh]
iwlk dslj %& xktj]
vdkZ gal %& vxqaj]
vdkZ xkSjo %& fepZ]
fglkj yfyr %& VekVj]
vdkZ ojnku %& VekVj]
iwlk _rqjkt %& paoyk]
iwlk gfjr %& ikyd]
iwlk vueksy %& cSxu]
iwlk fodkl %& dn~n]w
vdkZ xkSjo %& fepZ
iwlk midkj %& cSxu] o"kkZ midkj %& fHk.Mh
“khry %& [khjk] vdkZ “khry %& ddMh
iatkc lnkcgkj %& ulnkj rksjbZ
vdkZ T;ksfr %& rjcwt T;ksfr %& vukj
iwlk fo”okl %& dn~nw iwlk fo”ks"k %& djsyk
vdkZ dksey %& jktek
nhikyh %& Mksfydl chu
vyhZ csnkuk %& fyph
fgefxjh %& vnjd
iwlk fgeT;ksfr %& QwyxksHkh
vdkZ dslj %& XysfM;ksyl] dslj %& vke
vdkZ jktgal %& [kjcwt] iwlk jljkt %& [kjcwt
vdkZ lkSjHk %& VekVj] iwlk xkSjo %& VekVj
yfyr %& ve:n
ojnku %& cSxu
iar _rqjkt %& cSxu
vdkZ gfjr %& djsyk
fglkj vueksy %& VekVj
vdkZ fodkl %& VekVj

General Agriculture 22
Errorless
iar cgkj %& VekVj]
iar migkj %& eVj]
iwlk uohu %& ykSdh
iar lezkV %& cSxu]
iwlk yky %& “kadjdan]
iwlk flUFksfVd %& iÙkkxksHkh]
jksfg.kh %& ulnkj rksjbZ
ve`r %& rjcwt]
iwlk vuqie %& cSxu]
iwlk Lokfr %& ewyh]
iatkc dksey %& ykSdh
iwlk fcanq %& cSxu]
iwlk Økafr %& cSxu]
iwlk cjlkrh %& yksfc;k]
iwlk lQsn %& ewyh]
vyhZ oUMj %& pqdqUnj
Cysd C;qVh %& cSxu]
iwlk dapu %& ikyd
iwlk lca/k %& irkxksHkh]
iwlk “kqHkzk %& QwyxksHkh]
izkbM vkWQ bafM;k %& irkxksHkh]
iwlk dsrdh %& QwyxksHkh]
Qqys lqjs[kk %& jktek]
Lo.kkZ :ik %& fyph]
fiz;k %& djsyk]
iwlk T;ksfr %& ikyd]
fglkj ykfyek] fglkj yfyr] fglkj v:.k %& VekVj
fglkj “;key] fglkj tkequh %& cSxu
fglkj cjlkrh %& fHk.Mh]
General Agriculture
Lo.kkZ migkj %& ulnkj rksjbZ
uohu %& ladj VekVj]
iwlk jsM %& I;kt]
vdkZ eksfguh %& fepZ]
iar vuqie %& jktek]
Lokfr %& ykSdh
vdkZ dksey %& jktek]
iatkc cjlkrh %& cSxu]
dapu %& czksdyh]
fdax vkWQ uksFkZ %& fepZ] uksy&[kksy
iwlk vxsrh %& irkxksHkh]
vdkZ cgkj %& ykSdh
iwlk migkj %& VekVj
vdkZ uouhr %& cSxu
lezkV %& “kdjdan
iatkc yky %& fepZ
iwlk vyhZ flUFksfVd %& QwyxksHkh
iwlk jksfg.kh %& VekVj
ujsUnz ve`r %& dn~nw
vdkZ vuqiek %& djsyk
iwlk lkouh %& fHk.Mh
iwlk dksey %& paoyk] cSxu
vdkZ fcUnq %& I;kt
ijHkuh Økafr %& fHk.Mh
fglkj cjlkrh %& fHk.Mh
iatkc lQsn %& ewyh
;ksyks oUMj %& fepZ
vesfjdu C;wVh %& xktj
ikye fiz;k %& eVj
iwlk “kjn %& QwyxksHkh
iar “kqHkzk %& QwyxksHkh
iwlk psrdh %& ewyh
lqj[s kk %& ulnkj rksjbZ
Lo.kkZ js[kk %& ijoy
iwlk lqfiz;k %& ykSdh
vkU/kz T;ksfr %& fepZ
cjlkrh %& paoyk
23
Errorless
bEizwOM tkikuht %& QwyxksHkh] tkikuht OgkbV %& ewyh
iwlk es?kkyh %& xktj] vdkZ es?kkyh %& VekVj
iwlk la;ksx %& [khjk] iwlk lans”k %& ykSdh
fiz;k %& [khjk]
vdkZ thr %& [kjcwt] vdkZ vftr %& eVj
iwlk fdj.k %& vejsUFkl] fdj.k %& “kdjdan
ijfdUl yksx xzhu %& fHk.Mh] tkikuht yksx xzhu %& [khjk
oS”kkyh %& VekVj] cSxu
iUr vuqiek %& jktek] iwlk vuqie %& cSxu] vdkZ vuqiek %& jktek

egRoiw.kZ laLFkku (Important Institute) )

IARI :-
 1905 :- IARI, Imperial Ag. Res. Institute, Pusa, Bihar
 Supervision by Lord Curzon (ykMZ dtZu ds Ik;Zos{k.k esa cuk)
 Help :- Rs. 9 lakh donated by American Philip of USA
 Hence name PUSA
 1934 :- Earthquake at pusa, Bihar (iwlk] fcgkj esa HkwdEi)
 1936 :- Shift to New Delhi (ubZ fnYyh LFkkUrfjr)
 1936 :- First Indain director of IARI, B. Vishwanath (ch- fo’oukFk)
 1958 :- IARI, Deemed University (fMEM fo’ofo|ky; dk ntkZ fn;k x;k)
 Present Name (orZeku uke):- Indian Ag. Res. Institute, New Delhi
 Hkkjrh; d`f"k vuqla/kku laLFkku] ubZ fnYyh
 orZeku funs”kd %& MkW- ,-ds- flag

ICAR :-
 1926 :- Royal Commission on Agriculture, Chairman – Lord Linlithow
 1928 :- Royal Commission submitted report
 16 July 1929 :- ICAR (Imperial Council of Ag. Res.) / LFkkiuk fnol

General Agriculture 24
Errorless
 Present Name :- Indian Council of Ag. Res.
 Hkkjrh; d`f"k vuqla/kku ifj"kn] ubZ fnYyh
 Presidant of ICAR :- Union Ag. Minister (v/;{k % dsfUnz; d`f"k ea=h)
 First president of ICAR :- Moh. Habibullah (igyk v/;{k % eksgEen gchcqyk)
 Present Presidant of ICAR (orZeku v/;{k):- ujsUnz flag rksej
 First Director General (DG) (igyk egkfuns”kd) of ICAR :- Dr. B.P. Pal
 Present Director of ICAR :- f=ykspu egkik=k ¼orZZeku egkfuns”kd½
 First Rajasthan domicile DG of ICAR :- R.S. Paroda
 1979 :- ICAR Golden Jubilee Year (xksYMu tqcyh o"kZ)
DARE :-
 Department of Ag. Res. & Education ¼d`f"k vuqla/kku ,ao f”k{kk foHkkx] ubZ fnYyh½
 Established in 1973 (1973 esa LFkkfir)
 Autonomous body (Lora=)
 Control on 1. ICAR 2. CAU, Imphal, Manipur
 Secretary (lfpo) of DARE :- DG of ICAR
 Present Secretary of DARE :- f=yksdpu egkik=k
CAU :- Central Ag. Universities (dsfUnz; d`f"k fo”ofo|ky;) :-
1. CAU, Imphal, Manipur, 1993 2. Rani Laxmi Bai CAU, Jhansi, UP, 2014
3. Dr. Rajendra Prasad CAU, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar, 2016
State Ag. Universities (jkT; d`f"k fo”ofo|ky;):- Rajasthan (05)
 First College :- SKN College of Ag. at Jobner
 1955, RCA, Udaipur established
 1962, Sukhadia University, Udaipur having ag. stream, Second sate in India
 1987, Separate Ag. University at Bikaner known as RAU (Now SKRAU)
 1 Nov. 1999, Second ag. university in state is MPUAT, Udaipur (First name AU,
Udaipur)
1. MPUAT, Udaipur :- established in 1 Nov. 1999
2. SKRAU, Bikaner :- established in 1987
General Agriculture 25
Errorless
3. SKNAU, Jobner :- established in Sep. 2013
4. AU, Jodhpur :- established in Sep. 2013
5. AU, Kota :- established in Sep. 2013
Animal University in Rajasthan :- 01
 RAJUVAS :- Rajasthan Uni. of Vet. & Animal Sciences (jkt- Ik”kq fpfdRlk vkSj Ik”kq foKku
fo”ofo|ky;), Bikaner
 Established on 13 May 2010
 Hkkjr dk igyk d`f"k fo’ofo|ky; :- G.B. Pant University of Ag. & Technology, Pantnagar,
(U.K.) 1960
 Planning commission (;kstuk vk;ksx):- LFkkfir 1950] eq[; dk;Z & iapo"khZ; ;kstukvksa dk
fØ;kUo;Uk djukA igyh iapo"khZ; ;kstuk dh “kq:vkr 1951 lsA bldk v/;{k iz/kkuea=h gksrk gSA vafre 12
oha & 2012 ls 2017 rdA
 uhfr (NITI) vk;ksx %&orZeku esa ;kstuk vk;ksx dks Hkax dj uhfr vk;ksx cuk;k x;k tks dk;Zjr gSA
bldk v/;{k iz/kkaue=h gksrk gSA bldh LFkkiuk 1 tuojh 2015 dks iz/kkuae=h ekuuh; ujsUnz eksn h us dh
rFkk blus viuk dk;Z vizSy 2017 ls ’kq: fd;kA
 lu 1899 & 1900 ds Hkh"k.k vdky dks ns[krs gq;s bl leL;k ds LFkkbZ lek/kku vkSj d`f"k ds pgqeq[kh
fodkl ds fy;s lu~ 1904 esa Hkkjrh; d`f"k cksMZ dh LFkkiuk dh xbZA
 lu~ 1905 esa fcgkj ds njHkaxk ftys esa xMad unh ds fdukjs d`f"k ’kks/k dk;ksZ ds fy;s fQIl iz;ksx”kkyk dh
LFkkiuk dh xbZA
 ASRB : Agricultural Scientist Recruitment Board (d`f"k oSKkfud p;u e.My), ubZ fnYyh]
LFkkiuk 1 uoEcj 1973 esAa
 CAZRI :- Central Arid Zone Research Institute (dsfUnz; ’kq"d {ks= vuqla/kku
laLFkku), tks/kiqj] LFkkfir 1959 esaA
 AFRI :- Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur
 CICR :- Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, M.H.
 CRIDA : Central Research Institute for Dryland Ag., Hyderabad (1985)
 CRRI : Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttak, Orrisa (1946)
 CSSR : Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, Hariyana (1969)

General Agriculture 26
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 CTRI : Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajamundri, A.P.
 NAARM : National Academy of Ag. Research Management, Hyderabad.
 NCIPM : National Centre for Integrated Pest Management, New Delhi, (1988)
 NIAM : National Institute of Ag. Marketing, Jaipur (1988)
 NPPTI : National Plant Protection Training Institute, Hyderabad.
 IISS : Indian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal, M.P. (1988)
 IIPR : Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, U.P.
 IIVR : Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi
 IRRI : International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Phillipines (1960)
 CIMMYT : International Centre for Maize & Wheat Improvement, Mexico (1966)
 FRI : Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (1905)
 CIAH : Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner (1993)
 CISH : Central Institute for Sub-tropical Horticulture, Luckhnow, U.P.
 CITH : Central Institute for Temperate Horticulture, Shrinagar & J.K.
 IIHR : Indain Institute of Horti. Research, Hisarghatta, Banglore
 Buffalo Research Institute, Hisar, Hariyana
 Camel Research Institute, Joharbid, Bikaner
 Seed Spices Research Institute, Tabijii, Ajmer
 Indian Spice Research Institute, Calicut, Kerala
 RBI :- Reserve Bank of India, Headquarter : Mumbai, established in 1 April, 1935.
 World Bank : 1945, Headquarter : Wahington (USA)
 GST Council : Goods & Service Tax. GST – 1 July 2017, HQ. : New Delhi, lcls T;knk
dj Hkkjr dks GST ls izkIr gks jgk gSA lcls igys GST viukus okyk ns”k % Qzkal ¼1954½
 CSWRI : Central Sheep & Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Malpura, Tonk.
(dsUnzh; HksM ,oa Åu vuqla/kku laLFkku] vfodkuxj] ekyiqjk] Vksad), 1962
 NABARD : National Bank for Ag. & Rural Development. Established : 12 July, 1982.
H.Q. : Mumbai.

General Agriculture 27
Errorless
 APEDA : Agricultural & Processed Food Products Export Development Authority,
New Delhi. 1985
 AGMARK : Agriculture marketing, Nagpur (1937) “kq}rk o xq.kork dk izrhd ¼d`f"k mRIkkn
ij½] lq/kkj 1986
National Bureaus :- 06
1. NBPGR : National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi.
2. NBAGR: National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal, Hariyana.
3. National Bureau of Ag. Importance Micro-organism, Mau, U.P.
4. NBAII : National Bureau of Ag. Importance Insects, Bangalore (Karnataka)
2009.iwoZ esa %& PDBC : Project Directorate of Biological Control (1993)
5. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Luckhnow, U.P.
6. NBSSLUP : National Bureau of Soil Survey& Land Use Planning (jk"Vhª; e`nk
losZ{k.k ,oa Hkwfe fu;kstu C;qjks), Nagpur (MH)

Regional Centers of NBSSLUP ({kS=h; dsUnz½ %

1- cSxyksj] 2- tksjgV] vklke] 3- dksydrk] 4- ubZ fnYyh] 5- mn;iqj

 ICRISAT : International Crop Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics, Hyderabad (11
Oct. 1972)
 WMO : World Meterological Organization, tsuos k] fLoVtjys.M] 1951
 IMD : Indian Meterological Department, Pune, MH. 1875
 WTO : World Trade Organization, tsuos k] fLoVtjys.M] 1 tuojh 1995
 IIRS : Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, nsgjknqu] mrjk[k.M
 NIBSM : National Institute of Biotic Stresses management, Raipur, Chattisgarh
 NIASM : National institute of abiotic stress management, Malegaon, MH
 CPRI : Central potato research institute, Shimla, H.P.
 IIOR : Indian institute of oilseed research, Hyderabad
 NDRI : National dairy research institute, Karnal, Hariyana

General Agriculture 28
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 IVRI : Indian veterinary research institute, Izzatnagar, U.P.
 NSC : National seed corporation, 1963
 NHB : National horti. Board, Gurugram, Hariyana (1984)
 NBDC : National bio fertilizer development centre, xkft;kckn
 DPP&QS : Direcotorate of plant protection, quarantine & storage, Faridabad,
Hariyana, 1960
 LWO : Locust warning organization, Jodhpur (1939)

KVK : d`f"k foKku dsUnznz

 Hkkjr eas dqy KVK : 695
 jktLFkku esa dqy KVK : 44
 KVK dh LFkkiuk dh vuq”aklk eksgu flag esgrk desVh us dhA
 Hkkjr dk igyk KVK :- iqMqpsjh] rfeyUkkMq] 1974
 Hkkjr dk nwljk KVK :- Qrsgiqj] lhdj
 KVK esa yxHkx izR;sd fo"k; ds fo"k; fo”ks"kK gksrs gSA
 KVK ds dk;Z 1- [ksr ij ubZ rduhdh dk ijh{k.k djuk (on farm testing)] 2- izFke iafDr izn”kZu %&
fdlku ds [ksr ij (front line demonstration)] 3- fdlkuks o d`f"k vf/kdkfj;ksa dks izf”k{k.k nsuk] 4-
lalk/ku ,oa Kku dk Hk.Mkj
 KVK dks vkfFkZd lgk;rk ICAR }kjk nh tkrh gSA
 Success of KVK : pfUnzdk izlkn

mRd`"Vrk dsUnz (Centre of Excellence) )

 uhacw (Citrus) :- dksVk
 vukj (Pomegranate) :- cLlh] t;iqj
 ve:n (Guava) :- nsoMkokl] Vksd
a
 vke (Mango) :- [ksejh] /kkSyiqj
 lhrkQy (Custard apple) :- fprkSMx<

General Agriculture 29
Errorless
Importanat AICRP’s S
 ubZ fnYyh %& ¶yksjhdYpj] eDdk] fuesVksM
 gSnjkckn %& pkoy] Tokj] lqjteq[kh] dqlqe] vj.Mh] “kq"d d`f"k] d`f"k ekSle foKku o iksYVªh
 dkuiqj %& puk] vjgj] vylh
 tks/kiqj %& cktjk] “kq"d nyguh Qlysa
 djuky %& xsgWw o tkS] yo.k izHkkfor e`nk;sa o yo.kh; ty dk d`f"k esa mi;ksxA
 cSxyksj %& tSfod fu;a=.k] NksVs feysVl] Vªksfidy QzqV
 y[kuÅ % lc&Vªksfidy QzqV] xUuk
 dks;EcVwj %& dikl
 tqukx< %& eqaXkQyh
 bUnkSj %& lks;kchu
 Hkjriqj %& ljlkas o eLVMZ
 tcyiqj %& [kjirokj fu;a=.k] fry o ukbtj
 Hkksiky %& e`nk ijh{k.k]
 lksyu %& e”k:e
 >kalh %& pkjs okyh Qlys] ,xzksQksjsLVªh
CACP : Commission for agricultural costs and prices, New Delhi
 LFkkiuk %& 1965] dk;Z %& U;wure leFkZu ewY; (MSP) dk fu/kkZj.k djukA
 U;wure leFkZu ewY; dk fu/kkZj.k Qly dh cqokbZ ls iwoZ fd;k tkrk gSA

d`f"k foHkkx dh fofHkUu ;kstuk;s;sa

SHCS :- e`nk LokLF; dkMZ ;kstuk %
 “kq:vkr % 19 Qjojh] 2015 dks ekuuh; iz/kkea=h ujsUnz eksnh }kjk lqjrx<] Jhxaxkuxj ls dh xbZA
 e`nk uewus dk otu %& 500 xzke
 flafpr {ks= esa 1 uewus ds fy;s {ks=Qy %& 2-5 gSDVj
 vflafpr {ks= es 1 uewus ds fy;s {ks=Qy %& 10 gSDVj
PMKSY :- iz/kkuea=h d`f"k flapkbZ ;kstuk
 “kq:vkr %& 2015

General Agriculture 30
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 Per drop more crop (izfr cwna vf/kd Qly)

PMFBY :- iz/kkuea=h QLky chek ;kstuk

 “kq:vkr %& 18 Qjojh] 2016
 [kjhQ Qlyksa dh izhfe;e nj :- 2 %
 jch Qlyksa dh izhfe;e nj :- 1.5 %
 O;kolkf;d ;k m|kfudh Qlysa :- 5 %
PKVY :- ijEijkxr d`f"k fodkl ;kstuk
 “kq:vkr %& 2015 eas
 tSfod [ksrh dks c<kok nsukA
 tSfod jkT; % flfDde ¼izFke½] tSfod ftyk jktLFkku dk % Mqaxjiqj
National Ag. Higher Education Project :jk"Vªh; d`f"k mPp f”k{kk ifj;kstuk
 “kq:vkr %& flrEcj 2017] ;g ICAR o fo”o cSd nksuks dh ifj;kstuk gSA
RKVY :- jk"Vhª; d`f"k fodkl ;kstuk
 “kq:vkr %& 2007 ls ¼11 oha iapo"khZ; ;kstuk es½a ]
NFSM :- jk"Vhª; [kk| lqj{kk vfHk;ku
 ’kq:vkr %& 2007 ls
ATMA (Ag. Technology Management Agency):- d`f"k izkS|ksfxdh izca/k vfHkdj.k
 “kq:vkr %& 2005 ls
 v/;{k %& ftyk dysDVj ;k ftyk eftLVªVs
TMO :- Technology Mission on Oilseeds, 1986
 mn~n”s ; %& frygu mRiknu c<kuk ¼ih- oh- “ksuks; ds funsZ”ku esa½
NAIS :- National Ag. Insurance Scheme, jk"Vhª; d`f"k chek ;kstuk] 1999
KCC :- fdlku ØsfMV dkMZ] 1998
 lcls igyk KCC :- SBI }kjk
fdlku dkWy lsUVj %&1800 & 180 & 1551
 “kq:vkr %& 21 tuojh] 2004] 22 {ks=h; Hkk"kkvksa esa leL;k lek/kku fd;k tkrk gSA
NAIP :- National Ag. Innovation Project, 2006

General Agriculture 31
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NHM :- National Horticulture Mission, 2005 – 06
MIDH : Mission for Integrated Developemnt of Horticulture, 2014
ATIC :- Ag. Tech. Information Centre, 1998 , Single window
Drought prone area programme :- 1970 – 71
T & V sytem :- Training & Visit System, 1974
CD Programme :- community development, 2 Oct. 1952 (S.K. Dey)
NES :- National extension service, 2 Oct. 1953
IRDP : Integrated rural development programme, 1960
iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk %& 2 vDVwcj] 1959
 “kq:vkr %& iwoZ iz/kkuea=h tokgj yky usg: us cxnjh] ukxkSj ls dhA
 cyoar jk; esgrk desVh dh vuq”kalk
 f=Lrjh; O;oLFkk %& 1- xzke iapk;r] 2- iapk;r lfefr] 3- ftyk ifj"kn
f} Lrjh; e.My :- v”kksd esgrk desVh dh vuq”kalk] dukZVd esa ykxq ¼1976½ fd;k x;kA
HYVP :- High yielding variety programme, 1966 – 67
 gfjr Økafr blh dk;ZØe dh nsu gSA
IVLP :- Institutions village linkage programme, 1995 – 96
SGSY :- Lo.kZ t;arh xzke Lojkstxkj ;kstuk] 1 vizSy 1999
 ;g glhe desVh dh vuq”kalk FkhA
TRYSEM :- Training of rural youth for self employment, 1979
 ;g NVh iapo"khZ; ;kstuk esa pkyq gqbZ
NMOOP :-National mission on oilseeds and oilpalm, 2014 – 15
e – NAM :-National agricultural market, 14 April, 2016
 one nation one market (,d ns”k ,d cktkj)

 Lab to Land Programme :- 1979, ICAR ds xksYMu tqcyh o"kZ dks pkyq fd;k x;kA
 National livestock mission :- 2014 -15
 IADP :- Intensive agriculture district programme, 1960] ;g ,d iSdst izksxzke gSA
 PURA :- Providing urban aminities in rural areas, Jan. 2004

General Agriculture 32
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 FASAL : Forecasting agricultural output using space agro meteorological and land
based observations. 2010.
 NMMI : National mission on micro irrigation. 2010
 NMSA : National mission for sustainable agriculture, 2014
 Start up India, stand up India :- 16 Jan., 2016
 Stand up India :- April, 2016
 Agriclinic & Agri business centre, 2002
 Digital India, 1 July 2015
 Make in India, 2014
 Skill India, March 2015
 bVkok Ikk;yV izkstsDV % & 1948] vYcVZ es;j dh nsu gSA
 20 lw=h dk;ZØe %& 1975 esa “kq:
 vaR;ksn; izksxzke %& 1977
 loksZn; izksxzke %& 1950] fouksnk Hkkos }kjk
 Jh fudsru izkstsDV %& johUnz ukFk VSxksj] 1921 ¼ia- caxky½
 lsokxzke izkstsDV %& egkRek xka/kh }kjk] 1928 ¼o/kkZ] egkjk"Vª½
 ekFksZMe izkstsDV %& LisUlj gsp
a }kjk] 1921 ¼dsjy½
 xqMxkWo izkstsDV %&,Q- ,y- czk;us] 1920 ¼xqMxkao] gfj;k.kk½
 esjk xkWo esjk xkSjo %& tqykbZ 2015
 iz/kkuea=h fdlku lEink ;kstuk %& ebZ] 2017
 LoPN Hkkjr fe’ku %& 2 vDVwcj 2014
 nhun;ky mik/;k; xzke T;ksfr ;kstuk] 2015
 vkWijs”ku xzhu %& Qjojh 2018] tYnh [kjkc gksus okyh Qlyksa tSls VekVj] I;kt] vkyw dk Hk.Mkj.k djds
vk;q c<kuk o budk izlaLdj.k

Ik;kZoj.k laj{k.k dkuwu %&

 oU; tho laj{k.k vf/kfu;e] 1972
 ty iznw"k.k fuokj.k rFkk fua;=.k vf/kfu;e] 1974
 ou laj{k.k vf/kfu;e] 1980
General Agriculture 33
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 ok;q iznw"k.k fuokj.k rFkk fua;=.k vf/kfu;e] 1981
 Ik;kZoj.k laj{k.k vf/kfu;e] 1986
Xykscy jktLFkku ,xzhVsd ehV (GRAM))
 ;g fdlku esyk gS] ftldh “kq:vkr jktLFkku ljdkj us dhA
 bldk mn~s”; fdlkuksa dh d`f"k ls lacf/kr fofHkUu rduhdksa dh izn”kZuh yxkdj voxr djokuk] rkfd
fdlku uokpkj dks viuk ldsA
 vHkh rd jktLFkku eas 3 xzke dk vk;kstu gks pqdk gSA
 igyk %& 9 ls 11 uoEcj 2016] t;iqj
 nwljk %& 24 ls 26 ebZ 2017] dksVk
 rhljk %& 7 ls 9 uoEcj] 2017] mn;iqj

vU; egRoiw.kZ fcUnqnq

 Food grains :- Cereals + Pulses
 Hkkjr ljdkj us 1 uoEcj 1977 esa moZjdksa ij vuqnku (subsidy) “kq: fd;kA
 o"kZ 2016 & 17 eas moZjdksa dk miHkksx@[kir %& 25.95 MMT
 Hkkjr esa o"kZ 2016 & 17 esa N P K vuqikr %& 8.2 : 3.2 : 1
 Hkkjr fo”o esa moZjd mRiknu eas rhljs LFkku ij gSA
 Hkkjr fo”o esa moZjd miHkksx esa nwljs LFkku ij gSA
 Hkkjr esa o"kZ 2016 & 17 esa izfr gSDVj moZjdksa dh [kir %& 130.8 kg/ha
 Hkkjr esa lcls vf/kd moZjd [kir okyk jkT; %& iatkc
 Hkkjr esa uhe ysfir moZjdksa dh ’kq:vkr 2010 eas gqbZ] ijUrq vko”;d eksnh ljdkj us 2015 esa fd;kA
 gy/kj iqjLdkj tSfod [ksrh ds {ks= esa fn;k tkrk gSA
 jkQh vgen fdnokbZ iq:Ldkj %& d`f"k o O;kogkfjd foKku esa mRd`"V dk;Z gsrq fn;k tkrk gSA
 tokgj yky usg: iq:Ldkj %& d`f"k o O;kogkfjd foKku eas Ph.D. esa mRd`"V vuqla/kku gsrqA
 o"kZ 2014 & 15 esa xsgWw mRiknu ds fy;s jktLFkku dks d`f"k deZ.k iq:Ldkj izkIRk gqvk gSA
 twV dk ruk dgykrk gS :- Reed
 ch-Vh- dikl ds lkFk ukWu ch-Vh- dikl@fj¶;qtk 20 izfr”kr cksuk pkfg;sA
 lw;Z dk vkSlr rkieku :- 6000 0K

General Agriculture 34
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 i`Foh dk vkSlr rkieku :- 300 0K
 ok;q dk vkSlr rkieku :- 296 0K
 ty dk vkSlr rkieku :- 288 0K
DData 2017-18 (from NHB) )
 Area under horticulture grow under total geographical area of India :- 3 %
 Annual production increase by :- 5.4 %
 Total horticulture production :- 295.2 MT
 Total area under horticulture :- 24.9 mh
 High growth rate of which fruit - (custard apple :- 23 %)
 Among fruit production first rank :- A.P > MH
 Among vegetables production first rank :- U.P(15%) = W.B(15%)
 Among flower production first rank :- T.N (19 %) > K.N(13 %)
 Contribution of horticulture crop :- vegetable (60%), fruit (31.5), plantation(5.7),
spices(2.4),flower and aromatics (1.1)
Flower &
Fruit Vegetables Plantation Spices Total
Aromatics
Area (mh) 6.4 10.2 3.6 3.5 0.9 24.9
Prod.(MT) 92.8 175 16.8 7.0 3.2 295.1
Productivity 14.3 17.01 4.59 2.0 3.48 11.84

Mango Banana Citrus

Area (mh) 2.2 0.85 1.05
Production (MT) 19.6 29.16 12.7

Potato Onion Tomato

Area (mh) 2.1 1.2 0.8
Production (MT) 46.54 21.5 19.6

General Agriculture 35
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ANNUAL GROWTH %

Fruit Vegetable Flower Plantation Spices Aromatic

3 3.5 2.9 1.3 1.3 0.8

State first in
Fruits name State first in production Vegetables name
production
Aonla U.P Bean Guj
Apple J&K Bottle gourd Bihar
Banana T.N Brinjal W.B

Lime A.P Cabbage W.B

Mandarin M.P Capsicum K.N
Sweet Orange A.P Carrot Haryana
Grapes M.H Cauliflower W.B
Guava T.N > Telangana Cucumber Haryana
Mango U.P >A.P Chilli Green KN > MP >AP
Mandarin
Rajasthan (Jhalawar) Chilli Dried A.P
(Raj)
Papaya A.P > GUJ Muskmelon U.P
Pineapple W.B Okra A.P
Pomegranate M.H Onion M.H
Sapota K.N Pea U.P
Straberry Haryana Potato U.P
Litchi Bihar Radish Haryana
Walnut J&K Sweet Potato Odisha
Arecanut K.N Tapioca T.N

General Agriculture 36
Errorless
Cashewnut M.H Tomato M.P >K.N >AP
Cocoa A.P Watermelon U.P
Coconut Kerala Ginger Assam
Tamarind K.N Coriander Raj
Cumin Guj

India’sshare in world production :-

INDIA
INDIA WORLD % SHARE
RANK
Area (mh) 329 13466 2.4 7th china-1st
Ag. prod.
661 2617 25.2 2nd china-1st
(MT)
Total cereals 243 2571 9.4 3rd china -1st
Wheat 96 729 13.1 2nd china-1st
Rice 157 741 21.2 2nd china -1st
Total pulse 20 77 25.8 1st
Groundnut 6.6 44 15 2nd china-1st
Rapeseed 7.8 74 11 3rd Canada-1st

India’sshare in world production :-

Fruits & Vegetables % share in world India,s position in world
Banana 24.5 1st
Mango, Guava,
40 1st
Mangosteen

General Agriculture 37
Errorless
Papaya 44.4 1st
Sugarcane 18.6 2nd brazil-1st
Tea 21.7 2nd china-1st
Coffee 6th brazil-1st
Jute 57 1st
Cotton 23.6 1st
Tobacco 10.4 3rd

Livestock
Cattle 13 2nd brazil-1st
Buffalos 57 1st
Camel 1.4 12th somalia-1st
Sheep 5.3 3rd china-1st
Goats 13 2nd china-1st
Chicken 4 7th china -1st

Animals products
Total milk (MT) 16.8 1st
Total egg (MT) 4.9 3rd china-1st
Total meat 2.1 5th china -1st

Qly l?kurk (Cropping Intensity) )

ldy Qly {ks= (Gross cropped area)
 Qly l?kurk (C.I.) :- ldy Qly {ks= (Gross cropped area x 100
“kq} Qly {ks= (Net cropped area)

General Agriculture 38
Errorless

Qly pØ l?kurk (Crop Rotation intensity) )

Qly pØ esa Qlyksa dh la[;k
 CRI :- x 100
o"kksZ dh la[;k
 gjh [kkn okyh QLky dks Qlyksa dh la[;k esa ugha fxurs gS] tSls %& lubZ & xUuk ¼f}o"kh; Qly pؽ]
rc Qly pØ l?kurk %& 1 x 100/2 = 50 %
 nks fefJr Qlyksa dks ,d gh ekurs gSA tSls %& Tokj + vjgj & xags wW ¼,do"khZ; Qly pؽ] rc Qly pØ
l?kurk %& 2 x 100/1 = 200 %
 iMr dks Qly esa ugha fxurs gS] ysfdu o"kZ esa fxuk tkrk gSA tSls %& iMr & xUuk & isMh ¼rhu o"khZ;
Qly pؽ] rc Qly pØ l?kurk %& 2 x 100/3 = 66.6 %,
 Qly pØ dks [kjhQ ls “kq: djrs gSA
Important Father r

ØØ- la- o oSKkfud dk uke fo"k; dk firkekg

1. Peter-de-crescenzi Agronomy
2. V.V. Dokuchaev Soil Science
3. M.H. Marigowda Horticulture (India)
4. Seaman Knapp Extension
5. G.J. Mendel Genetics
6. Anton de-Bary Mycololgy & plant pathology
7. Stephans Hales Physiology
8. Adam Smith Economics
9. A.V. Leeuwenhoek Microbiology
10. R.A. Fisher Statistics

General Agriculture 39
 Agroforestry
 The oldest known agroforestry system is shifting cultivation.
 Basic set of elements or components of agroforestry are tree, crops, animals.
 Silvi-agriculture refers to growing trees along with agricultural crops.
 Tree planted in silvi-agriculture should be oriented in the East West direction.
 “The Journal of Agroforestry Today” is published from Kenya.
 Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute is located at Jhansi.
 The ratio of height and spacing in a shelterbelt is 1 : 10.
 Hedgerow intercropping is otherwise called as alley cropping.
 Rotation of aerable crops with two or more years of sown pasture is called as lay farming.
 In north eastern hill region, shifting cultivation is called as Jhum.
 Most common agroforestry system practiced in arid regions are Agrisilvicultural
Systems.
 Based on temporal arrangement of agroforestry system, “home garden” is the example of
interpolated.
 Tree planted in silvi-agriculture should be oriented in the East West direction.
 Nitrogen fixing non-leguminous tree Casuarina.
 Protection forestry practice is not included in the scope of social forestry.
 Farm forestry programmes is purely managed by private efforts.
 A major cause of soil erosion is deforestation.
 An agroforestry system always has two or more outputs.
 The cycle of an agroforestry system is always more than one year.
 Normally an agroforestry system is more complex ecologically and economically than a
monocropping system.
 The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture is established at Ibadan (Nigeria).
 The Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute is located at Jhansi.
 Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute is at Dehradun.
 India has been classified into 8 agroecological regions.
 The shifting cultivation is called “Podu” in the Andhra Pradesh and Odissa.
 Taungya is a Burmese word.
 Taungya system was introduced into India by Brandis.
 Taungya is a modified form of shifting cultivation.
 Home garden is a subsystem of agrosilvopasture.
 Home garden is highly suitable for humid/sub humid region.
 Generally shelter belt assumes the shape of triangle.
 Energy plantation is established for fuel wood production.
 Waste land is the land with < 20 % productivity.
 K.M. Munshi initiated Van Mahostava.
 Vanamahostava was started in 1950.
 The first state to create separate Social Forestry wing was Maharastra.
 A silvopastoral system is widely practiced in dry areas.
 The home garden is widely practiced in high rainfall areas.
 Primary function of most of the home garden is food production.
 The characteristic of home gardens is high species diversity.
 The freshly cut wood contains about 23 – 25 % of moisture content.
 Benefit sharing concept is a core objective in Joint Forest Management (JFM).
 The major species used for planting on tank bed is Acacia nilotica.
 Heliotropic type of branching should be preferred for roadside planting.
 In Social Forestry, the peoples representative body is called as Village Forest Council
(VFC).
 Allelopathy is the best example for Amensalism.
 The competition is also referred as allelospoly.
 The unit of management under JFM is a village.
 TCIP stands for “Tree Cultivation Incentive Programme”.
 JFMC stands for “Joint Forest Management Committee”.
 FDA stands for “Forest Development Agency”.
 NAP stands for “National Afforestation Programme”.
 The taungya is a Burmese word coined in Burma in 1850.
 The production of woody perennial combined with annuals and pastures is known as
agrisilvopastural system.
 Home garden is practiced extensively in the state of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
 Home garden can also be called as multi-tier system.
 The primary function of home garden is food production.
 Various trees and shrubs preferred by fish are planted on the boundry and around fish
ponds are called as aqua forestry.
 The broad and well known classification of agroforestry systems was given by Nair.
 A common example of the zonal pattern of agroforestry is home gardens.
 Integration of various farm enterprises in farming system is called as Integrated Farming
System (IFS).
 Phytoplankton and Zooplankton are major food for fishes.
 The main host plant of silk worm is mulberry.
 The hydrological unit that drains at a common point is called watershed.
 The drainage area of catchments is more than one lakh ha.
 The continuous circulation of water among the hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere
is called as hydrological cycle.
 The drainage area of sub watershed is 2000 – 4000 ha.
 The drainage area of a mini watershed is 400 – 2000 ha.
 The drainage area of a micro watershed is < 400 ha.
 The process of taking up nutrients from deeper soil profiles and depositing them on the
surface layer is referred to nutrient pumping.
  NWDB classified wastelands into 2 types.
 Tree selected for Agroforestry should have deep root system, nitrogen fixing and leaf fall
in winter.
 The main criteria for good Agroforestry desing are productivity, sustainability and
adoptability.
Logging and wood technology:-
 The outer bark shows fissures or cracks in Shorea robusta.
 Sapwood is rich in starch/food materials.
 Growth rings are also called as annual rings.
 Vessels and fibres are absent in non-porous/coniferous.
 Examples of coarse textured wood is mango and hoolock/kokko.
 Majority of Indian hardwoods are diffuse porous woods.
 The greater durability of heartwood has often been attributed to Tyloses.
 Tracheids combines the functions of vessels as well as fibres of porous wood.
 Examples of ripple marks is Biijasal and kanju/satinwood.
 Intercellular canals are commonly referred to as resin canals/gum ducts.
 Heartwood may be difficult to penetrate with liquids.
 The outer rough bark is traceable to activity of a second cambium called phellogen.
 Heartwood is rich in gums, resins and tannin.
 Pitch is characteristically chambered in Juglans species.
 The majority of Indian dicotyleonous timbers are diffuse porous.
 The soundness of timber is indicated by natural colour.
 Examples for tyloses is present in white oak.
 The burr is a complex knot.
 Cup shakes are mechanical defects.
 The types of termite are drywood termites and subterranean.
 Plywood is cross bonded construction.
 Plywood consist of odd number of plies.
 Cross cutting of felled trees is called as bucking.
 Major transportations are mostly by land and water.
 The heating power of wood is known as calorific value.
 Bark is known as periderm.
 Example of ring porous wood :- Teak
 Institute of Wood Science and Technology is located at Bangalore.
 Boucher process is used for treatment of sapwood.
 Rays are arranged perpendicular to the stem axis.
 Aspiratory pit present only in soft wood.
 The light coloured outer portion of the tree log is called sap wood.
 The chief characteristics of a wood preservative are high levels of toxicity, permanency,
penetrability and stability.
  Ideal wood preservative should have high toxicity to fungi, termites, borers and marine
organisms.
 The durability of Tectona grandis is extremely durable.
 The full cell process is otherwise called as bethel process.
Forest utilization :-
 Botanical name of vetiver oil is Vetivera zizanioides.
 Palmrosa grass oil is known as Geraniol.
 Eg. of leaf tans are Anogeissus latifoila and Carissa spinarum.
 Eg. of fruit tans used for commercial utilization is Terminalia cheubla, Terminalia
bellirica, Embilica officinalia and Acacia nilotica.
 Terminalia cheubla fruit tans is commercially called as Myrobalans.
 Eg. of bark tans :- Acacia nilotica, Cassia auriculata, Cassia fistula and Shorae robusta.
 The gum resin gamboges is obtained from Garcinia morella.
 Black dammer is Canaricum strictum.
 Rock dammer is Hopea odorata.
 White dammer (vellapine) is Vetaria indica.
 The Indian copal tree is Vetaria indica.
 Green dammer is Shorea thamuggaia.
 The regularly tapping resin tree is Pinus roxburghii (Chir pine).
 The blue pine (kail) tree is Pinus wallichiana
 Khasi pine is Pinus kesiya.
 Acacia gum is commercially called as Gum Arabic.
 The Indian gum Arabic or blue gum is Acacia nilotica.
 Bengal kino (palas) is obtained from Butea monosperma.
 Khair tree is Acacia catechu.
 Persian lilac tree is Melia azadirachta.
 Indian kapok (semul) tree is Bombax ceiba.
 Stem fibre is commercially extracted by retting method.
 For manufacturing of gunny bags which fibre yielding plants is being used in India :-
Corchorus capsularis and Corchorus clitorius.
 White fibre or true hemp of commerce is a commercial name of Cannabis sativa.
 Sunhemp is extracted from Crotalaria juncea.
 Manila hemp is a commercial name of Musa textilis and it is indigenous to Philippines
but extensively cultivated in India.
 Palmrosa oil is the product of rosha grass Cymbopogon martini.
 Two important variety of Cymbopogon martini is Motia and Sofia.
 Scientific name of kusum tree is Schleichera oleosa.
 Karanj oil is extracted from Pongamia pinnata.
 The principle colouring matter of the seeds of Bixa orellana :- Bixin.
 The kamela fruit dye of commerce is obtained from Mallotus philippensis.
 A popular flower dye is obtained from the well - known dhak or palas Butea
monosperma.
 National Newsprint and Paper Mills established at Nepanagar.
 The chief constituents of the heartwood of Acacia chundra is Catechin (Katha) and
Catechu tannic acid (Cutch).
 The improved method of Katha and Cutch extraction is factory method.
 Lac is a valuable resin secreted by the lac insect is Laccifer lacca.
 Commercial host for lac insect :- Butea monosperma (Palas), Zizyphus mauratina (Ber)
and Schleichera oleosa (Kusum).
 Best quality lac is produced from Schleichera oleosa (kusum).
 The lac larvae come out from the lac encrustrations in large numbers and the phenomena
is called as swarming.
 Two distinct strains of lac insect in India is Kusum and Rangeeni.
 Rangeeni contributes to nearly 80 – 90 % of the country’s production.
 The Indian Lac Research Institute is situated at Namkun (Bihar).
 Two important product is obtained from pines is Turpentine and Resin.
 Resin is obtained from pine tree by tapping method.
 The method of tapping commonly adopted is the French one is called Cup and Lip
method.
 The new method of resin tapping is rill method.
 The wood is partially burnt or carbonized and the residue left behind is known as
Charcoal.
 Lac is a resinous secretion of insects.
 Udal fibre is a soft fibre.
 The mature lac is otherwise called as brood lac.
 Felling cycle for bamboo is 3 - 4 years.
 Gall tan is obtained from Tamarix sp.
 Shellack is obtained from Laccifera lacca (insect).
 The commercial name of Canes is Rattans.
 The quality of lemon grass oil is judged mainly by Citral.
 Citronella oil is obtained from Cymbopogan nardus.
 The chief constituent of sandalwood oil is Santalol.
 The chief constituent of oil is obtained from Citrus limonia is Citral.
 Veteria indica (vellapine) seeds yield a solid oil known as piney tallow.
 Shorea robusta is commonly called as Sal.
 Waxes are usually found on the epidermis leaves and fruits.
 Terminalia arjuna yields tannin content in bark is 20 – 24 per cent.
 The resin exuded by Shorea robusta (Sal) is known as Ral.
 Vetiver oil is also called as khus oil.
 Mint oil is obtained from Mentha arvensis.
 Biochemistry
 Biomolecules are the organic compounds which form the basis of life, i.e., they build up
the living system and responsible for their growth and maintenance.
 The sequence that relates biomolecules to living organism is
Biomolecules organelles cells tissues organs living organism
Carbohydrates :-
 Optically active polyhydroxy aldehyde (aldioses) or ketones (ketoses) or compounds
which on hydrolysis give these units are known as carbohydrates. They are also called
saccharides
 (Latin saccharum = sugar) due to sweet taste of simpler members.
 Depending upon their behavior towards hydrolysis carbohydrates can be of following
three types :-
1. Monosaccharides :-
 These cannot be hydrolysed to simler molecules and further subdivided into tetroses,
pentoses or hexoses depending upon the number of carbon atoms. These are also called
homopolysaccharides.
 All naturally occurring monosaccharides belongs to D-series.
 KIllani synthesis is used to convertan aldolase into next higher aldose.
 Eg. Glucose, fructose, ribose.
2. Oligosaccharides:-
 On hydrolysis,they generally give two to nine monosaccharides.
 eg. sucrose,maltose, lactose
 The bond between two monosaccharides is called a glycosidic bond.
 Sucrose is most abundant in plants and known as cane sugar or table sugar or invert
sugar.
3. Polysaccharides :-
 These are polymer of monosaccharides, eg. Starch, cellulose, glycogen etc.
i. Starch (C6 H10 O5 )n :-
 It is a polymer of 𝛼 glucose and major reserve food in plants.
 It is mixture of two components :-
a. Amylose (20 %), b. Amylopectin (80 %)
ii. Cellulose (C6 H10 O5 )n :-
 It is the most abundant and structural polysaccharides of plants.
 It is imp food source of some animals.it is a polymer of D (+) 𝛽-glucose.
Reducing and non-reducing sugars :-
 Carbohydrates reducing Fehling reagent or Tollen’s reagents are termed as reducing
carbohydrates.
 Eg. of reducing sugar :- All Monosaccharides and Disaccharides except sucrose
 But carbohydrares which do not reduce such reagents are known as non-reducing
carbohydrates. eg. Sucrose and polysaccharides.
Sugar and non – sugars :-
 The monosaccharides and oligosaccharides having sweet taste are collectively known as
sugars.
 Polysaccharides which are insoluble in water and not sweet in taste are called non-sugars.
Fructose Fruit Sugar (C6 H12 O6 ) :-
 Manufacture:- By hydrolysis of insulin.
 (C6 H10 O5)n + nH2O H+
nC6 H12 O6
(Insulin) (Fructose)
Molish Test for Carbohydrates:-
 In aqueous solution of compound add solution of 𝛼 −napthol in alcohol and then conc.
H2SO4 along the walls of the test tube.
 Purple coloured ring is obtained at the junction.
Relative sweetness of some sugars:-
 Cane sugar is assumed to have a sweetness of 10.
 The relative sweetness of other sugars is
Lactose : 1.6 Invert sugar : 12.6
Fructose : 17.3 Maltose : 3.2
Saccharin : 300 (an artificial sweetner) Glucose : 7.4
Amino acids :-
 The compounds containing amino group (-NH2) and carboxylic group (-COOH) are
called amino acids.
NH2
 General formula :- R – CH – COOH
𝛼 − amino acid
 R=H, alkyl or aryl group. Except glycine (H2N.CH2COOH), others are optically active in
nature.
Classification of amino acids :-
(a)𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 – amino acids :- depending upon the position of –NH2 wrt – COOH group.
(b) Neutral :- having one –NH2 and one – COOH. eg.NH2.CH2.COOH (glycine)
(c) Acidic :- having one –NH2 and one –COOH. Eg. Aspartic acid.
(d) Basic :- having two or more –NH2 and one – COOH. eg. Lysine.
Essential and Non-essential Amino Acids :-
 Human body can synthesis ten amino acids called non-essential amino acids.
 The remaining ten amino acids required for protein synthesis are not synthesised by body
is called essential amino acids.
 Essential amino acids are 1. Phenylalanine, 2. Histidine, 3. Tryptophan, 4. Valine 5.
Methionine, 6. Threonine, 7. Arginine, 8. Leucine, 9. Isoleucin, 10. Lysin
 Naturally occurring 𝛼-amino acids are L amino acids. D amino acids occur in some
antibiotic and bacterial cell walls.
Peptides:- O
 - C – NH - is known as peptide linkage and C - N as a peptide bond.
Polypeptides :-
 Condensation products of many amino acids (= 10000) is known as polypeptide and
those polypeptides which have molecular mass above than 10000 are called proteins.
Proteins :-
 They are linear polymer of 𝛼- amino acids.
Structure of proteins :-
i. Primary Structure :- it simply reveals the sequence of amino acids.
ii. Secondary Structure :-
 𝛼-helix structure maintained by hydrogen bonds or 𝛽 −pleated sheet structure when R is
small group.
iii. Tertiary Structure:-
 The folding and superimposition of polypeptide chains forms a compact globular shape,
termed as tertiary structure.
 It is stabilized by covalent, ionic, hydrogen and disulphide bonds.
 The precise arrangement constitutes the quaternary structure.
Classification on the basis of hydrolysis product:-
i. Simple :- These yield only 𝛼- amino acids upon hydrolysis. Eg. albumin.
ii. Conjugated proteins:- These yield 𝛼- amino acids and non-protein part, called prosthetic
group.
S. No. Name of Protein Prosthetic group
1. Nucleoproteins Nucleic acid
2. Phospho proteins Phosphoric acid
3. Glycoproteins Carbohydrates
4. Metalloproteins Metals
5. Lipoproteins Lipids

iii. Derived Proteins:-

 These are obtained by partial hydrolysis of simple or conjugated proteins.
 Proteins Proteoses Peptones Polypeptides
Classification on the basic functions:-
i. Structural Proteins:- fibrous proteins.
ii. Enzymes :- serve as biological catalyst. Eg. pepsin, trypsin etc.
iii. Hormones :- Insulin
iv. Contractile Proteins:- found in muscles. Eg. Myosin, Actin.
v. Antibodies :- Gamma globulins present in blood.
vi. Blood Protein :- Albumins, haemoglobin and fibrinogen.
 Haemoglobin is a globular protein. Its prosthetic group is heme.
 Sickle cell anemia is caused by defective haemoglobin obtained by replacing only one
amino acids, i.e., glutamic acid by valine.
Denaturation of Proteins:-
  The process that changes the three dimensional structure of native proteins is called
denaturation of proteins.
Tests of Proteins:-
i. Biuret Test:- Proten solution + NaOH + dil. CuSO4 Pink or violet colour.
ii. Millon’s Test:- Protein solution + Millon’s reagent Pink colour
iii. Iodine Reaction:- Protein solution + iodine in potassium iodide solution yellow colour.
NaOH
iv. Xanthoprotic Test :- Protein solution + conc. HNO3 yellow colour orange colour.
Enzyme from botany ………………………………………………………………………..
Lipids:-
 The constituents of animals and plants soluble in organic solvents (ether, chloroform,
carbon tetrachloride), but insoluble in water are called lipids (Greek Lipose = fat).
Types of Lipids:-
1. Simple Lipids:-
i. Fats and Oils:- on hydrolysis give long chain fatty acids + glycerol.
 Oils are liquids at ordinary temperature (below 200) and contain lower fatty acids or
unsaturated fatty acids.
ii. Waxes:- Long chain fatty acids + long chain alcohols.
 Common saturated fatty acids:- CH3 – (CH2)n COOH.
When n = 4 caproic acid; n = 6 caprylic acid; n = 8 capric acid; n = 10 lauric acid; n = 12
myristic acid; n = 14 palmitic acid; n = 16 stearic acid
 Common unsaturated acids:- Oleic acid and Linoleic acid.
2. Phospholipids:-
 Phosphate + Glycerol + Fatty acids + a nitrogen containing base.
Function of phospholipids are :-
 As emulsifying agents since they carry hydrophilic polar groups and hydrophobic non-
polar groups.
 they absorb fatty acids from the intestine and transport to blood cells.
3. Glycolipids:-
 They contain one or more simple sugars and are important components of cell
membranes and chloroplast membranes.
4. Steroids and Terpenes:-
 Menthol, camphor are common plant terpenes.
 Carotenoids and pigments are also terpens.
 Essential oils:- clove oil, rose oil, lemon oil.
 Drying oils:- linseed oil, perilla, poppy seed oils.
 Cotton seed oil and til oil are semidrying oils.
Acid Value :-
 It is the number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the free acid present in 1 g
of oil or fat.
Saponification Value:-
 It is the number of milligrams of KOH required to saponify 1 g of oil or fat or the number
of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the free acid resulting from the hydrolysis of
1 g of an oil or fat.
Iodine Value:- It is the number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100 g of oil or fat.
Reichert – Meissel Value (R/M Value):-
 It is the number of cc of N/10 KOH required to neutralize the distillate of 5 g of
hydrolysed fat.
Hormones and Their Functions:-
S. No. Hormone Source Chemical name Function
1. Thyroxin Thyroid Amino acid Stimulates metabolism
2. Adrenaline Adrenal Amine Increases pulse rate and blood pressure,
release glucose from glycogen and fatty
acids from fats.
3. Insulin Pancreas Peptide Decrease blood glucose.
4. Glucogon Pancreas Peptide Increase blood glucose.
5. Testosterone Testes Steroid Controls normal functioning of male sex
organs.
6. Estrone and Ovary Steroid Controls normal functioning of female
Estradiol sex organs.
7. Progesterone Ovary Steroid Prepare uterus for pregnancy, controls
menstrual cycle.
8. Cortisone Adrenal Steroid Metabolism of water, mineral salts, fats,
cortex proteins and carbohydrates.

Biotechnology
 Biotechnology deals with microorganism, plant or animal cells or their enzymes to
produce products and processes useful to humans.
 Term “biotechnology” was given by Karl Ereky (1919).
Principles of biotechnology :-
 1. Genetic engineering. 2. Sterilisation methods.
Steps in genetic engineering :-
1. Identification of DNA with desirable genes.
2. Introduction of the DNA into host to form recombinant DNA.
3. Maintenance of DNA in host and gene cloning.
4. Gene transfer
 In 1972, Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer constructed the first recombinant DNA.
Tools of recombinant DNA technology:
1. Restriction enzymes 2. Polymerase enzymes 3. Ligases 4. Vectors 5. Host organism
Restriction enzymes :
  The restriction enzymes are called “molecular scissors” and are responsible for cutting
DNA.
 They are present in bacteria to provide a type of defence mechanism called the
“restriction-modification system”.
 The first restriction endonuclease, HindII, was isolated by Smith, Wilcox and Kelley
(1968) from Haemophilus influenza bacterium. It was used to cut DNA molecules at a
particular point by recognizing a specific sequence of six base pairs, known as the
recognition sequence.
 EcoRi is derived from Escherichia coli RY13, HindII from Haemophilus influenza Rd,
BamHI from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens H, EcoRII from E. coli R245, etc.
 Restriction enzymes belong to a class of enzyme called nuclease and are of two types:
i. Exonuclease :- cut DNA at the ends.
ii. Endonuclease :- cut at specific positions within the DNA.
 The recognition sequences of endonuclease are palindromic, i.e., the sequence of base
pairs read the same on both the DNA strands, when orientation of reading is kept same,
eg.
51 GAATTC 31
31 CTTAAG 51
 Every endonuclease inspects the entire DNA sequence for the palindromic recognition
sequence.
 On finding the palindrome, the endonuclease binds to the DNA.
 It cuts the opposite strands of DNA in the sugar-phosphate backbone; a little away from
the centre of the palindrome sites but between the same bases on both strands.
 This results in the formation of single stranded overhanging stretches at the end of each
strand called sticky ends.
Gel Electrophoresis:-
 Gel electrophoresis is a technique for separating DNA fragments based on their size.
 Commonly used matrix is agarose, which is a natural linear polymer of D-galactose and
3, 6-anhydro-L-galactose which is extracted from sea weeds.
 The DNA fragments separate-out (resolve) according to their size because of the sieving
property of agarose gel. Hence, smaller the fragment size, the farther it will move.
 The separated DNA fragments are visualized after staining the DNA with ethidium
bromide followed by exposure to UV radiation.
Cloning Vectors:-
 The vectors are the DNA molecules that can carry a foreign DNA segment into the host
cell.
 Vectors may be; (a) plasmids: these are autonomously replicating circular extra-
chromosomal DNA. (b) Bacteriophages: these are viruses infecting bacteria.
 Copy number: the number of copies of vectors present in a cell. It varies from 1 – 100
copies per cell.
  The best known vector is the plasmid vector.
 pBR322 is the first artificial cloning vector developed in 1977 by Boliver and Rodriguez
from E. coli plasmid.
 The following features are required to facilitate cloning into a vector:-
i. origin of replication (ori)
ii. selectable marker :- genes encoding resistance to antibiotics like ampicillin,
chloramphenicol, tetracycline or kanamycin, are useful selectable markers for E. coli.
iii. cloning sites
iv. vectors for cloning genes in plants and animals
Competent Host:-
 Competency is the ability of a cell to take up foreign DNA.
 The cell is made competent by the following methods:
(i) Chemical method: heat stock treatment.
(ii) Physical method: (a) Micro-injection method, (b) Biolistics or gene gun method.
Process of Recombinant DNA technology:
 Recombinant DNA technology involves following steps:
(i) Isolation of DNA
(ii) Fragmentation of DNA by restriction endonuclease.
(iii) Isolation of a desired DNA fragment.
(iv) Amplification of the gene of interest.
(v) Ligation of the DNA fragment into a vector.
(vi) Insertion of recombinant DNA into the host.
(vii) Culturing the host cells on a suitable medium at a large scale.
(viii) Extraction of the desired gene product.
(ix) Downstream processing of the products as finished product, ready for marketing.
PCR:-
(a) DNA template: the double-stranded DNA that needs to be amplified.
(b) Primers: small chemically synthesized oligonucleotides of about 10 – 18 nucleotides that are
complementary to a region of template DNA.
(c) Enzyme: two commonly used enzymes are Taq polymerase (isolated from thermophilic
bacterium, Thermus aquaticus) and Vent polymerase (isolated from Thermococcus litoralis).
PCR is carried out in the following 3 steps:
1. Denaturation:
 The double stranded DNA is denatured by subjecting it to high temp. of 95 0C for 15
seconds.
 Each separated single stranded strand now acts as template for DNA synthesis.
2. Annealing:-
 Two sets of primers are added which anneal to the 31 end of each separated strand.
 Primers act as initiators of replication.
3. Extension:-
  DNA polymerase extends the primers by adding nucleotides complementary to the
template provided in the reaction.
 A thermostable DNA polymerase (Taq polymerase) is used in the reaction which can
tolerate the high temperature of the reaction.
 All these steps are repeated many times to obtain several copies of desired DNA.
Bioreactors:-
 Bioreactors are vessels of large volumes (100 – 1000 litres) in which raw materials are
biologically converted into specific products.
 A bioreactor has the following components:
i. An agitator system
ii. An oxygen delivery system
iii. Foam control system
iv. Temperature control system
v. pH control system
vi. Sampling ports to withdraw cultures periodically.
Important Points :-
Transgenes :-
 Foreign genes or modified genes of the same species which are used for the development
of transgenic individuals.
Transgenic :-
 Genetically engineered organism or organisms developed by the technique of genetic
engineering .
Genetic transformation :-
 The process of transfer integration and expression of transgene in an organism.
Transformants :- cells or tissue of an organism which have undergone genetic transformation .
Plasmid :- An extrachromosomal genetic element which is found in the bacterial cells.
Plant biotechnology:- Combined study of plant tissue culture and genetic engineering
Plant tissue culture :- Growth of tissue of living plants in a suitable culture medium.
Genetic engineering :-
 Isolation introduction and expression of foreign dna in plants and animals.
Protoplast :- cells without cell wall.
Callus :- A mass of unorganized regenerated cells in culture medium.
Explant :- The plant part which is used for regewneration into whole plant.
Gene cloning :- The process of making several identical copies of a gene .
Agrobacterium tumifaciens :-
 A soil borne bacteria which is widely used for development of transgenic plants.
Transgenic breeding :-
 Genetic improvement of crop plants domestic animals and useful micro - organism
through biotechnology.
 Tissue culture
Tissue culture :
 The growth of tissues of living organisms in a suitable culture medium i.e. in vitro.
Explant : The plant part which is used for regeneration in culture medium.
Totipotency : The ability of a plant cell to develop into a complete plant.
Callus : A mass of unorganized regenerated cells in culture medium.
Cell culture : The regeneration of whole plant from a single cell in a nutrient medium.
Meristem culture :
 Regeneration of plants from tissues of actively dividing organs like stem tip, root tip,
auxiliary bud.
Organ culture :
 Regeneration of complete plant from an organ like apical bud, anther, ovule or pollen.
Protoplast culture : Regeneration of whole plant from naked single cell in culture medium.
Genetic Engineering :
 Isolation, introduction and expression of foreign DNA in plants and animals.
Micro-propagation : Regeneration of plants from isolated meristematlc cells or tissues.
Organogenesis :- The process of differentiation of root and shoot from somatic embryos.
Embryogenesis : The process of formation of somatic embryos from the callus.
Somaclonal Variation : The variability generated by the use of tissue culture.
Sub-culturing : Transfer of tissues or callus from old culture medium to fresh culture medium.
Recombinant DNA :
 The DNA which contains genes from different sources and can combine with DNA of
any organism.
Gene sequencing :
 The techniques of determining the order of bases of DNA molecule which constitute a
gene.
Gene splicing :
 The process of removal of introns and joining of exons from heterogeneous nuclear RNA
(hnRNA) to produce mature functional mRNA.
Gene cloning :
 A technique of genetic engineering by which a gene sequence with several identical
copies can be replicated.
DNA Probes : The small segments of DNA with known base sequences, origin and function.
Transgenic plant : The genetically engineered plants.
Somatic hybridization : Crossing of plants through fusion of somatic cells i.e. protoplasts.
Somatic hybrids :
 Hybrids obtained by somatic hybridization. They may be interspecific, intergeneric and
intertribal.
Interspecific somatic hybrids :
 Hybrids between two different species of the same genus obtained by protoplast fusion.
Intergeneric somatic hybrids :
 Hybrids between two different genera of the same family obtained by protoplast fusion.
Intertribal hybrids :
 Somatic hybrids obtained through protoplast fusion between plants of two different
families.
Protoplast : Naked cells or cells without cell wall.
 Protoplast culture is useful in somatic hybridization and overcoming the barriers of cross
incompatibility in interspecific and intergeneric hybrids.
Symmetrical hybrids :
 Somatic hybrids that contain all chromosomes of both the species involved in the fusion
of protoplast.
Asymmetrical hybrids :
 Somatic hybrids that contain complete somatic complement of one species and only a
part of somatic complement of other species.
Anther culture :
 Regeneration of whole plant from anther in the culture medium is called anther culture.
Anther culture is useful in the development of haploids.
Cybrids :
 Somatic hybrids with normal protoplast of one species and nucleusless protoplast of other
species.
Homokaryons : Union of two protoplasts of the same species.
Heterokaryons : Hybrid cell involving protoplasts of two different species.
Cytoplast : A prtoplast either without nucleus or with inactive nucleus.

 Tissue culture techniques are also known as invitro techniques.

 Tissue culture techniques include meristem culture, embryo culture, anther culture, ovule
culture and cell culture.
 The new plant “Pomato” (potato + tomato) has been developed through somatic
hybridization.
 The new crop Raphanobrassica has been developed by protoplast fusion of Raphanus
sativus and Brassica oleracea.
 Meristem culture is useful for micro-propagation.
 Micro-propagation refers to mass production of clonal progeny through tissue culture.
 Cell and protoplast cultures are useful for development of transgenic plants.
 Protoplasts are used in somatic hybridization.
 Protoplasts term coined by Hanstein in 1980.
 The term cybrid was coined by Bunn et al. in 1974.
 Cybrids are useful in transfer of cytoplasmic male sterility form one species to other.
 The protoplast fusion tomato + tobacco is an examples of intergeneric somatic
hybridization.
 The cross Brassica napus + Brassica oleracea indicates interspecific somatic
hybridization.
 The cross Brassica campestris + Arabidopsis thaliana is an example of intertribal
somatic hybrid.
 The culture medium for tissue culture was first developed by Murashige and Sloog in
1962.
 Tissue culture technique involves four major steps, viz. isolation of tissues, callus
formation, embryogenesis and organogenesis.
 Tissue culture is useful in generating variability, development of haploids, embryo
rescue, somatic hybridization, micro-propagation and cryopreservation.
 In potato and sugarcane, somaclonal variation upto 75 % has been observed.
 Somaclonal variation is very high in vegetatively propagated species (upto 75 %) and
very low in seed propagated species ( upto 1.2 %).
 Somaclonal variation has been observed for various characters in sugarcane, potato, rice,
wheat and maize.
 Micro-propagation is mostly used in horticulture, floriculture and forestry.
 The variation induced in tissue culture is heritable.
 Gametoclonal variation is observed in anther and ovule cultures.
 Somaclonal variation is observed in meristem culture.
 Protoclonal variation is observed in protoplast culture.
 Somatic hybridization involves fusion of somatic cells i.e. protoplasts by passing sexual
process.
 Somatic hybridization permits modifications of chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA.
 The term somatic cell hybridization was coined by Barskl et. al. in 1960.
 The term somaclonal variation was first used by Larkin and Scowcroft in 1981.
 The anther culture techniques was first developed by Guha and Maheshwari in 1964 in
Datura.
 Removal of the topological strain by inducing the negative supercoiling is carried out by
DNA gyrases.
 Opine genes present on a Ti plasmid, but not on any component of a binary vector
system.
 RAPD molecular markers are dominant in nature.
 AFLP molecular markers are co-dominant in nature.
 RFLP technique is used for DNA fingerprinting.
 Prions are microorganisms, which consist of proteins only.
 Taq polymerase used in PCR is Thermotolerant.
 Transgenic expression study can be done by RT-PCR.
 The biological mutagens is transposons.
 Most commonly used method for transformation of plants is Agrobacterium mediated
transformation.
 MAC is not used as vector for gene cloning.
 For clearing oil spills Pseudomonas putida is used.
 Extension Education
 The word extension first used by – Land Grant
 The term 'extension' first originated in England in 1866 but the term 'extension education'
was first time used by the Cambridge University in 1873.
 Extension word derived from latin word “ex” meaning out and “tension” meaning
stretching.
 Extension Education – an applied behavioral science and brings about behavioral changes
in human beings.
 Process of bringing desirable changes in human behaviour such as knowledge, attitude
and skills etc.
 J P Leagans called extension education as an applied science.
 Extension education is a two way channel and a dynamic process.
 Extension education is a continuous (throughout lifetime) education process.
 Extension education is a process of 'learning by doing and seeing is believing'.
 The first 'Result Demonstration' was started in Texas of America by S.A. Knapp in 1903.
S.A. Kanapp is known as the father of result demonstration.
Types of Education :-
Formal Informal Non-formal
Highly institutionalized, It is the life long process by It has been a well-organized,
uniform, full time, which every person acquires systematic educational activity
chronologically graded, & accumulates knowledge, that is carried on outside the
hierarchically structured skills and attitude from daily formal educational system in
education system which starts experiments and exposures to order to provide certain
form primary school to the environment. selected type of learning to the
university education. selected group of individuals
which include adults, young as
well as the children.
Eg.: Education in schools & Eg. : Little baby, as he/she Eg.: Agricultural Extension
colleges grows up, learns how to
recognize her parents and how
to eat etc.

Functions of Extension education :-

∎ Change in knowledge ∎ Change in skills
∎ Change in attitude ∎ Change in goral and action
∎ Change in understanding and confidence
Extension Educational Process :-
 J.P. Leagans has given five steps of the extension education process as
1. What is is now = Situations and Problems
2. What it should be = Objectives and Soloutions
 3. What to teach and how to teach = Teaching Plan of work
4. What has been in the result = Evaluation
Extension Teaching Learning :-
 The Teaching-Learning Process
 Wilson and Gallup have given the following six steps in the teaching – learning process
which are commonly known as AIDCAS stages, are as Follows:
 Attention > Interest > Desire > Conviction > Action > Satisfaction
 Abraham Maslow (1943) has given the theory of human motivation, which is also known
as the Maslow's Hierarchy of needs.
Extension Teaching Method :-
 Wilson and Gallup classified extension teaching methods into three categories :-
A. According to use :-
Individual contact Group contact Mass Contact
∎ Farm and Home visit ∎ Method demonstration ∎ Television
∎ Office and telephone call ∎ Result demonstration ∎ Radio
∎ Personal letter ∎ Conference ∎ Mass meeting (large
∎ Farm clinic ∎ Lecture audience)
∎ Flag Method ∎ Meeting (30-50 audience) ∎ Campagin
∎ Tours ∎ Exhibition
∎ Workshop ∎ News paper
∎ Field day or farmers day ∎ Farm publications such as
(Farm school) circular letters, bulletins,
leaflets etc.

B. According to form :-
Written Spoken Visual Spoken and Visual
∎ Circular letters ∎ Farm and home ∎ Result ∎ Television
∎ Leaflets Visits Demonstration ∎ Methods Demonstration
∎ Bulletins ∎ Office calls ∎ Posters ∎ Video Conferencing
∎ Personal letter ∎ Radio ∎ Exhibition ∎ Meeting involving
∎ Telephone calls ∎ Chalk and Bulletin motion pictures charts
∎ Meeting board
∎ Pictures and
Photographs
∎ Flannel (Khadder)
graph,
∎ Flash cards
∎ Motion Pictures,
charts, Slides,
∎ Others :Models,
 Mock-ups,
Specimens, objects
etc.

When and why to use, the following important methods of extension teaching :-
S. Extension Method Characteristics
No.
1. Farm and Home Visit ∎ To solve the complex practices, essential to reach
those having little interest in progress, to get or
give firsthand information, but it's not suitable to
a large audience because it's time consuming and
involved high cost and require more trained
human power.
2. Result Demonstration ∎ To show the practical application of an
established or proven fact.
∎ Demonstration conducted by farmer under the
direct supervision of extension works.
∎ This is a very effective method for the transfer of
technology in a community.
3. Method Demonstration ∎ Oldest form of teaching, to show how to carry out
an entirely new practice or an old practice in a
better way which helps to teach skills and
stimulate people to action.
∎ It is an essentially a skill training, where the
emphasis is on effectively carrying out a job,
which shall improve upon the result.
4. Radio ∎ The quickest means of imparting timely and
emergency information.
5. Television ∎ Show a large number of people how to do it.
6. Exhibition ∎ More valuable in creating good will towards
extension workers and promotes understanding,
to teach illiterate people.
7. Individual or group contacts ∎ For small size of group.
8. Mass Media ∎ During emergency situation and limited time,
limited manpower and fund, large size of
audience, mass awareness.

Classification of Audio-Video (AV) Aids :-

I. According to Evolution :– four types
1. First-generation media :– Handmade charts, graphs, exhibits, models, handwritten material
etc. are considered as first generation media.
2. Second-generation media :- Printed/ illustrated texts, printed graphics, workshops etc. are
considered as second generation media.
3. Third-generation media :- Photographs, slides, filmstrips, films, recordings, radio, tele-
lecturers etc. are considered as third generation media.
4. Fourth-generation media :- Television, programmed instruction, language laboratories,
electronic digital computers are considered as third generation
media.
II. Based on Projection :-
1. Projected Aids :– Projected Aids are Films, Slides, Filmstrips, Opaque material Overhead
transparencies, Models, Specimens and samples, Real Objects, Mock-ups,
Puppets, 3-D film etc.
2. Non-projected Aids :– Non-projected aids are of the following types :-
 Presentation : Flash cards, Flannel graphs, Charts, Film books, Maps.
 Display: Bulletin boards, Photogrphs, Posters, Wall Charts and Exhibits.
 Literature: Illustrated, Leaflets and Comics.
Types of Projection Screen :-
Beaded screen The Matte Aluminum or Lenticular Plastic screen
screen Silver screen screen
Most commonly Used for wider Most suitable for Also successfully Used for
used, because it classrooms or colour slides or used in the room lightened room
provides better auditoriums films that cannot be but need to
reflecting darkened reduce the size of
surface of the the picture.
projected
picture
It gives bright It will provide a Most commonly It is wide The viewing
images for better view than used for stereo or viewing angle angle is also
o
narrow viewing beaded and has 3-D picture (90 ) wide
o
angle (20 ) more viewing projection
o
angle (>25 )

'ABC' principle of Audio-Visual Aids :- A = Attractiveness; B = Brevity; C = Clarity

General meetings :-
1. Lecture :-
 It is an excellent method for presenting factual information to a large number of
persons in a short period of time but generally it is considered as one way mode of
communication.
2. Symposium :-
  Here two or more experts present the different phases of topic- Symposia are
considered as a two way process.
3. Debate :-
 Generally the debate consists of two teams in which one represents the affirmative
(positive views) and the other presents the negative side of the topic.
 It is the two way communication between the debaters but one way communication for
the audience.
4. Panel Discussion :-
 Informal and small group of 2-8 speakers and is a two way communication between
audience and panelists.
5. Buzz Session :-
 Also known as the Philips 66 format or a hurdle system of extension teaching method.
 It is used to deliver a topic when audience are large in number and have limited time
period.
 The audience can be divided into small groups each group may consist 8-12 persons.
6. Brain storming :-
 Type of small group interaction designed to encourage the free introduction of ideas on
an unrestricted basis and without any limitations to feasibility.
7. Forum :-
 It is a type of group extension method in which the discussion period may follow the
lectures, debate, symposium or panel.
8. Conference :-
 The pooling of experience and opinions among a group of people who have special
qualifications in a specific area.
9. Seminar :-
 In seminar, leader first introduces the topic.
 It is a two way process in which the discussion leader and audience discuss the subject
matter to which the ready answers are not available.
 It helps to pool the opinions of a large number or persons to reach a specific result.
10. Workshop :-
 It is a long term meeting form which can vary from one day to several days or even
sometimes for several weeks.
 It has three sessions as planning session, work sessions and evaluation session.
11. Syndicate Studies :-
 It can be done for one month or more to pool the resource persons in 10 to 12 sittings.
12. Exhibition :-
 The exhibition is systematic display of models, specimens, charts, photographs,
pictures, posters in a sequence around a particular theme to create awareness and
interest.
13. Circular Letter :-
  It is a letter reproduced and sent to many people by the extension work to publicize the
particulars extension activity which is based on the same theme for all people to give
the timely information on farm hand home related problems.
14. Campaign :-
 The campaign is an intensive extension teaching activity undertaken at an opportune
time for a brief period, focus in attention on a particular problem to stimulate interest in
a geographical area.
Media forums and Rural Radio Forums :-
 Media forums are combinations of mass media and interpersonal communication
channel in which small and organized group of individual who meet regularly to
receive a mass media programmes.
 Media forums were originally stared in Canada.
 Eg. Charcha Mandals in India and Radio Phonics in Latin America.
Radio Rural Forums (RRF) :-
 In India, Radio rural forms were sponsored by the Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting and UNESCO in 1956.
 India's rural radio forms are largest media forums in the world.
Special Points :-
 Standard size of posters = 20 x 30 inches
 Standard size of flannel graph = 30 x 40 inches for 150 people
 The standard size of the flash cards = 22 x 28 inches
 Standard size of sliders = 2 x 2 inches
 35 mm camera is most suitable for any extension activity.
 Standard sizes of motion pictures for – commercial purposes (70 mm and 5 mm)
educational purposes (16 mm) etc.
 ABC of posters = Attractive, Brief and Clear
 Model : is a 3-D recognizable imitation or replica of the original object
 Mock-ups is an experimental model or a functional device which is used for the
purpose of learning. Example – a mockup of a driver's seat in training school.
 The specimen is a sample which represents the whole in which real objects taken out
of their natural settings.
 Diorama is a term devived from the Greek which means to see through The diorama is
a scenic representation of the original with specimen, model and painting etc.
 Line charts or graphs used to show the trends and relationships
 Pie charts are circular in shape used to show the several parts to make the whole in
percentage form.
 Suggested seating arrangement for Audio Visual aids : seating arrangement should
follow “2 and 6 formula” which means 2 screen width away from the front row and 6
screen width away from the back row.
  Different types of screen : Beaded screen (20 degree angle) Matte screen (30 degree of
angle), lenticular screen (90 degrees of angle) etc.
 The situation is a statement of affairs.
 The project is an outline of the procedure.
 The plan is a predetermined course of action
 Calendar of Work is the plan of work arranged chronologically.
 Plan of work is an outline of activities
 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) given by Robert Chambers.
 Anomie : is a French word which means 'Lack of rules'. It is a state of failure of norms
or it is the social situation in which many norms exists but don't really bind all members
of society.
Rural Sociology :-
 The sociology originated from the Latin word 'Sociatus' means companions or society
and Greek word 'logos' means reasoning or science.
 Therefore, sociology means the study of society or human relationships.
 Auguste Comte coined the word sociology (1837) and he is regarded as the father of
sociology. Sociology was originated in USA.
Types of Group :- Based on the size of Audience :-
Small group Medium group Large group
Less than 25 people 25-50 people More than 50

Different cultural aspects :-

Customs  Accepted ways in which people do things together.
Folkways  Good manners, expected forms of behavior but are not rigidly enforced.
Mores  Saluting the flag, standing during the playing of the national anthem.
 Socially acceptable ways of behavior
 The term more is used for those things that are ought to be done.
 It is used for positive actions.
Taboos  Not smoking in front of elders, eating pork in Jewish and Muslims culture
 Used for the negative action and for the things that one ought not to do.
 Taboo means forbid.
Rituals  Performing the marriage ceremonies
Conventions  Wearing clothes in public, Eating food using a knife, fork and spoon instead
of hand/fingers.
Norms  The rules that govern action directed towards achieving values.
Caste :- derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta’ meaning lineage or race.
 Caste is a closed class. As compared to class, the caste is the most rigid, clearly graded
type of social stratification.
𝐌𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐀𝐠𝐞
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) :- IQ = 𝐂𝐡𝐫𝐨𝐧𝐨𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐀𝐠𝐞 X 100
Communication :-
 The word communication is derived from Latin word ‘Communis’ which means
establishing ‘commonness’.
 Leagan's defined communication as it is a process by which two or more people
exchange ideas, facts, feelings of impressions in ways that each gains a common
understanding of the message.
Models of communication :-
1. Aristotle's Model of Communication :-
 It is considered as the first model in the history of communication theory.
 Speaker > Speech > Audience
 Aristotle's model is considered as the 'persuasive model of communication'.
2. Harold Lasswell Communication Sequence :- 1948
 It is also known as the 'redimentary' model of communication.
 Also known as Dance Model.
 Six elements as Who says > What says > In which Channel > To whom > Under what
circumstances > With what effects.
3. Schramms Model of Communication :- given by Wilbur Lang Schramms in 1964.
 Everret Rogers called Schramms as 'the founder of communication study'.
 It is also known as 'organic model of communication' because in this model major
emphasis was given on the organic nature of communication or based on natural
language or spoken language.
 5 elements are involved as Source > Encode > Signal > Decode > Receiver.
4. Mathematical Theory of Communication/ Shannon-Weaver Model (1949): STSRD
 It is also known as 'the information theory'.
 Information (source) > Transmitter > Channel (Signal) > Receiver > Destination.
 Shannon identified three levels of problems in his information theory as from the sender
to receiver through signals and symbols. (Related to accuracy of message)
 Semantic Problem – related to interpretation of meaning by the receiver as compared to
the intended meaning of the sender. (Related to the message conveyed)
 Influential problem – concerned with the success in which the meaning conveyed to the
receiver leads to the desired behavior in his part. (Related to effectiveness of receiving
messages).
5. Berlo's Model of Communication (1960) :-
 Given by David Kenneth Berlo w
 Six elements as : Source > Encode > Message > Channel > Decode > Receiver.
6. Paul Leagans Model of Communication (1963) :-
 Legans defined communication as a process by which two or more people exchange
ideas, facts, feelings, impressions in a way that each gains a clear understanding of the
meaning, intent and use of the message.
  Six elements as : Communicator > Message > Channel > Treatment of Message >
Audience > Audience Response.
7. Westly and MacLean Model of Communication (1957) :-
 Six elements as : Source > Encode > Channel > Decoding > Receiver > Feedback
8. Rogers and Shoemaker model of communication :-
 Five elements :- Source > Message > Channel > Receiver > Effect.
9. Transactional Model of Communication :-
 Given by Barnlund in 2008 which is also known as the constitutive model.
Message Flow Models :-
 The message flow models used to describe the flow of a message from the source of
message to the receiver.
Hypodermic needle model :-
 Based on stimulus response process > Mass Media > Direct audience effect (immediate
effect)
One step flow model :- Modified form of hypodermic needle model
Two step flow model :-
 Mass media > Social relationship through local leaders > Indirect audience effects.
Types of communication :-
I. According to organizational structure :-
A. Formal communication: When information is transmitted by virtue of one’s status,
placement in the organization it is termed as formal communication.
B. Informal or grapevine communication: When an informal channel is used to communicate
it is termed as grapevine or informal communication.
It is a quick vehicle for message. Eg.: Rumours
II. According to direction of flow :-
a. Down ward communication: When information comes from higher level to a lower level in
the organization structure, it is termed as downward communication.
b. Up - ward communication: Whenever information moves from a lower level to a higher
level in the organization it is named as upward communication.
c. Horizontal communication / side - ways / lateral / crosswise /inter scalar communication:
A communication is said to be horizontal when it takes place between two subordinates of
the same superior.
III. According to the way of expression
a. Verbal or oral communication: The process is a face to face conversation through oral
words or words of mouth. It is the most widely practiced medium of communication.
b. Written Communication: The process involves sending message by written words. Media
for written communication are letters, circulars, notes, explanation and memorandum.
c. Non – Verbal communication: Communicating a message without using arbitrary symbols
i.e., words or meaning of words is termed as ‘non-verbal communication or word-less
communication.
Forms or media of Non – verbal communication :-
1. Sign language: Marks or symbols used to mean something is termed as signs of language.
E.g.: The language system of deaf people.
2. Action language: It is a language of movements. Some people do what they say while some
others say one thing but do another.
3 Objective language (Artifacts): It is non – verbal message communicated through appearance
of objects. i.e., their display and arrangement.
4. Spatial or environmental: The necessary requirements of environment are lighting, colour,
ventilation, temperature, seating arrangement, chalk board, public address system, audio
visual equipment etc, would contribute a lot to attract and make listeners more attentive.
5. Silence: It is also an effective medium of communication through silence, some people evoke
response from others.
6. Demonstration: It indicates display / exhibition of how something works.
7. Inaction: It explains with illustrations as to how to use or operate a product.
8. Proxemics: (Science of space): The distance that the people keep themselves between the
speaker and the listener is termed as proxemics.
9. Time: Use of time is also known as Chronemics. Time speaks. Time also conveys the
message.
10. Paralanguage: Non – verbal things in communication are called paralanguage. Sounds are
the basis for paralanguage. Paralanguage include tone of voice, power or emphasis, pitch,
rhythm, volume, pause or break in sentence, speed of delivery, loudness or softness.
11. Kinesics:
1. Facial expressions
2. Gestures E.g.: Thumbs Up, sitting position
3. Body movements
4. Postures
5. Eye contact: Serves as a signal of readiness to interact.
6. Tactile (touch):- one of the earliest methods of communication of human beings.
Important Points :-
 James L. Kinneavy developed 'A Theory of Discourse' in the field of communication.
 Robert Criag developed 'communication theory as a separate field'.
 Daneil Chandler developed the 'Transmission model of communication'.
 The term 'Redundancy' refers to the amount of information that could be omitted or
added in a noiseless channel, so that the message would still retain information or
meaing.
 Perception:- Gibson (1959) has defined perception as the process by which an individual
maintains contact with the environment.
 Feedback : Feedback can be of two types as verbal and non-verbal or quick or delayed
feedback or rewarding and non-rewarding etc. It is also known as the action-Reaction
interdependence process in communication.
  ENTROPY: Entropy is defined as the ability to reduce the uncertainty or dis-
organization of a system at the receiving end.
 Empathy : Empathy refers to the ability to project ourselves into other people's
personalities and to understand the other person's internal frame of mind and reference.
 Homophily : Homophily is the degree to which individuals who interact with each others
are similar in certain attributes, such as beliefs, values, social status etc.
 Heterophily : Heterophily is the degree to which individuals who interact with each
other are differ in certain attributes such as beliefs, values etc. For effective human
communication certain degree of heterophily is required so that effective communication
takes place.
 Time LAG in Communication: LAG means delay.
 The science dealing with touch is Haptics.
 The science dealing with speech, sounds in Phonetics.
Diffusion and Adoption Process :-
 Diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain
channels over time among the members of a social system.
Elements of Diffusion :-
1. Innovation :- An innovation may be any idea which has something newness in it and we
expect to adopted by the people of social system.
2. Channel :- A Channel means the medium of communication (or sometimes it is called as
transmission lines) through which the innovation is communicated to reach its
targeted audience.
3. Overtime :- Overtime refers to the time period in which an innovation takes its own time to
spread in a social system.
4. Members and the social system :- It is the degree to which an innovation reaches a
significant group of individuals to accept and adopt the new idea being
implemented. The higher cost of farm equipment’s and illiteracy are major
hurdles to adopt any new technology, The time element distinguishes diffusion
from other types of communication.
Innovation :-
 Innovation can be defined as an idea, practice or object perceived as new by an
individual.
Adoption Process :-
 Rogers, E.M. (1967) defined adoption process as the mental process through which an
individual passes from hearing about an innovation to final adoption.
1. According to Wilkening (1953) :-
 Identified four adoption stages namely, awareness, obtaining information, conviction,
trial and adoption.
2. North Central Rural Sociology Subcommittee for the study of Diffusion of Farm Practices
 Identified 5 stages of the adoption process (1955), which received worldwide attention.
  Five stages are as follows Awareness, Interest, Evaluation, Trial and Adoption. In short,
we can call them as AIETA.
 Awareness Stage – Change agent and mass media.
 Interest Stage – Formal sources (Extension Agency)
 Evaluation Stage – Fellow farmers and neighbours.
 Trial Stage – Expert and experienced farmers.
 Adoption state – Self-experience gained at the trial stage.
3. Singh & Pareek :- Seven (7) stage
 1. Need 2. Awareness 3. Interest 4. Deliberation 5. Trial
 6. Evaluation 7. Adoption
Innovation Decision Process :-
First Stage : the knowledge Stage :
 The knowledge stage is exposed to an innovations existence and gains some
understanding of how it functions.
Second Stage : the Persuation stae :
 This stage helps to form a favourable or unfavourable attitude toward the innovation.
Third Stage : the Decision Stage :
 In the decision stage, an individual puts the innovation to a small scale trial in own
situation, considering the relative advantage, risk involved etc. On the basis of the
factors, an individual takes a decision to adopt or reject the innovation.
Fourth Stage : the Implementation Stage :
 Under this stage, an individual or other decision making units put an innovation into use.
 This stage also helps to reinforce for earlier made an innovation decision.
Fifth Stage : the Confirmation Stage
 The individual perceives that the innovation is consistently giving satisfactory or
unsatisfactory results, the person may continue to adopt or reject the innovation.
 The reversal of the decision after adoption of an innovation takes place at the
confirmation stage.
 Dissonance is the part of confirmation stage which means an uncomfortable stage of
mind or state of internal disequilibrium.
 Rejection is also the part of confirmation stage which means a decision not to adopt an
innovation.
 Discontinuance is also the part of confirmation stage which means a decision to reject an
innovation after having previously adopted it.
Curve :-
 The adoption of an innovation usually follows a normal bell shaped curve when plotted
over time on a frequency curve but the cumulative number of adopters is plotted on the
curve will give as S shaped curve, which is almost similar to the learning curve.
Adapter categories :-
Characters Innovators Early Early Late Laggards
Adopters Majority Majority
Also known Venturesome Respectable Deliberate Skeptical Traditional
(risk taker)
Percentage 2.5 % 13.5 % 34 % 34 % 16 %

Factors influencing adoption of Innovations :-

Personal factors Socio-economic factors Psychological factors

Age, education, income, Caste, social participation Cosmo-politeness, risk
knowledge, leadership, Status, farm size Farm taking Motivation, attitude
participation in formal income, culture, values etc.
programmes

Leader :-
 Leader is a person who exerts an influence over a number of people.
 Leadership is defined as an activity in which effort is made to influence people to
cooperate in achieving a goal viewed by the group as desirable – Rogers and Olmsted
Classification of leadership or Types of leaders :-
A. Whyte has classified leaders in to 4 categories as
1.Operational leaders: those persons who actually initiate action within the group, regardless of
whether or not they hold an elected office.
2. Popularity leaders: means in a group a popular person will be elected to a position of
leadership because the members like him, also called nominal leaders
3. Assumed representative type: refers to a person selected to work with a committee or other
leaders because the latter (Group B) have assumed that he represents another group (Group
A) they desire to work with; he may or may not be a leader of the group (Group A).
4. Prominent talent: e.g. artists and musicians who have exhibited an outstanding ability and
accomplishment in their respective fields. It may include the experts and intellectual leaders.
B. Another classification divides leaders in to 2 categories:
1. Professional leaders: the professional leader is one who has received specific
specialized training in the field. He works full time as an occupation and is paid for his
work. E. G. Extension Officer, Gram Sevak, Agricultural Officer.
2. Lay leaders: the lay leader may or may not have received special training, is not paid for his
work and usually works part time e.g. youth club president.
 Lay leaders also called as Volunteer leaders, or local leaders or natural leaders.
C. modern research - three types:
1. Autocratic leader: Autocratic leader is also known as authoritarian leader. He
 operates as if he cannot trust people. He thinks his subordinates are never doing what they
should do; that the employee is paid to work and therefore must work.
2. Democratic leader: He shares with the group members the decision making and planning of
activities. The participation of all members is encouraged. He works to develop a feeling of
responsibility on the part of every member of the group.
3. Laissez-faire leader: He believes that if you leave workers alone, the work will be done. He
seems to have no confidence in himself. If at all possible he puts off decision-making. He
tends to withdraw from the work group. He is often a rationalizer. Problems of
administration supervision, and coordination are multiplied and symptoms of disorder
‘anarchy’ are seen.
A. Selection of Professional Leaders:
1. Interview: time-honored and most widely used method.
2. Performance Tests:‘Leaderless group tests’.
B. Selection of lay leaders:
1. Sociometry: is concerned primarily with obtaining choices in inter-personal relations, such as
with whom one would like to work, play etc. or to whom one would go for advice on farming or
other problems.
2. Election
3. The Discussion Method
4. The Workshop Method: In this method a large group is broken in to smaller groups and the
responsibility of the program and decision-making rests upon the smaller units
5. The Group Observer: The extension worker should watch (observe) a community or group
in action and then he will be able to spot potential leaders.
6. Key informants
7. Self-designating technique: This consists of asking a respondent a series of questions to
determine the degree to which he perceives himself to be an opinion leader based on the
analysis of the answers obtained, the extension workers selects a leader.
Extension Programmes in India
S. Name of Programme Year Started by/ Special Point
No. person related
1. Co-operative Movement 1904 F. Nicholson Individually financed
2. Sri Niketan (West Bengal) 1908 Ravindra Nath Concept of VLW
(1921) Tagor
3. Gurgaon Project (Haryana) 1920 F.L. Brayne Concept of Village Guide
(1927)
4. Sevagram Project (Wardha 1927 M.K. Gandhi Concept of charkha &
in MH) khadi
5. Marthandom Project (Kerala) 1928 Spencer Hatch -
6. Rural Development 1935 Rural development department of British
India
7. Grow More Food Campaign 1942 Rural development department of British
(1947) India
8. Firka Development Scheme 1947 Madras Govt. Aimed at attainment of
(1943) Gandhian ideal of “Gram
Swaraj”
9. Nilkoheri Project (Haryana) 1943 S.K. Dubey Created Mazdoor Manzil
(1948)
10. Indian Village Service 1948 W.H. Wisher -
11. Etawh Pilot Project 1948 Albert Mayer
Treated as a forerunner for Community
Development Programme. A/S “ Average
District Plan”.
12. Planning Commission 1950 Govt. of India Start (1951) & monitor
five year plans
13. Sarvodaya (Bombay) 1950 Vinobha Bhave -
14. Bhoodan Movement 1951 Vinobha Bhave -
15. Gramdan Movement 1952 Vinobha Bhave -
16. Community Development 2 Oct. Govt. of India -
(CD Project) 1952
17. National Extension Service 2 Oct. Govt. of India -
1953
18. Intensive Agriculture District 1960-61 Govt. of India Also known as “Package
Programme (IADP) Programme”
19. Panchayati Raj (democratic 1958 Govt. of India Recommended by Mehta
decentralization) committee
20. National Demonstration 1965 Ministry of Food & Agriculture
Project
21. High Yielding Variety 1966-67 Govt. of India -
Programme (HYVP)
22. Small Farmers Development 1970-71 Govt. of India -
Agency (SFDA)
23. Marginal Farmers and 1970-71 Govt. of India -
Agriculture Labour (MFAL)
24. Drought Prone Area 1973-74 Govt. of India -
Programme (DPAP)
25. Command Area 1974-75 Govt. of India -
Development Programme
(CADP)
26. Krishi Vigyan Kendra 1974 First KVK was established in 1974 at
(KVK) Pondicherry under Tamil Nadu Agricultural
 University.
Fully funded by ICAR.
27. Training and Visit (T & V) 1974 Danial Benore
System
28. 20- Point Programme 1975 Indira Gandhi -
29. Antyodaya Programme 1977 Govt. of India -
30. Desert Development 1977-78 ICAR -
Programme
31. Lab to Land Programme 1979 Govt. of India -
32. Training of Rural Youth for 1979 Govt. of India -
Self - Employment
(TRYSEM)
33. IRDP : Integrated Rural 2 Oct. Govt. of India -
Development Programme 1980
34. National Bank for 12 July Govt. of India First chairman : B.
Agriculture and Rural 1982 Sivaraman
Development (NABARD)
35. Drought Prone Area 1982-83 Govt. of India -
Programme (DPAP)
36. Integrated Wastelands 1989-90 Govt. of India -
Development Programme
(IWDP)
37. National Agriculture 1998 ICAR + World -
Technology Project (NATP) Bank
38. Swarnajayanti Gram April Govt. of India -
Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) 1999
39. Agricultural Technology 1999 Started under NATP.
Information Centre (ATIC) It is “Single Window System”
40. National Agricultural 1999-2000 - -
Insurance
41. Hariyali April Govt. of India -
2003
42. Agricultural Technology 2005 ATMA is managed by Project Director at
Management Agency district level.
(ATMA) Chairman: District Magistrate/ Collector
43. National Rural Employment Sep. 2005 100 days of guaranteed employment to each
Guarantee Act (NREGA) rural household.
44. National Agricultural 2006 - -
Innovation Project (NAIP)
Extension Programmes in India
S. Name of Programme Year Associated Special Point
No. Person
1. Co-operative movement 1904 F. Nicholson Individually financed
2. Sri Niketan (West Bengal) 1908 Ravindra Nath Concept of VLW
(1921) Tagor
3. Gurgaon project 1920 F.L. Brayne Concept of Village Guide
(Haryana) (1927)
4. Sevagram project 1927 M.K. Gandhi Concept of charkha & khadi
(Wardha in MH)
5. Marthandom project 1928 Spencer Hatch -
(Kerala)
6. Rural development 1935 Rural development department of British India
7. Grow more food 1942 Rural development department of British India
campaign (1947)
8. Firka development 1947 Madras Govt. Aimed at attainment of
scheme (1943) Gandhian ideal of “Gram
Swaraj”
9. Nilkoheri project 1943 S.K. Dubey Created Mazdoor Manzil
(Haryana) (1948)
10. Indian village service 1948 W.H. Wisher -
11. Etawh pilot project 1948 Albert Mayer Treated as a forerunner for
Community Development
Programme. A/S “ Average
District Plan”.
12. Planning commission 1950 Govt. of India Start (1951) & monitor five
year plans
13. Sarvodaya (Bombay) 1950 Vinobha -
Bhave
14. Bhoodan movement 1951 Vinobha -
Bhave
15. Gramdan movement 1952 Vinobha -
Bhave
16. Community development 2 Oct. Govt. of India -
(CD Project) 1952
17. National extension service 2 Oct. Govt. of India -
1953
18. Intensive Agriculture 1960- Govt. of India Also known as “Package
District Programme 61 Programme”
(IADP)
19. Panchayati raj 1958 Govt. of India Recommended by Mehta
(democratic committee
decentralization)
20. National demonstration 1965 Ministry of -
project Food &
Agriculture
21. High yielding variety 1966- Govt. of India -
programme (HYVP) 67
22. Small farmers 1970- Govt. of India -
development agency 71
(SFDA)
23. Marginal farmers and 1970- Govt. of India -
agriculture labour 71
(MFAL)
24. Drought prone area 1973- Govt. of India -
programme (DPAP) 74
25. Command area 1974- Govt. of India -
development programme 75
(CADP)
Krishi Vigyan Kendra 1974 First KVK was established in 1974 at
(KVK) Pondicherry under Tamil Nadu Agricultural
 University.
Fully funded by ICAR.
Training and Visit (T & 1974 Danial Benore
V) System
26. 20- point programme 1975 Indira Gandhi -
27 Antyodaya programme 1977 Govt. of India -
28. Desert development 1977- ICAR -
programme 78
29. Lab to land programme 1979 Govt. of India -
30. Training of rural youth 1979 Govt. of India -
for self - employment
(TRYSEM)
31. Integrated rural 2 Oct. Govt. of India -
development programme 1980
(IRDP)
32. National bank for 12 Govt. of India First chairman : B.
agriculture and rural July Sivaraman
development (NABARD) 1982
33. Drought prone area 1982- Govt. of India -
programme (DPAP) 83
34. Integrated wastelands 1989- Govt. of India -
development programme 90
(IWDP)
National Agriculture 1998 ICAR + World -
Technology Project Bank
(NATP)
35. Swarnajayanti Gram April Govt. of India -
Swarozgar Yojana 1999
(SGSY)
Agricultural technology 1999 Started under NATP.
 information centre It is “Single Window System”
(ATIC)
National Agricultural 1999- - -
Insurance 2000
36. Hariyali April Govt. of India -
2003
Agricultural Technology 2005 ATMA is managed by Project
Management Agency Director at district level.
(ATMA) Chairman: District
Magistrate/ Collector
37. National rural Sep. Parliamentary 100 days of guaranteed
employment guarantee act 2005 Act unskilled wage employment to
(NREGA) each rural household opting
for it.
National Agricultural 2006
Innovation Project (NAIP)
 ECONOMICS
 The terms micro and macro - economics were first coined and used by Ragnar Frisch in
1933.
 The word economics has been derived from the Greek Word “OIKONOMICAS” with
“OIKOS” meaning a household and “ NOMOS” meaning management.
Wealth Definition of Economics : Adam smith defined Economics as “An enquiry into the
nature and causes of wealth of nations” in his book, entitled “Wealth of Nations”. He is
regarded as the “Father of Economics”
Agricultural Finance :-
 Studying, examining and analyzing the financial aspects pertaining to farm business,
which is the core sector of the country.
Agricultural Marketing :-
 Selling of goods and services by the farmers and ranchers. It includes various functions
viz., assembling, transportation, storing, buying, selling, standardization, grading,
processing, sales promotion etc.
Kinds or Types of Utility:
1. Form Utility: The Change in the form offers greater utility, Eg. Processing of paddy into rice.
2. Place Utility: Spatial movement of the goods, transportation aids in place utility.
3. Time utility: Storing the commodity, make them available during scarcity creates time utility.
4. Possession Utility: Possession or transfer of ownership of the commodity.
Consumer Surplus :-
 The concept of consumers surplus is based on the theory of demand. It was introduced by
Marshal in 1895 in his publication principles of economics.
Credit :-
 The word “credit” comes from the Latin word “Credo” which means “I believe”. Hence
credit is based up on belief, confidence, trust and faith. Credit is otherwise called as loan.
Credit is broadly classified based on various criteria:
A. Based on time: based on the repayment period of the loan, 3 types:
1. Short–term loans: Loans are to be repaid within a period of 6 to 18 months, Eg. crop loans
2. Medium – term loans: Repayment period varies from 18 months to 5 years.
 Eg. Loan for purchasing implements, electric motors, milch cattle, sheep and goat, etc.
3. Long – term loans: Repayment over a long time ranging from 5 - 20 years or even more.
 Eg. Loan for permanent improvements like levelling and reclamation of land,
construction of farm buildings, purchase of tractors, raising of orchards etc.
B. Based on Purpose: Based on purpose, credit is sub-divided in to 4 types.
1. Production loans: for crop production and are intended to increase the production of crops.
2. Investment loans: for purchase of equipment, Eg. tractors, pumpsets, tube wells, etc.
3. Marketing loans: To help the farmers in overcoming the distress sales.
4. Consumption loans: Any loan advanced for some purpose other than production.
C. Based on security:
I. Secured loans: Loans advanced against some security by the borrower.
1. Personal security: Under this, borrower himself stands as the guarantor.
2. Collateral Security: Here the property is pledged to secure a loan.
 The movable properties of the individuals like LIC bonds, fixed deposit bonds,
warehouse receipts, machinery, livestock etc, are offered as security.
3. Chattel loans: Credit is obtained from pawn-brokers by pledging movable properties.
 Eg. Jewellery, utensils made of various metals, etc.
4. Mortgage:
 As against to collateral security, immovable properties are presented for security purpose
For example, land, farm buildings, etc.
 The person who is creating the charge of mortgage is called mortgagor (borrower) and
the person in whose favour it is created is known as the mortgagee (banker).
 Mortgages are of two types
a) Simple mortgage: Mortgaged property is ancestrally inherited property of borrower.
b) Equitable mortgage: mortgaged property is self-acquired property of the borrower.
5. Hypothecated loans:
 Borrower has ownership right on his movable and the banker has legal right to take a
possession of property to sale on default (or) a right to sue the owner to bring the
property to sale and for realization of the amount due.
 Hypothecated loans again are of two types viz., key loans and open loans.
D. Based on liquidity:
1. Self-liquidating loans: They generate income immediately, paid within 1 year.
2. Partially -liquidating: To generate income and can be repaid in 2-5 years or more.

 5 Cs of credit viz., character, capacity, capital, condition and commonsense.

 7 Ps of farm credit and they are:-
1. Principle of productive purpose.
2. Principle of personality.
3. Principle of productivity.
4. Principle of phased disbursement.
5. Principle of proper utilization.
6. Principle of payment and
7. Principle of protection.
 The Government of India on 19 July 1969, promulgated an ordinance called “The
Banking companies Ordinance 1969” (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings). Under
this act 14 commercial banks having deposits of more than Rs. 50 crore each were
Nationalized.
Lead Bank Scheme:
 The RBI accepted the Nariman’s committee recommendations and lead bank scheme
came into force from 1969.
RRB :-
 The Government of India accepted the recommendations of Sri.Narsimham committee
and regional rural banks (RRB) came in to existence through regional rural banks
ordinance on 26th September, 1975.
KCC :-
 The Government of India introduced Kisan Credit Card (KCC) scheme by banks during
1998 -99. The scheme was designed by NABARD.
RBI :- Established in 1935, headquarters is located at Mumbai.
NABARD :- Came into existence on July 12th, 1982.
World Bank :- Established in the year 1945 and started its operations in the year 1946.
Co-operative Credit Organization
ST & MT Loans LT loans
(Three tier system) (Two tier system)

State Cooperative Bank (SCB) Central Land Development Banks

(At state level) (CLDBs) (At state level)

District Cooperative Central Bank (DCCB) Primary Land Development Banks

(At district level) (PLDBs)(Erstwhile taluk level)

Primary Agricultural Cooperative Credit Societies

(PACS) (At village level)

LAW OF VARIABLE PROPORTIONSOR LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS OR

PRINCIPLE OF ADDED COSTS AND ADDED RETURNS
i. Increasing Rate : Convex
ii. Constant Rate: Linear
iii. Decreasing Rate: Concave (used in agriculture)
Factor product relationship.
Most Profitable level of production
(a) How much input to use (Optimum input to use): An important use of information derived
from a production function is in determining how much of the variable input to use.
Marginal Value Product (MVP): It is the additional income received from using an additional
unit of input. It is calculated by using the following equation.
Marginal Value Product = Total Value Product/ input level
Marginal Input Cost (MIC) or Marginal Factor Cost (MFC): It is defined as the
additional cost associated with the use of an additional unit of input.
Marginal Factor Cost = Total Input Cost/ Input level
MFC is constant and equal to the price per unit of input. This conclusion holds provided the
input price does not change with the quantity of input purchased.
Decision Rules:
1. If MVP is greater than MIC, additional profit can be made by using more input.
2. If MVP is less than MIC, more profit can be made by using less input.
3. Profit maximizing or optimum input level is at the point where MVP=MFC
(b) How much output to produce (Optimum output):
Marginal Revenue (MR): It is defined as the additional income from selling
additional unit of output.
Marginal Revenue = Change in total revenue / Change in Total Physical Product.
Total Revenue is same as Total Value Product. MR is constant and equal to the price per unit of
output.
Marginal Cost (MC): It is defined as the additional cost incurred from producing an additional
unit of output. It is computed from the following equation.
Marginal Cost=Change in Total Cost / Change in Total Physical Product
Decision Rules:
1. If Marginal Revenue is greater than Marginal Cost, additional profit can be made by
producing more output.
2. If Marginal Revenue is less than Marginal Cost, more profits can be made by
producing less output.
3. The profit maximizing output level is at the point where MR=MC

COST PRINCIPLE OR MINIMUM LOSS PRINCIPLE: This principle guides the producers
in the minimization of losses. Costs are divided into fixed and variable costs.
In the short run, the gross returns or total revenue must cover the total variable costs (TVC). To
state in a different way that selling price must cover the average variable cost (AVC) to continue
production in the short run.
In the long run, gross returns or total revenue must cover the total cost (TC).
Alternatively stated, that the selling price must cover cost of production (ATC).
In the short run MR = MC point may be at a level of output which may involve loss instead of
profit. The situation of operating the farms when the price of product (MR) is less than average
total cost (ATC) but greater than average variable cost (AVC) is common in agriculture. This
explains why the farmers keep farming even when they run into losses.
PROFIT OR DECISION RULES
SHORT RUN:
1. If expected selling price is greater than minimum average total cost (ATC), profit is expected
and is maximized by producing where MR = MC.
2. If expected selling price is less than minimum average total cost (ATC) but greater than
minimum average variable cost (AVC), a loss is expected but the loss
is less than TFC and is minimized by producing where MR = MC.
3. If expected selling price is less than minimum average variable cost (AVC), a loss is expected
but can be minimized by not producing anything. The loss will be
equal to TFC.
LONG RUN
1. Production should continue in the long run when the expected selling price is
greater than minimum average total cost (ATC).
2. Expected selling price which is less than minimum ATC result in continuous
losses. In this case, the fixed assets should be sold and money invested in more
profitable alternative.
PRINCIPLE OF FACTOR SUBSTITUTION: This economic principle explains one of the
basic production relationships viz., factor factor relationship. It guides in the determination of
least cost combination of resources.

LAW OF EQUI-MARGINAL RETURNS: Most of the farmers have limited resources. They
have limited land, limited capital, limited irrigation facilities. Even the labour which is
considered to be surplus becomes scarce during peak sowing, weeding and harvesting periods.

OPPORTUNITY COST: It is an economic concept closely related to the equi-marginal

principle. Opportunity cost recognizes the fact that every input has an alternative use.
Opportunity cost is also known as real cost or alternate cost.

PRINCIPLE OF PRODUCT SUBSTITUTION: This principle explains the product-product

relationship and helps in deciding the optimum combination of products. Also, this economic
principle guides in making a decision of what to produce.
Types of Product Substitution:
1. Constant Rate: Linear
2. Increasing Rate: Concave to origin. Diversification. Common in agriculture.
3. Decreasing Rate: Convex to origin. Specialization.
Decreasing Rate of Factor Substitution: common in agriculture.
PRINCIPLE OF COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE: Certain crops can be grown in only
limited areas because of specific soil and climatic requirements. However, even those crops and
livestock enterprises which can be raised over a broad geographical area often have production
concentrated in one region.
TIME COMPARISON PRINCIPLE: Many farm decisions involve time. The procedure for
determining the future value of present sum is called compounding .

TYPES OF FARMING
1. SPECIALIZED FARMING: The major enterprise contributes more than 50% of the total
farm income.
2. DIVERSIFIED FARMING: In diversified farming, no single enterprise contributes 50% of
the total farms income.
3. MIXED FARMING: It is the type of farming under which crop production is combined with
livestock raising. At least 10 per cent of gross income must be contributed by the livestock. This
contribution in any case should not exceed 49%.
4. RANCHING: The practice of grazing animals on public lands is called ranching. Ranch land
is not used for raising of crops.
5. A. Dry farming: Cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall of less than
750 mm. Crop failure is most common due to prolonged dry spells.
B. Dry land farming : Cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall of more
than 750mm. Moisture conservation practices are necessary for crop production.
C. Rain fed farming : Cultivation of crops in regions with an annual rain fall of
more than 1150 mm.
SYSTEMS OF FARMING.
1. Capitalist or Estate farming: land is held in large areas by private capitalists, corporations
or syndicates.
2.State farming: managed by the government. Here land is owned by the state.
3.Collective farming: implies the collective management of land where in large number of
families or villagers residing in the same village pool the resources eg: land, livestock, and
machinery.
4.Peasant farming: type of organization in which an individual cultivator is the owner, manager
and organizer of the farm.
5.Cooporative farming: is a voluntary organization in which small farmers and landless
labourers increase their income by pooling land resources.
A co-operative farming society makes one of the following four forms
i. Co-operative better farming: These societies are based on individual ownership and
individual operation.
ii. Co-operative Joint farming: The ownership is individual but the operations are collective.
iii. Co-operative tenant farming: Such societies are usually organized by landless
farmers. In this system usually land belongs to the society. The land is divided into
plots which are leased out for cultivation to individual members.
iv. Co-operative collective farming: Both ownership and operations under this system are
collective.

FARM PLANNING: A farm plan is a programme of total farm activity of a farmer drawn up
in advance.
TYPE OF FARM PLANS
1. Simple farm planning: It is adopted either for a part of the land or for one enterprise or to
substitute one resource to another.
2. Complete or whole farm planning: This is the planning for the whole farm.
FARM BUDGETING: Budgeting can be used to select the most profitable plan from among a
number of alternatives and to test the profitability of any proposed change in plan.
Types of farm budgets
1. Enterprise budget: An enterprise budget is an estimate of all income and expenses associated
with a specific enterprise and estimate of its profitability.
2. Partial budget: It is used to calculate the expected change in profit for a proposed change in
the the farm business. Partial budget is best adopted to anlysing relatively small change in the
whole farm plan.

LINEAR PROGRAMMING: Linear programming was developed by George B Dantzing

(1947). Linear programming is defined as the optimization (Minimization or maximization) of a
linear function subject to specific linear inequalities or equalities.
COST OF CULTIVATION: It refers to the cost of various inputs and input services used for
raising a particular crop. It includes all the operations from land
preparation to threshing, cleaning and taking the product from the field to home. Cost of
cultivation always refers to unit area (acre or hectare).
COST OF PRODUCTION: It refers to the cost of various inputs and input services used to
produce a unit quantity of output of a commodity.
Types of Production Functions:
1. Continuous Production Function: This is obtained for those inputs which can be split up in
to smaller units. All those inputs which are measurable give raise to continuous production
function.
Example: Fertilizers, Seeds, Plant protection chemicals, Manures, Feeds etc
2. Discontinuous or discrete Production Function: Such a function is obtained for resources or
work units which are used or done in whole numbers. Inputs which are counted. Example:
Ploughing, Weeding, Irrigation etc.,
3. Short Run Production Function (SRPF): Production Function in which some
inputs or resources are fixed.
Y= f ( X1 / X2, X2,…………..,Xn)
Eg: Law of Diminishing returns or Law of variable proportions
4. Long Run Production Function (LRPF): Production function which permits
variation in all factors of production.
Y = f( (X1, X2 , X3, ……………., Xn)
Eg: Returns to scale.
BASIC PRODUCTION RELATIONSHIPS
1. Factor -Product relationship
2. Factor -Factor relationship
3. Product-Product relationship
Factor-Product Relationship: relationship guides the producer in making the decision ‘how
much to produce?’.
Law of Diminishing Returns: The factor - product relationship or the amount of a resource that
should be used and consequently the amount of output that should be produced is directly related
to the operation of law of diminishing returns.

Relationship between Total Product (TP) and Marginal Product (MP):

TP increasing = MP + MP Increasing = TP increasing at increasing rate
TP Cons. = MP (0) MP Constant = TP increasing at cons. rate
TP Decreasing = MP - MP Decreasing = TP increasing at decres. Rate
MP (0) = TP Maximum
MP less than 0 = TPP Declines at increasing rate
Relationship between Marginal and Average Product
MP more than AP = AP increasing
MP equal AP = AP maximum
MP less than AP = AP Decrease

Ep= 0
y
TP Curve

First zone Second zone Third zone

Irrational Rational Irrational
output

AP
 0 MP
Input

Fig.: Factor – Product Relationship

Stages of Production Function:

S.No. Stage - I Stage – II Stage - III
1. Start from origin & ends where Start from where AP is maximum Starts from where MP = 0;
MP = AP & ends where MP = 0; TP is TP = maximum
maximum
2. TP Increasing at increasing rate TP increasing at decreasing rate TP is decreasing at
increasing rate
3. AP Increasing AP decreasing AP decreasing
4. MP increasing upto the point of MP decreasing MP remain negative
inflection
5. Ep > 1 Ep < 1 Ep < 0
6. IRRATIONAL RATIONAL IRRATIONAL
7. Resources are under utilized Optimum Over utilized
8. Fixed Res.: Abundant Vice – versa Variable res. are in excess
Variable Res.: Scare capacity
9. Av. Production of variable and Av. Production of Variable Res. Av. Production of variable
fixed resources increasing decreasing, but fixed res. more and fixed resources both
decreasing.
10 MPP > APP MPP < APP -

Factor-Factor Relationship: relationship guides the producer in deciding ‘How to produce’.

An isoquant represents all possible combinations of two resources (X1 and X2) physically
capable of producing the same quantity of output.
Product-Product Relationship: relationship guides the producer in deciding ‘What to produce’.
Types of Product-Product Relationships or Enterprise Relationship
1) Joint Products: These are produced through single production process. As a rule the two are
combined products. Production of one (main product) without the other (by-product) is not
possible.
2) Complementary enterprises: Complementarity between two enterprises exists
when with a change in the level of production of one, the other also changes in the
same direction. The marginal rate of product substitution is positive ( > 0).
3) Supplementary enterprises: Supplementarity exists between enterprises when
increase or decrease in the output of one product does not affect the production level of the other
product. They do not compete for resources but make use of resources when they are not being
utilized by one enterprise. The marginal rate of product substitution is zero.
4) Competitive enterprises: This relationship exists when increase or decrease in the production
of one product affect the production of other product inversely. That is when increase in output
of one product, with resources held constant, results in the decrease of output of other product.
The marginal rate of product substitution is negative (<0).
5) Antagonistic products: Two products may be detrimental to each other because of disease or
similar factors. When this is true ,only one of the products should be produced. Eg: Aqua culture
and paddy cultivation.
Marginal rate of product substitution: Marginal rate of the product substitution refers to the
absolute change in one product associated with a change of one unit in competing product.

CLASSIFICATION OF MARKETS:
1. On the basis of Location:
a) Village Markets
b) Primary wholesale Markets: These markets are located in big towns near
the centers of production of agricultural commodities.
c) Secondary wholesale Markets: These markets are located generally in
district headquarters or important trade centers or near railway junctions.
d) Terminal Markets: A terminal market is one where the produce is either finally disposed of
to the consumers or processors, or assembled for export. Merchants are well organized and use
modern methods of marketing.
e) Seaboard Markets
2. On the Basis of Area/Coverage:
a) Local or Village Markets
b) Regional Markets
c) National Markets
d) World Market
3. On the Basis of Time Span:
a) Short-period Markets: The markets which are held only for a few hours are
called short-period markets.
b) Long-period Markets: These markets are held for a long period than the
short-period markets.
c) Secular Markets: These are markets of permanent nature. The commodities
traded in these markets are durable in nature and can be stored for many years.
4. On the Basis of Volume of Transactions:
a) Wholesale Markets: A wholesale market is one in which commodities are bought and sold in
large lots or in bulk. Transactions in these markets take place mainly between traders.
b) Retail Markets: A retail market is one in which commodities are bought by and sold to the
consumers as per their requirements. Transactions in these markets take place between retailers
and consumers.
5. On the Basis of Nature of Transactions:
a) Spot or Cash Markets: A market in which goods are exchanged for money immediately after
the sale is called the spot or cash market.
b) Forward Markets: A market in which the purchase and sale of a commodity
takes place at time „t‟ but the exchange of the commodity takes place on some specified date in
future i.e., time t + 1.
6. On the Basis of Number of Commodities in which Transaction Takes place:
a) General Markets
b) Specialized Markets
7. On the Basis of Degree of Competition:
Perfect Markets: A perfect market is one in which the following conditions hold
good:
Imperfect Markets: The markets in which the conditions of perfect competition
are lacking are characterized as imperfect markets.
a) Monopoly Market: Monopoly is a market situation in which there is only one seller of a
commodity. When there is only one buyer of a product the market is termed as a monopsony
market.
b) Duopoly Market: A duopoly market is one which has only two sellers of a commodity. The
market situation in which there are only two buyers of a commodity is known as the duopsony
market.
c) Oligopoly Market: A market in which there are more than two but still a few sellers of a
commodity is termed as an oligopoly market. A market having a few (more than two) buyers is
known as oligopsony market.
d) Monopolistic competition: When a large number of sellers deal in heterogeneous and
differentiated form of a commodity, the situation is called monopolistic competition.
MARKET FUNCTIONARIES:
(i) PRODUCERS
(ii) MIDDLEMEN: The middlemen in foodgrain marketing may, therefore, be
classified as follows:
(a) Merchant Middlemen: Merchant middlemen are those individuals who take
title to the goods they handle. They buy and sell on their own and gain or lose, depending on the
difference in the sale and purchase prices.
Wholesalers: Wholesalers are those merchant middlemen who buy and sell foodgrains in large
quantities.
Retailers: Retailers buy goods from wholesalers and sell them to the consumers in small
quantities.
(a) Agent Middlemen: Agent middlemen act as representatives of their clients. They do not take
title to the produce and, therefore, do not own it.
Agent middlemen are of two types
Commission Agents or Arhatias: A commission agent is a person operating in the wholesale
market who acts as the representative of either a seller or a buyer. He is usually granted broad
powers by those who consign goods or who order the purchase.
Commission Agents or Arhatias in unregulated markets are of two types, Kaccha arhatias and
pacca arhatias. Kaccha arhatias primarily act for the sellers, including farmers. Kaccha arhatias
charge arhat or commission in addition to the normal rate of interest on the money they advance.
A pacca arhatia acts on behalf of the traders in the consuming market.
Brokers: Brokers render personal services to their clients in the market; but unlike
the commission agents, they do not have physical control of the product. The main
function of a broker is to bring together buyers and sellers on the same platform for
negotiations. Their charge is called brokerage.
(c)Speculative Middlemen: Those middlemen who take title to the product with a view to
making a profit on it are called speculative middlemen. They are not regular buyers or sellers of
produce. They specialize in risk – taking.
(d)Facilitative Middlemen: Some middlemen do not buy and sell directly but assist in the
marketing process.
The important facilitative middlemen are:
Hamals or Labourers: They physically move the goods in marketplace.
Weighmen: They facilitate the correct weighment of the produce.
Graders: These middlemen sort out the product into different grades
Transport Agency: movement of the produce from one market to another.
Communication Agency
Advertising Agency
Auctioners: They help in exchange function by putting the produce for auction and
bidding by the buyers.
National Institute of Agricultural Marketing has started functioning at Jaipur
(Rajasthan) with effect from 8th August, 1988.
The Agricultural Produce (Grading & Marking) Act,1937 empowers the Central Government to
fix quality standards, known as „AGMARK‟ standards and to prescribe terms and conditions for
using the seal of AGMARK‟.
Net Worth: If the total assets are more than total liabilities it is called net worth or equity and its
converse is known as Net deficit.
Business is said to be solvent – Net worth more than zero
Financial Test Ratios:
1. Current Ratio: Sum of Current Assets/ Sum of Current liabilities
Reflects liquidity within one year’s time.
2. Intermediate or Working Ratio: 2 to 5 Years.
Sum of Current + Working Assets/ Sum of current + Working Liabilities
3. Fixed Ratio: over a long period of time.
Sum of fixed or long term assets/ Sum of long term liabilities
4. Net Capital Ratio: overall financial position.
Total Assets / Total Liabilities
 Four things must keep in mind with regards to above four ratios:
1. All ratios more than one : sound running.
2. All ratios can be compared overtime.
3. Higher and higher ratios, indicate the farm business is more safe and stable.
4. Excellent or ideal ratios :- 2:1.

1. Current Liability Ratio: Sum of current liabilities / Net Worth.

2. Debt – equity Ratio or Leverage Ratio: Total Liabilities / Net Worth
 Three thing must keep in mind with regards to above two ratios:
1. All ratios less than one : sound running.
2. All ratios compared overtime.
3. Lesser and lesser the ratios, indicate the farm business is more safe and stable.

Profit and Loss Statement: A/s Income statement, Surplus statement

Net income: three types:
1. Net Cash Income: Total cash receipts – Total cash expenses
2. Net Operating Income: Gross income – Operating expenses
3. Net Farm Income: Gross income – Total expenses
A. Expenses – Income Ratios/ Efficiency Ratios:
1. Operating Ratio: Total operating expenses/ Gross income
2. Fixed Ratio: Fixed expenses/ Gross income
3. Gross Ratio: Total expenses/ Gross income
 All these ratios should be less than one to indicate the profitable run of the farm business.
B. Investment – Income / Profitability Ratios:
1. Capital Turn Over Ratio: Gross income/ Average Capital Investment
2. Rate of Return on Investment:
Net return to capital / Average capital investment
 These ratios should be greater than one.
Fixed Expenses: 1. Depreciation. 2. Land Revenue 3. Interest on fixed capital
4. Rental value of owned land.

Net Present Value (NPV): A/s Net gain method.

“The sum of present values of cash inflows minus the sum of present values of cash outflows”.
A. Single Project: i. NPV > 0 : Accepted.
ii. NPV<0 : Rejected.
iii. NPV = 0 : Accepted/ Rejected
B. Two or more project: Highest NPV: Accepted.

Internal Rate of Return (IRR): A/s Time adjusted, project rate, discounted cash flow, yield
rate, marginal efficiency of capital
Actual IRR : R
Required Rate : r
IRR = LDR + DDR * PVL/DPV
A. Single Project: i. R > r : Profitable
ii. R < r : Not Profitable
iii. R = r : Indifferent case
B. > 2 Project: Project show highest IRR.

Benefit – Cost Ratio (BCR): A/s Profitability index

Sum of present value of cash inflows/ sum of present value of cash outflows.
Decision Rules:
A. Single Project: i. BCR > 1 : Profitable
ii. BCR < 1 : Not profitable
iii. BCR = 1 : Indifferent case
B. > 2 Projects: Project showing highest BCR.

Project Cycle: 1. Identification

2. Formulation or preparation
3. Appraisal or Analysis
4. Implementation
5. Monitoring
6. Evaluation

 PACS: Primary Agricultural Co-operative Credit Societies, 1904

 LAMPS: Large- Sized Adivasi Multipurpose Co-operative Societies, 1971
 FSS: Farmers Service Societies
 ARDC: Agricultural Refinance and Development corporation, 1 July 1963
 Small Farmer Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers and Agricultural
Labourers Development Agencey (MFAL): 1971

 APP: Total Product/ Input

 MPP: change in total product/ change in variable input
 Elasticity of production (Ep): % change in output/ % change in input
 Elasticity of substitution (Es):
o % change in input/ % change in rate of technical substitution
 Cost of cultivation : total cost/ area under crop (hac) = Rs/ha
 Cost of Production: cost of cultivation – value of by-product/ Quantity of main produce
(q/t) = Rs/qt.
 Marketable surplus: willing to sell.
 Marketed surplus: actually sell
 Agriculture Price Commission: 1965
 STATISTICS
Variables
 A variables is a characteristic that may taken on different values at different times, place
or situation.
Types of variables :-
1. Independents variables :- are those variables that are manipulated ( X1, X2, X3 etc)
2. Dependent variable :- are only measured and its values depend on independent variables.
 Y= K(X1, X2, X3 ….)
 Where, Y is a dependent variables X1, X2, X3 etc. are independent variables
3. Discrete variables:- are those variables which can only be presented by numerical values, but
restricted to particular numbers.
 Eg:- the number of cars passing a certain spot in a given period of time.
4. Continuous variables:- are those variables which can only presented by numerical values, but
are restricted to a particular number.
 Eg. Height, age, weight etc.
 Continuous random variables :- Can be measured in fractional values, Eg:- height , age
etc.
 Discontinuous random variables :- Cannot be measured in fractional values, number of
students in a class.

Statistical data
1. Geographical data:- classified according to the area and for a fixed time of period.
2. Chronological data:- classified on the basis of time.
3. Qualitative data:- classified on the basis of some attributes (qualitative characteristics).
4. Quantitative data :- classified on the basis of magnitudes.

Important points :-
 Primary data :- is a original in nature. eg. Population census, livestock census, surveys by
international bodies such as FAO, World bank.
 Secondary data :- can obtain from other sources eg. Primary data used by some other
agencies referred as secondary data.
 The population census is published by the office of registrar general and census
commissioner, ministry of home affairs, government of India.
 The first economics census was conducted in India during 1977.
 The 19th livestock census was conducted by department of animal husbandry, dairying
and fisheries in 2012, released in June 2014.
 FAO launched world agriculture census programme.
 One dimension diagram is most common type of diagram used in practiceeg. Bar
diagram
 Pie diagram are most common two dimensional diagram .
 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
 The angle value :- 𝑥 360; The angle = value of a sector x 3.6
100
 In pie diagram, one percent is equal to 3.6
 Pictograms :- the statistical data are to be presented in the form of pictures.
 Cartograms:- are also known as statistical maps which are used to gives qualitative
information on a geographical basis.

Measures of Central Tendency

 Given by Croxton and Cowden
 It means average value (single value)
 Different type of central tendency or average

Mathematical Average Positional Average

∎ Arithmetic mean ∎ Median
∎ Geometrical mean ∎ Mode
∎ Harmonic mean
1. Arithmetic mean or Mean :-
 It is ratio of sum of all the individual values of the variables and total number of
observations.
 Also known as average.
 It is most frequent used measure of central tendency.
 It depends on change of original and scales both.
 Used to calculate average yield, standard deviation, correlation and regression
coefficients.
Properties of Mean :-
 The sum of the deviations of the items from the arithmetic mean is always zero.
Mathematically, Σ (X - 𝑋) = 0
 The sum of the squared deviations of the items from arithmetic mean is minimum.
Mathematically, Σ (X - 𝑋)2 = minimum
 If the mean and the number of items of two or more than two related groups, it is known
as combined average.
Uses of Arithmetic Mean :-
 Arithmetic mean is used to calculate average production, average cost, average wage, per
capital income, consumption, prices etc.
2. Geometric Mean:-
 The geometric mean is defined as the nth root of the product of n items in a given series.
 Mathematically, G.M. = n X1X2X3……..Xn
 Eg. :- Geometric mean of 2, 4, 8
3
G.M. = √2 𝑥 4 𝑥 8
3
G.M. = √64 G.M. = 4
 Properties of Geometric Mean :-
 The product of the value of the series will remain unchanged when the value of geometric
mean is substituted for each individual value.
 Eg. As we explained above, the geometric mean of most common series:- 2,4,8 is 4.
2 x 4 x 8 = 64 = 4 x 4 x 4
 The sum of the derivations of the logarithms of the original observations above or below
the logarithm of the geometric mean is equal.
 The geometric mean cannot be calculated if any observation or value is zero or negative
in the given series.
 The geometric mean of a given series is always less than the arithmetic mean (except- all
observations in a series are equal).
Uses of G.M. :-
 The growth of population (percentage increase in population) such as the growth of
bacteria, humans population etc. is measured by using geometric mean or geometric
progression.
 Used for construction of index numbers.
 Used to calculate the averages of proportions (ratios), percentages and compound rates
etc.
3. Harmonic Mean :-
 The harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean.
Uses of Harmonic Mean:-
 Useful in such cases where values, time, speed etc. are given in prices, quantities, rate.
 Great importance in such cases where small items have to be of great importance.
Relationship between mathematical averages:-
 A.M. ≥ G.M. ≥ H.M.
 Generally the arithmetic mean is greater than geometric mean and geometric means is
greater than harmonic mean.
4. Median :-
 Median is a positional average or middle most item of all values.
(𝑁+1)
 If the number of observation (N) is odd then median will be item.
2
 The median is the value of the middle item when all the items are arranged in either
ascending or descending order.
 Eg. Find out the median value of the series 8, 4, 6, 9, 7, 1, 6, 4, 7, 2, 9, 15, 45, 26, 8
Arranging the data series in ascending order:- 1, 2, 4, 4, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 15, 26, 45
Count no. of observations :- 15 (i.e. it is an odd number series)
The median value is 8th observation of the series i.e. 7.
Median = size or value of 8th item i.e., 7 is answer.
Properties of Median :-
 The sum of the deviation of the items from the median is the least.
 The median is also known as “the average of the half - way point”.
 Uses of Median:-
 Median is used for qualitative data like honesty, brevity, intelligence, ability etc.
 In case of the positively skewed distributions median is a more suitable average.
 Median can also be used in case of distribution of income, wealth, investment etc.
5. Mode:-
 Mode is most frequently occurred item.
 Mode is the value of the class with the highest frequency.
 Mode is also known as “the average with the highest peak of the frequency curve”.
 According to Professor Kenney and Keeping, the value of the variable which occurs most
frequently in a distribution is called the mode.
 Eg. Calculate the modal value of the given series:- 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 11, 13
Two highest frequencies as 6, 9. This series has two modal values i.e., it is known as the
case of bimodal value.
 If the modal value is more than two, then we call it as multimodal.
 Unimodal distribution:- if series have one modal value.
 Bimodal distribtution:- if series have two modal value.
Uses of Mode:-
 Mode is used for typical soil type, cropping pattern, shoe size and shirt size.
 Useful in the case of highly skewed distributions.
 Deals with the business, industry and marketing activities such as advertising etc.
 It is also used in biology, meteorology etc.
Relationship between Mean, Median and Mode :-
 Symmetrical distribution is a distribution in which the values of mean, median and mode
are equal i.e. Mean = Median = Mode.
 In positively skew distribution :- Mean > Median > Mode
 In negatively skew distribution:- Mean < Median < Mode
 Karl Pearson has given the following relationship between mean, median and mode as
Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean.
1
 Mean = 2 (3 median – mode)
Measures of Dispersion
 Scatterness from central tendency data.
 Measures of dispersion gives an idea about the extent of the observation or spread of the
observation from a central value.
 Measures of dispersion is of two type :- (i) Absolute MD (ii) Relative MD.
 Absolute MD:- Measures of dispersion in which unit is same that of observation.
 Relative MD:- measures of dispersion in which no unit.
 Absolute Md includes:- Range, mean deviation, quartile deviation and standard deviation.
 Relative MD also known as the “Coefficient of Variation.
 Relative MD is measures of dispersion divided by related measure of central tendency.
  Relative MD includes coefficient of mean deviation about mean, mode, median, standard
deviation and quartile deviation.
Methods of studying variations :-
Positional Mathematical Graphical
 The range  Mean deviation  The Lorenz Curve
 The quartile deviation  Standard deviation

1. Range :-
 Range is the simplest measure of dispersion.
 Range is the difference between the largest and smallest values in the sample i.e., it
depends only on the most extreme values of the sample.
 Range :- Largest item – Smallest item
(𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚−𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚)
 Coefficient of Range :-
(𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚+𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚)
 Eg. Range of given series, 6, 5, 2, 3, 1, 8, 9, 12, 8, 20, 18
Range:- Largest item – Smallest item
Range :- 20 – 1 = 19
Uses :-
 Quality control
 Weather forecasting
 Useful for everyday life
2. Quartile Deviation :-
 The quartile deviation can be computed by taking the difference between the third and
first quartiles of the distribution (i.e., subtracting the 25th percentile from the 75th
percentile).
 The quartile deviation represents the middle value (50 %) of the distribution.
 The first quartile or Q1 (25 %), the second quartile or Q2 (50 %) and the third quartile or
Q3 (75 %).
 The second quartile represents the Median of the distribution.
 Quartile deviation :- (Q3 – Q1) / 2
(Q3 – Q1)
 Coefficient of Quartile Deviation :- (Q3 – Q1)
3. Mean Deviation:-
 Mean deviation is the arithmetic mean of the absolute deviation of the observation.
 It is the average differences between the items in a distribution and the median or mean
of that series.
 It is also known as average deviation.
i. Mean deviation for simple data series :-
1
 MD = 𝑛 Σ X1 - 𝑋
  Where X1 - 𝑋 is the modules value or absolute value of the deviation ignoring plus
and minus signs. Xi = X1, X2, X3, ……….,Xn
 𝑋 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛
ii. Mean deviation of frequency distribution series:-
 MD = Σ fi Xi - 𝑋
Σ fi
 Where f represents the frequency of the series.
Coefficient of Mean Deviation:-
 The coefficient of mean deviation is defined as the ratio of mean deviation to the median.
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Coefficient of Mean Deviation :- 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
4. Standard Deviation :-
 The average of squared deviations is obtained by summing all the squared deviations in
the frequency distribution and dividing by the number of items.
 It is defined as the square root of the average of squared deviations of the frequency
distribution.
 The concept of standard deviation was introduced by Karl Pearson (1923).
 The value of standard deviation is always positive because it uses squared values.
 Standard deviation is represented by 𝜎 (population standard deviation) or s (sample
standard deviation).
i. Standard Deviation of individual series:-
s=
ii. Standard Deviation of frequency distribution:-
where,
 Xi = individual observations in the series
 𝑋 = Mean
 (Xi - 𝑋) = deviation from the mean
 fi = respective frequencies
 n = number of observations
5. Variance:-
 Variance is square of the standard deviation.
 The term “Variance” was used for the first time by R.A. Fisher (1913).
 The concept of variance was first given by Galton.
Σ (Xi − 𝑋 )2
 Variance = 𝑛
 or variance = s2 or s = Variance
Z - Score:-
 the z- score can be defined as the ratio of deviation from the mean to the standard
deviation.
 z- score is a relative measure.
 z- score can be both positive or negative or zero.
Properties of standard deviation:-
 Range of standard deviation from 0 to infinity (but never negative).
 Mean deviation can be computed either from the median or mean but the standard
deviation is always computed from the arithmetic mean.
Relationship between Quartile Deviation, Mean Deviation and Standard Deviation :-
2
 Q.D. = 3 𝜎 or Q.D. is 0.67 of standard deviation
4
 M.D. = 5 𝜎 or M.D. is 0.80 of standard deviation
6. Coefficient of Variation (C.V.):-
 It is relative measure of dispersion.
 It was developed by Karl Pearson.
 Coefficient of variation is the ratio of standard deviation to the arithmetic mean which is
presented in percentages.
 Coefficient of variation is a unit free measure of dispersion.
 Coefficient of variation is useful to compare the different data sets when the data sets are
on different units of measurement.
 Used to know the consistency of the data, for example rainfall data.
i. Coefficient of Variation (Population) :-
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜎
 C.V. = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝜇
ii. Coefficient of Variation (Sample) :-
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠
 C.V. = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑋
Lorenz Curve:-
 It is a graphical method of studying dispersion.
 Given by Max O. Lorenz.
 Lorenz used to describe the degree of inequality in the distribution of wealth and income
between different countries or for different time periods.
Y
Equal distribution line
Income

X No. of Persons

Skewness
 Professor Morris Hamburg defined skewness as the asymmetry or lack of symmetry in
the shape of a frequency distribution.
 In symmetrical distribution the mean, median and mode are identical.
 If the mean moves away from the mode, the larger the asymmetry or skewness.
 Skewness is always expressed as 𝛽 1.
Symmetrical distribution:-
  Mean = Median = Mode i.e., the values of mean, median and mode are same. (Absence
of skewness).
 The curve is bell shaped (i.e., uniform spread of frequencies on both sides of the center
point.
Asymmetrical distribution:-
i. Positively skewed distribution:-
 Mean > Median > Mode i.e., the value of the mean is maximum and mode is least
whereas median lies in between the two.
 The curve is more flatter on the right hand side.
ii. Negatively skewed distribution:-
 Mean < Median < Mode i.e., the value of mode is the maximum and mean is least
whereas median lies in between the two.
 The curve is more flat on the left hand side.
Coefficient of Skewness (Sk):-
Properties of a good measure of skewness:-
 If the distribution is symmetrical, it must have a zero value.
 It must be unit free.
Types of coefficient of correlation:-
i. Absolute measure:-
 the difference between mean and mode.
 Skewness :- Mean – Mode
ii. Relative measure:-
(𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛−𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒) 3 (𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛−𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛)
 Karl Pearson coefficient of skewness :- Skp = or Skp =
𝜎 𝜎
 Where, 𝜎 = standard deviation
Bowley’s coefficient of skewness (SkB):-
 Mean = 3 Median – 2 Mean
 Bowley’s coefficient of skewness lies between + 1 to – 1 while Karl Pearson’s coefficient
of skewness has no such limits.
Kurtosis
 The term kurtosis is originated from the Greek, which means bulginess.
 Kurtosis given by Prof. Karl Pearson.
 The degree of flatness or peakedness of a frequency distribution curve.
 Kurtosis can be expressed as 𝛽 2
 Kurtosis can be three types.
1. Platykurtic:-
 The curve is more flatter than the normal curve.
 The value of the coefficient of kurtosis is less than 3 (𝛽 2 = < 3 ).
2. Mesokurtic:-
 The curve is similar to the normal curve.
 The mesokurtic curve also called as normal curve.
  The value of the coefficient of kurtosis is equal to 3 (𝛽 2 = 3)
3. Leptokurtic:-
 The curve is more peaked than normal curve i.e., values are more bunched around mode
values.
 The value of the coefficient of kurtosis is greater than 3 (𝛽 2 = > 3).
Moments
 Refer to the measure of a force with respect to its tendency to provide rotation.
 Use of moment :- study of curve of nature.
Difference between coefficient of Skewness and coefficient of Kurtosis :-
Coefficient of Skewness (𝜷1) Coefficient of Kurtosis (𝜷2)
 𝛽1 = 
 In symmetrical 𝛽 1 shall be zero  In a symmetrical 𝛽 2 = 3
 The greater the value of 𝛽 1 the more  The greater the value of 𝛽 2 the more
skewed the distribution. peakedness found in the distribution.
 𝛽 1 cannot tell us about the direction of  Even 𝛽 2 cannot tell us the direction of
skewness. skewness.
 𝛽 1 is always positive.  𝛽 2 may be positive or negative.

Correlation
 Define as the association between two or more variable.
 Correlation coefficient lies between – 1 to + 1.
 If correlation coefficient is 0, there is no relation between variables.
 Correlation is independent of change of scale and origin of the variables.
 Correlation is geometric mean of two regression coefficient.
Types of correlation :-
1. Positive and Negative Correlation:-
 If both the variable are varying in the same direction (i.e., if one variable is increasing the
other is also increasing or vice-versa), then the correlation is positive.
 If one variable is increasing the other is decreasing or vice-versa, the correlation is said to
be negative correlation.
2. Simple, Partial and Multiple Correlation :-
 Simple correlation:- only two variables are under study.
 Partial correlation:- more than two variables but consider only two variables under study
other being kept constant.
 Multiple correlation:- three or more variables are studied simultaneously.
3. Linear and Non-linear correlation:-
 Linear correlation:- the amount of change in one variable tends to bear constant ratio.
 Non-linear correlation or curvilinear:- if the amount of change in one variable does not
bear a constant ratio to the amount of change in the other variable.
Methods of studying correlation:
1. Scatter diagram:- simplest method of studying correlation.
2. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation:-
 Widely used method for calculating correlation.
 Usually it is denoted by r.
 It can be used in the case of quantitative data only.
 Karl Pearson coefficient of correlation ranges from – 1 to + 1.

 r = + 1 :- means perfect positive correlation.

 r = - 1 :- means perfect negative correlation
 r = 0 :- means there is no correlation
 in real conditions, r = 0, 1, or – 1 etc. rarely found.
 The Karl Pearson’s correlation method is used to calculate the magnitude (strength) as
well as direction.
Covariance:-
 Ratio of summation of product of the deviations to the total number pairs of observations.
𝚺 𝑥𝑦
 cov = 𝑁
Properties of Multiple Correlation Coefficient:-
 The multiple correlation coefficient ranges between 0 and 1, i.e. 0 ≥ R ≥ 1
 If R = 1, the association is perfect and all the regression residuals are zero.
 If R = 0, all total and partial correlations are zero.
Regression
 Average relationship between two or more variables.
 Term regression first used by Sir Francis Galton (1877).
 According to Ya Lun Chou “regression analysis attempts to establish the nature of the
relationship between variables- that is, to study the functional relationship between the
variables and thereby provide a mechanism for prediction or forecasting”.
 Regression gives the nature of relationship between two variables.
 Regression gives the causes and effect of relationships.
 Regression coefficient are not symmetric.
 Range : - ∞ to + ∞
 Regression is independent of change of origin but not of scale.
 Regression equation of Y on X :- Y = a + bX
 Regression equation of X on Y :- X = a + bY
Difference between Correlation and Regression:-
Correlation Regression
The correlation is relationship between two or Regression is mathematical measure of the
more variables. Where the change in one average relationship between two or more
variable affects a change in other variable. variables. Where one variable is dependent and
other variable is independent.
Correlation coefficient measures extent of Regression coefficient estimates the change in
relationship between two variables. one variable for a unit change in other related
variable.
Correlation is a two way relationship. Regression is a one way relationship.
Correlation coefficient of units of the variables. Regression coefficient is expressed in the units
of dependent variable.
Range between – 1 and + 1. Range lies between - ∞ to + ∞
In correlation both the variables are random In regression one variable will be independent
and other will be dependent.
We cannot predict We can predict
Independent of change of both origin and scale Independent of change of origin but not of
scale.

Probability
 Probability :- No. of favourable cases / Total no. of equally likely cases
 Concept given by Thomas Bayes.
 Probability ranges from 0 to 1.
 Probability of an event uncertain to occur is 0.
 Probability of 7 in throwing a die will be 0.
 Probability of sure or certain event is 1.
 Different possible results of an experiment are outcome.
 Outcome or set of outcomes associated with a certain condition is event.
 Events which occur only once or will exclude the occurrence of other is called mutually
exclusive event.
 Mutually exclusive events do not have any common element.
 The occurrence of one event does not affect the occurrence of other is called independent
event.
 If A and B are independent, then P (AB) = P (A). P (B), So, P(A+B) = P (A) + P(B).
 Probability of happening of event A is given as P (A-) and P (A-) = 1 – P (A) or P (A) +
P(A-) = 1.
 P(A+B), Probability of occurrence of at least one of the event A or B (i.e. either A, B or
both) or (PUB).
 P(A+B), Probability of occurrence of both the events A and B.
 P(B/A) Probability of occurrence of B when A has already occurred, it is called the
conditional probability.
 The conditional probability is given as :- P (B/A) = P(AB)/P(B)
 P(A+B) = P(A) + P(B) – (AB)
 If A and B are independent, then P(AB) = P (A), P(B), so P(A+B) = P(A) + (B)
 Probability of not happening of event A is given as
Additive theorem:-
 i. Mutually exclusive events:- P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B), where P (AB) = 0
ii. Not mutually exclusive events :- P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) – P (AB)
 Multiplication theorem :- P (A and B) = P (A) x P (B)

Probability Distributions
Discrete probability distribution Continuous probability distribution
∎ Binomial distribution ∎ Normal distribution
∎ Poisson distribution,
∎ Hyper-geometric distribution
∎ Multinomial distribution
∎ Negative Binomial distribution
1. Binomial Probability Distribution :-
 Given by Jacob Bernoulli
 Also known as “Bernoulli’s distribution”.
 It is associated with a multiple step experiment.
 Random variable of BD is a discrete one.
 BD has Bernoulli trails containing two outcomes (i.e. success, failure)
 The probability of success is denoted by ‘p’ and the probability of a failure, denoted by
‘1-p’.
 The probability of a head and the probability of a tail are the same for each trail (i.e., p =
0.5 and 1 – p = 0.5)
 Mean of BD = np
 Mode = (n + 1) p
 Standard deviation of BD = √𝑛𝑝𝑞
 Mean (np) ≠ Variance (npq) or Mean > Variance
 If n is large and if neither p of q is too close to 0, then BD approaches normal
distribution.
 When n > 20; p < 0.05, BD approaches poisson distribution.
2. Poisson Probability Distribution :-
 Developed by Simeon Denis Poisson (1837).
 Discrete type of probability distribution.
 Generally found in cases of rare events.
 𝜆 = Mean (np)
 𝜆 = Variance
 Mean (np) = Variance (npq)
 Uses of PD:- printing errors in a book, number of deaths in a district in a given period
 Poisson distribution is very useful in a problem such as insurance, physics, economics,
weighing time problem etc.
3. Normal Distribution (ND):-
 Developed by A. Demoveries (1733)
  Also known as mesokurtic or Gaussian distribution.
 It is a most commonly used probability distribution for describing a continuous random
variable.
 Used in statistical quality control.
 Has a variety of practical applications in which the random variables are heights and
weights of people, test scores, scientific measurements, amount of rainfall etc.
 The normal curve is bell shaped and symmetrical.
 Mean = Median = Mode
 Area under standard normal curve is one,
 Mean = 0, Standard Deviation = 1
 The normal curve has two parameters, 𝜇 and 𝜎. They determine the location and shape of
the normal distribution respectively.
 Only one mode that is unimoded.
2
 Q.D. = 3 S.D.
 QD : MD : SD : : 10 : 12 : 15
 Area properties:-
i. p (𝜇 – 𝜎 < x < 𝜇 + 𝜎) = 0.68
ii. p (𝜇 – 2𝜎 < x < 𝜇 + 2𝜎) = 0.95
i. p (𝜇 – 3𝜎 < x < 𝜇 + 3𝜎) = 0.99 (used in statistical quality control limit)

Tests of Significance
Hypothesis :-
 The assumption made about any unknown characteristics is called hypothesis.
 It may or may be true.
 Population follows normal distribution.
Type of hypothesis:-
1. Null Hypothesis:-
 A hypothesis of no difference is called null hypothesis and denoted by H0.
 Or any statistical hypothesis under test.
 Making a tentative assumption about a population parameter.
 H0 : 𝜇 = 𝜇 0; H0 : 𝜇 1 = 𝜇 2
 Eg. There are two group A and B and both perform a test on the same data and if they
result zero (no difference) then it is null hypothesis.
2. Alternative Hypothesis:-
 Any hypothesis, which is complementary to the null hypothesis is called as alternative
hypothesis and usually denoted as H1.
 H1 :- 𝜇 1 ≠ 𝜇 2 (two tailed test)
 H1 :- 𝜇 1 > 𝜇 2 (one tailed test)
 H1 :- 𝜇 1 < 𝜇 2 (one tailed test)
  Eg. There are two group A and B and both perform a test on the same data and if there is
a difference, it is alternative hypothesis.
Simple Hypothesis:-
 A hypothesis is said to be simple if it completely specifies the distribution of the
population.
 Eg. H0 : 𝜇 = 𝜇 0
Composite Hypothesis:-
 If the hypothesis does not specify the distribution of the population completely, it is said
to be a composite hypothesis.
 Eg. H0 : 𝜇 ≤ 𝜇 0 and 𝜎 is known.
 H0 : 𝜇 ≥ 𝜇0 and 𝜎 is known.
Parameter:-
 A characteristics of population values is known as parameters.
 Eg. Population mean (𝜇) and population variance (𝜎2).
Statistics:- A characteristic of sample values is called a statistic.
Sampling distribution:-
 The distribution of a statistic computed from all possible samples is known as sampling
distribution of that statistic.
Standard Error :-
 The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistic is known as its standard
error.
𝜎
 S.E. (𝑋) =
√𝑛
 Where, 𝜎 = population standard deviation, n = sample size
 Provides an idea about the unreliability of a sample.
 It used for testing of hypothesis.
Sample:-
 A finite subset of statistical objects in a population is called a sample and the number of
objects in a sample is called the sample size.
Random Sampling:-
 If the sampling units in a population are drawn independently with equal chance, to be
include in the sample then the sampling will be called random sampling.
Type of Error:-
1. Type I Error:- rejecting H0 when H0 is true.
 Type I Error is denoted by 𝛼.
 Also known as a false positive error.
2. Type II Error:- accepting H0 when H0 is false.
 Type II Error is denoted by 𝛽.
 Also known as false negative error.

 Rejecting H0 when H0 is true.

  Rejecting H0 when H0 is false.
 Accepting H0 when H0 is true.
 Accepting H0 when H0 is false.
H0 is true H0 is false
Rejecting H0 Type – I error Correct
(wrong decision) (Right decision)
Accepting H0 Correct Type – II error
(Right decision) (More risky)
Degree of freedom (df):-
 It is defined as the difference between the total number of items and the total number of
constraints.
 If ‘n’ is the total number of items and ‘k’ total number of constraints then the degree of
freedom is given by d.f. = n – k
 Concept of freedom is closely related to 𝜒2 test.
 Student’s t – distribution is also calculated with n – 1 degree of freedom
 Degrees of freedom for Binomial distribution = n – 1
 Degrees of freedom for Poisson distribution = n – 2
 Degrees of freedom for Normal distribution = n – 3
 Degrees of freedom for 𝜒2 test = (c – 1) (r – 1), where c = columns and r = rows.
Level of Significance:-
 The maximum probability at which we would be willing to risk a type-I error is known as
level of significance or the size of type-I error is level of significance.
 The levels of significance usually employed in testing of hypothesis are 5 % and 1 %
(more risky). The level of significance is always fixed in advance before collecting the
sample information.
Critical value:-
 While testing for the difference between means of populations, our concern is whether
the observed difference is too large to believe that it has occurred just by chance.
 But then the question is how much difference should be treated as too large.
 It is based on level of significance.
Statistical Tests

Parametric Test Non- parametric Test

∎ Require quantitative data ∎ based on categorical or qualitative data
∎ Distribution to be assumed normal ∎ No need not to assume distribution as a normal
∎ Mean used as measure of central tendency ∎ Median used as measure of central tendency
∎ Variance assumed to be homogeneous ∎ Variance can be of any type
∎ Eg. Z – test, t – test, F – test ∎ 𝜒2 - test

Z – Test :-
  Given by R.A. Fisher.
 Based on z-distribution.
 Used for testing the significance of difference for large samples (> 30).
t - Test:-
 Given by William Gosset.
 Based on value of the t-distribution.
 Used when the sample size is 30 or less and the population standard deviation is
unknown.
 t – test used to compare the means of the two groups of data i.e., it determinates whether
the data has come from the same population or not.
 t – test can be of two types as paired and unpaired t – test.
 Unpaired t – test is applied for two independent groups. So, this test is also known as
independent samples t – test.
 An unpaired t – test used to compare the two population means.
 Student’s t – test was developed by Gosset.
 Student t – test used for paired samples or paired data.
 t – distribution ranges between + ∞ to - ∞
F – Test:-
 A test of significance which is used for testing the significance of differences among
several treatments.
 F- test is also known as the variance ratio test.
 The F- values are all non-negative.
 The F- distribution is non-symmetric.
 The mean of the F- distribution is approximately 1.
𝝌 test (Chi – square test):-
2

 It is distribution free method.

 𝜒2 test is most widely used non parametric test.
 𝜒2 test was developed by Karl Pearson (1900).
 𝜒2 test has the characteristics of both parametric tests and non-parametric tests but mainly
it is considered as non-parametric test.
 𝜒2 test may be defined as the difference between observed and expected frequencies.
(𝑂−𝐸)2
 Mathematically, 𝜒2 = Σ ; Where, O = observed freq., E = Expected freq.
𝐸
Properties of 𝝌2 test:-
 The sum of the observed and expected frequencies is always zero, mathematically :- Σ (O
– E) = 0
 The 𝜒2 test depends only on the set of observed and expected frequencies but not on
degrees of freedom.
 𝜒2 distribution is a continuous distribution.
 𝜒2 distribution is limiting case of the multinomial distribution.
 The mean of the 𝜒2 distribution is equal to the number of degrees of freedom.
  The variance of 𝜒2 distribution is twice the degree of freedom.
Uses of 𝝌2 test:-
 Used as test of independence
 Used as a test of goodness of fit
 Used as a test of homogeneity

Experimental Design
Treatment:- various objects or procedure to be compare in a competitive experiment.
1
Precision:- the reciprocal of the variance of the mean, i.e. 𝑉𝑎𝑟 (𝑋 )
Fertility contour map:-
 In uniformity trial, a graphic picture of the nature of the soil fertility variation is obtain by
joining the points of equal fertility through lines. This graphic picture is known as
fertility contour map.
ANOVA:-
 Technique was developed by R.A. Fisher.
 To compare the means is called analysis of variance.
 Used to test for significant differences between means.
 If we are comparing two variables, then ANOVA will give the same results as the t – test
for dependent samples.
 Basic purpose of ANOVA technique is to test the homogeneity (equality) of several
means.
Principles of the design:-
1. Replication:- The repetition of the treatment under comparison is called the replication.
2. Randomisation:- The allocation of the treatments to various plots in a random manner.
3. Local Control:-
 The process of reducing the experimental errors by dividing the experimental area into
more homogenous block is known as local control.
Types of Model:-
1. Fixed Effect Model:-
 A model in which each of the factor has fixed effect and only error effect is random.
2. Mixed Effect Model:-
 A model in which some factor has fixed effect and some factors have random effect.
3. Random Effect Model:-
 A model in which all the factors have random effect.
CRD:- Completely Randomised Design
 Useful when the experimental material is of uniform nature.
 In this design, randomization and replication are used, i.e. no use of local control.
 Not much used in field experiment.
 The pot culture experiments and laboratory experiments, the material is expected to be
uniform in nature the CRD is often used.
  Simplest least restrictive experimental design.
 In CRD, the treatments are assigned to the plots without restriction.
 This design provides a one way classified data according to levels of a single factor.
 For analysis linear model is :- Yij = 𝜇 + ti + eij
Where, Yij = yield from the jth receiving ith treatment.
𝜇 = general mean
ti = the fixed effect of ith treatment.
eij = error effect due to chance.
 Any number of treatments and any number of replications may be used, i.e. flexibility.
 Easy statistical analysis.
 The analysis is not complicated if data are missing.
 Maximum error degrees of freedom.
 d.f. = n – 1
RBD:- Randomised Block Design
 RBD is used most often in agricultural research.
 Two way classification of data.
 All three principles are used in this design.
 For analysis linear model is :- Yij = 𝜇 + ti + rj + eij where, rj = the jth replication effect.
 Total d.f. = rt – 1 where, r = replication (r - 1), t = treatments (t – 1)
 This design is more accurate and efficient then CRD for most types of experimental
work.
 This design is not suitable for large number of treatments.
LSD:- Latin Square Design
 Two directional blocking in a LSD, commonly referred to as row blocking and column
blocking.
 LSD is suitable for 5 to 12 treatments.
 LSD is used when fertility gradients are to be in two directions.
 Data must be arranged in square form, i.e. treatments = replications
 Linear model :- Yij = 𝜇 + ri + tj + ck + eijk
Where, 𝜇 = general mean, ri = row effect, tj = treatment effect,
ck = column effect, eijk = residual
 Total d.f. = (V2 – 1)
 LSD more efficient than CRD and RBD.
 This design can be used for making up residual effect and cross over design.
Factorial Experiment:-
 If one treatment in CRD, RBD and LSD than simple experiment, but if we take two or
more factors than called factorial experiments.
 If 2 factors and 2 levels :- 22 factorial experiment.
 If 2 factors and 3 levels :- 32 factorial experiment.
 If factor = level :- symmetrical factorial experiment
  If factor ≠ level :- asymmetrical factorial experiment
SPD:- Split Plot Design
 Same as factorial experiment.
 Replication divided into main plots then divided in sub plots.
 Main plots taken larger than sub plot
 Number of treatment for which it is used :- > 20
Difference between factorial experiment and split plot design:
Factorial Experiment Split Plot Design
One error is there Two or three error are there
One coefficient of variation is calculated. Number of CV is equal to number of errors
Calculate one interaction SEm Calculate two interaction SEm
Complete block design Incomplete block design

Strip Plot Design:-

 If sub treatments are laid out in strips then the design is called as strip plot design. It is
also known as “Split Block Design”.
 Used when both main and sub treatment require large experimental material. Thus if two
factors are involved and if both the factors require large plot size, it is difficult to carry
out the experiment in split plot design.
 In this design, the use of 3 plot sizes :- (i) vertical strip plot for first factor, (ii) horizontal
strip plot for the second factor and (iii) intersection plot for the interaction between the
two factors.
Confounding
 Factorial experiments are usually conducted in RBD and seldom in LSD and other
designs.
 In factorial experiments when the numbers of factors are increased, the number of
treatment combinations increased rapidly. This would increase the block size; we know
that as the block size increases, it is difficult to ensure the homogeneity within the blocks.
 To keep the advantage of the factorial experiment and at the same time reduce the
experimental error to a minimum, a device called as confounding is adopted. By this
device it is possible to keep block sizes small.
1. Complete confounding:-
 If the same effect is confounded in all the replicates, it is called as complete confounding.
2. Partial confounding:-
 If a treatment effect is confounded in some replications and un-confounded in other
replications, the system is known as partial confounding.
Contrast
 Comparison of treatement. Control is compared with others.
 Contrast is a linear combination of treatment mean such that the sum of the coefficient is
zero, i.e. C1 + C2 + C3 + …………+ Cn = 0
  Each contrast has one degree of freedom.
 Contrast provides more information about the treatment than F-test along in analysis of
variance.
 If the sum of the product of their coefficient are zero, i.e. C1d1 + C2d2 + ………..+ Ckdk =
0, then this is said to be orthogonal contrast.
Shape and Size of Experimental Unit
 There are two ways to take shape and size of experimental unit i.e. (i) maximum
curvature method and (ii) Fair Field Smith Law (variance law of Smith).
 Fair Field Smith Law :- a suitable model represent the relationship between size and
shape (variance of the mean/unit) of experimental plot given by Smith is V𝜒 = V1/ Xb

Data Transformation
 We do transformation because we always assume population to be normal in each test, so
it is done to stabilize the variance.
 Concept given by Barthlate (1974).
Types of data transformation:-
1. Square Root Transformation:-
 When data follows poisson distribution (mean = variance)
 When variance is proportional to mean, then do, y = √𝑥 , where x = observed value.
 If any observation is ‘zero’ (0) than do, y = √𝑥 + 0.5 or √𝑥 + 1
 The transformation is used specially when a data consist of a integral values like number
of bacterial counts, number of plants in a given area, number of infested plants in a plot,
number of insect count in trap etc.
2. Log Transformation:-
 When the original observation is converted itno the Log, the conversion is known as
“Log Transformation”.
 The Log Transformation is most appropriate when data mean is proportional to standard
deviation.
 The transformation is used when the observed data consists of big integers such as index
number, biological populations etc.
 In case of observed value is zero, the constant value preferably ‘1’ is to be added to avoid
negative logarithm. When such constant is added, it is added to all the observations.
 The Log transformation particularly prefers effective in normalizing positively skewed
distribution.
3. Angular Transformation:-
 Used when data follows binomial distribution ( Mean > Variance)
 Always in per cent (%) value.
 Given by equation:- 𝜃 = Sin-1 (√𝑥), where 𝜃 is the degree and 𝑥 is the per cent value
expressed as fraction.
  This transformation is not applicable to percentage data which are not derived from the
count data eg. % of marks, % of profit, % of protein in fatal index etc. cannot be
subjected to angular transformation.
 Further, there is no need to transform the data, in case when all the data (% value) lies
between 30 to 70.
 The data are expected to follow approximate normal distribution.
1 1
 But in case of ‘0’ observation put 4𝑛 for zero and the value of 100 % by 100 - 4𝑛 where,
n = number of unit
Index Numbers
 Crozton and Cowden defined index numbers are devices for measuring differences in the
magnitude of a group of related variables.
Uses of index number:-
 Used in framing suitable policies.
 Useful in deflating prices of various commodities.
 Index number reveals trends and tendencies.
Vital Statistics
 The branch of statistics which is concerned with the various important events in human
life, such as births, deaths and migration etc.
i. Crude Birth Rate (CBR):-
 CBR :- Annual birth / Annual mean population x 1000
 The crude birth rate usually lies between 10 and 55 per 1000.
 In 2012, the global birth rate was 19.15 births per 1000 mean population.
 India’s birth rate was 22.7 births per 1000 mean population in 2010.
 Japan has the lowest birth rate in the world and Niger has the highest birth rate in the
world.
ii. Crude Death Rate (CDR):-
 The crude death rate can be defined as the ratio of annual deaths per 1000 annual mean
population.
 CDR :- Annual deaths / Annual mean population x 1000
 Death rate usually lies between 8 and 30 per 1000.
 The death rate in India in 2010 was 8.04.
 The average death rate of the world was 8.37 in 2009.
iii. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):-
 the ratio of the number of deaths under 1 year of age which occurred among the
population of a given geographic area during a given year (B) to the number of live births
which occurred among the population of the given geographic area during the given year
(P) which is multiplied by 1000.
𝐵
 IMR :- 𝑃 x 1000
iv. Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR):-
  The maternal mortality rate is the number of maternal deaths per 1,000 women of
reproductive age in the population (generally for 15 – 44 years of age).
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
 MMR :- 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑔𝑒 x 1000
The vital Index :-
 The ratio of total live births to the total deaths.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠
 Vital index = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
Human Migration:- Physical movement from one area to another area.
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑀𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Net Migration Ratio:- 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑒𝑛𝑎 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Life Tables:-
 A life table is also known as an actuarial table or a mortality table.
 Life table is a measure of the longevity of the population.
Properties of Mean:-

 The sum of the deviations of the items from the arithmetic mean is always zero.
Mathematically, Σ (X - 𝑋) = 0
 The sum of the squared deviations of the items from arithmetic mean is minimum.
Mathematically, Σ (X - 𝑋)2 = minimum
 If the mean and the number of items of two or more than two related groups, it is known
as combined average.

Uses of Arithmetic Mean:-

 Arithmetic mean is used to calculate average production, average cost, average wage, per
capital income, consumption, prices, etc.

Geometric Mean:-

 The geometric mean is defined as the nth root of the product of n items in a given series.
 Mathematically, G.M. = n X1X2X3……..Xn
 Eg. Geometric mean of 2, 4, 8
3
G.M. = √2 𝑥 4 𝑥 8
3
G.M. = √64
G.M. = 4

Properties of Geometric Mean:-

 The product of the value of the series will remain unchanged when the value of geometric
mean is substituted for each individual value.
 Eg. As we explained above, the geometric mean of most common series:- 2,4,8 is 4.

2 x 4 x 8 = 64 = 4 x 4 x 4
  The sum of the derivations of the logarithms of the original observations above or below
the logarithm of the geometric mean is equal.
 The geometric mean cannot be calculated if any observation or value is zero or negative
in the given series.
 The geometric mean of a given series is always less than the arithmetic mean (except- all
observations in a series are equal).

Uses of G.M.:-

 The growth of population (percentage increase in population) such as the growth of

bacteria, humans population etc. is measured by using geometric mean or geometric
progression.
 Used for construction of index numbers.
 Used to calculate the averages of proportions (ratios), percentages and compound rates
etc.

Harmonic Mean:-

 The harmonic mean is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean.

Uses of Harmonic Mean:-

 Useful in such cases where values, time, speed etc. are given in prices, quantities, rate.
 Great importance in such cases where small items have to be of great importance.

Relationship between mathematical averages:-

 A.M. ≥ G.M. ≥ H.M.

 Generally the arithmetic mean is greater than geometric mean and geometric means is
greater than harmonic mean.

Median:-

 Median is a positional average or middle most item of all values.

(𝑁+1)
 If the number of observation (N) is odd then median will be item.
2
 The median is the value of the middle item when all the items are arranged in either
ascending or descending order.
 Eg. Find out the median value of the series 8, 4, 6, 9, 7, 1, 6, 4, 7, 2, 9, 15, 45, 26, 8
Arranging the data series in ascending order:- 1, 2, 4, 4, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 15, 26, 45
Count no. of observations :- 15 (i.e. it is an odd number series)
The median value is 8th observation of the series i.e. 7.
Median = size or value of 8th item i.e., 7 is answer.

Properties of Median:-
  The sum of the deviation of the items from the median is the least.
 The median is also known as “the average of the half way point”.

Uses of Medians:-

 Median is used for qualitative data like honesty, brevity, intelligence, ability etc.
 In case of the positively skewed distributions median is a more suitable average.
 Median can also be used in case of distribution of income, wealth, investment etc.

Mode:-

 Mode is most frequently occurred item.

 Mode is the value of the class with the highest frequency.
 Mode is also known as “the average with the highest peak of the frequency curve”.
 According to Professor Kenney and Keeping, the value of the variable which occurs most
frequently in a distribution is called the mode.
 Eg. Calculate the modal value of the given series:- 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, 8, 9, 9, 9, 11, 13
Two highest frequencies as 6, 9. This series has two modal values i.e., it is known as the
case of bimodal value.
 If the modal value is more than two, then we call it as multimodal.
 Unimodal distribution:- if series have one modal value.
 Bimodal distribtution:- if series have two modal value.

Uses of Mode:-

 Mode is used for typical soil type, cropping pattern, shoe size and shirt size.
 Useful in the case of highly skewed distributions.
 Deals with the business, industry and marketing activities such as advertising etc.
 It is also used in biology, meteorology etc.

Relationship between Mean, Median and Mode:-

 Symmetrical distribution is a distribution in which the values of mean, median and mode
are equal i.e. Mean = Median = Mode.
 In positively skew distribution :- Mean > Median > Mode
 In negatively skew distribution:- Mean < Median < Mode
 Karl Pearson has given the following relationship between mean, median and mode as
Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean.
1
 Mean = 2 (3 median – mode)

Measures of Dispersion

 Scatterness from central tendency data.

  Measures of dispersion gives an idea about the extent of the observation or spread of the
observation from a central value.
 Measures of dispersion is of two type :- (i) Absolute MD (ii) Relative MD.
 Absolute MD:- Measures of dispersion in which unit is same that of observation.
 Relative MD:- measures of dispersion in which no unit.
 Absolute Md includes :- Range, mean deviation, quartile deviation and standard
deviation.
 Relative MD also known as the “Coefficient of Variation.
 Relative MD is measures of dispersion divided by related measure of central tendency.
 Relative MD includes coefficient of mean deviation about mean, mode, median, standard
deviation and quartile deviation.

Methods of studying variations:-

Positional Mathematical Graphical

 The range  Mean deviation  The Lorenz Curve
 The quartile deviation  Standard deviation

1. Range:-

 Range is the simplest measure of dispersion.

 Range is the difference between the largest and smallest values in the sample i.e., it
depends only on the most extreme values of the sample.
 Range :- Largest item – Smallest item
(𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚−𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚)
 Coefficient of Range :-
(𝐿𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚+𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚)
 Eg. Range of given series, 6, 5, 2, 3, 1, 8, 9, 12, 8, 20, 18
Range:- Largest item – Smallest item
Range :- 20 – 1 = 19

Uses:-

 Quality control
 Weather forecasting
 Useful for everyday life

2. Quartile Deviation:-
  The quartile deviation can be computed by taking the difference between the third and
first quartiles of the distribution (i.e., subtracting the 25th percentile from the 75th
percentile).
 The quartile deviation represents the middle value (50 %) of the distribution.
 The first quartile or Q1 (25 %), the second quartile or Q2 (50 %) and the third quartile or
Q3 (75 %).
 The second quartile represents the Median of the distribution.
 Quartile deviation :- (Q3 – Q1) / 2
 Coefficient of Quartile Deviation:- (Q3 – Q1)
(Q3 – Q1)

3. Mean Deviation:-

 Mean deviation is the arithmetic mean of the absolute deviation of the observation.
 It is the average differences between the items in a distribution and the median or mean
of that series.
 It is also known as average deviation.

i. Mean deviation for simple data series:-

1
 MD = 𝑛 Σ X1 - 𝑋
 Where X1 - 𝑋 is the modules value or absolute value of the deviation ignoring plus
and minus signs. Xi = X1, X2, X3, ……….,Xn
 𝑋 = 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛

ii. Mean deviation of frequency distribution series:-

 MD = Σ fi Xi - 𝑋
Σ fi
 Where f represents the frequency of the series.

Coefficient of Mean Deviation:-

 The coefficient of mean deviation is defined as the ratio of mean deviation to the median.
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Coefficient of Mean Deviation :- 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛

Standard Deviation:-

 The average of squared deviations is obtained by summing all the squared deviations in
the frequency distribution and dividing by the number of items.
 It is defined as the square root of the average of squared deviations of the frequency
distribution.
 The concept of standard deviation was introduced by Karl Pearson (1923).
  The value of standard deviation is always positive because it uses squared values.
 Standard deviation is represented by 𝜎 (population standard deviation) or s (sample
standard deviation).

i. Standard Deviation of individual series:-

s=

ii. Standard Deviation of frequency distribution:-

where,

 Xi = individual observations in the series

 𝑋 = Mean
 (Xi - 𝑋) = deviation from the mean
 fi = respective frequencies
 n = number of observations

Variance:-

 Variance is square of the standard deviation.

 The term “Variance” was used for the first time by R.A. Fisher (1913).
 The concept of variance was first given by Galton.
 Variance = Σ (Xi - 𝑋 )2
n
 or variance = s 2

 or s = Variance

z- Score:-

 the z- score can be defined as the ratio of deviation from the mean to the standard
deviation.
 z- score is a relative measure.
 z- score can be both positive or negative or zero.

Properties of standard deviation:-

 Range of standard deviation from 0 to infinity (but never negative).

 Mean deviation can be computed either from the median or mean but the standard
deviation is always computed from the arithmetic mean.

Relationship between Quartile Deviation (Q.D.), Mean Deviation (M.D.) and Standard
Deviation (𝝈) :-
 2
 Q.D. = 3 𝜎 or Q.D. is 0.67 of standard deviation
4
 M.D. = 5 𝜎 or M.D. is 0.80 of standard deviation

Coefficient of Variation (C.V.):-

 It is relative measure of dispersion.

 It was developed by Karl Pearson.
 Coefficient of variation is the ratio of standard deviation to the arithmetic mean which is
presented in percentages.
 Coefficient of variation is a unit free measure of dispersion.
 Coefficient of variation is useful to compare the different data sets when the data sets are
on different units of measurement.
 Used to know the consistency of the data, for example rainfall data.

i. Coefficient of Variation (Population) :-

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜎
 C.V. = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝜇

ii. Coefficient of Variation (Sample) :-

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠
 C.V. = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑋

Lorenz Curve:-

 It is a graphical method of studying dispersion.

 Given by Max O. Lorenz.
 Lorenz used to describe the degree of inequality in the distribution of wealth and income
between different countries or for different time periods.

Equal distribution line

Income

X
No. of Persons

Skewness
 Professor Morris Hamburg defined skewness as the asymmetry or lack of symmetry in
the shape of a frequency distribution.
  In symmetrical distribution the mean, median and mode are identical.
 If the mean moves away from the mode, the larger the asymmetry or skewness.
 Skewness is always expressed as 𝛽 1.
Symmetrical distribution:-
 Mean = Median = Mode i.e., the values of mean, median and mode are same. (absence of
skewness).
 The curve is bell shaped (i.e., uniform spread of frequencies on both sides of the center
point.
Asymmetrical distribution:-
i. Positively skewed distribution:-
 Mean > Median > Mode i.e., the value of the mean is maximum and mode is least
whereas median lies in between the two.
 The curve is more flatter on the right hand side.
ii. Negatively skewed distribution:-
 Mean < Median < Mode i.e., the value of mode is the maximum and mean is least
whereas median lies in between the two.
 The curve is more flatter on the left hand side.
Coefficient of Skewness (Sk):-
Properties of a good measure of skewness:-
 If the distribution is symmetrical, it must have a zero value.
 It must be unit free.
Types of coefficient of correlation:-
i. Absolute measure:-
 the difference between mean and mode.
 Skewness :- Mean – Mode
ii. Relative measure:-
(𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛−𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒) 3 (𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛−𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛)
 Karl Pearson coefficient of skewness :- Skp = or Skp =
𝜎 𝜎

 Where, 𝜎 = standard deviation

Bowley’s coefficient of skewness (SkB):-
 Mean = 3 Median – 2 Mean
  Bowley’s coefficient of skewness lies between + 1 to – 1 while Karl Pearson’s coefficient
of skewness has no such limits.
Kurtosis
 The term kurtosis is originated from the Greek, which means bulginess.
 Kurtosis given by Prof. Karl Pearson.
 The degree of flatness or peakedness of a frequency distribution curve.
 Kurtosis can be expressed as 𝛽 2
 Kurtosis can be three types.
1. Platykurtic:-
 The curve is more flatter than the normal curve.
 The value of the coefficient of kurtosis is less than 3 (𝛽 2 = < 3 ).
2. Mesokurtic:-
 The curve is similar to the normal curve.
 The mesokurtic curve also called as normal curve.
 The value of the coefficient of kurtosis is equal to 3 (𝛽 2 = 3)
3. Leptokurtic:-
 The curve is more peaked than normal curve i.e., values are more bunched around mode
values.
 The value of the coefficient of kurtosis is greater than 3 (𝛽 2 = > 3).
Moments :-
 Refer to the measure of a force with respect to its tendency to provide rotation.
 Use of moment:- study of curve of nature.
Difference between coefficient of Skewness and coefficient of Kurtosis:-
Coefficient of Skewness (𝜷1) Coefficient of Kurtosis (𝜷2)
 𝛽1 = 
 In symmetrical 𝛽 1 shall be zero  In a symmetrical 𝛽 2 = 3
 The greater the value of 𝛽 1 the more  The greater the value of 𝛽 2 the more
skewed the distribution. peakedness found in the distribution.
 𝛽 1 cannot tell us about the direction of  Even 𝛽 2 cannot tell us the direction of
skewness. skewness.
 𝛽 1 is always positive.  𝛽 2 may be positive or negative.

Correlation
 Define as the association between two or more variable.
 Correlation coefficient lies between – 1 to + 1.
 If correlation coefficient is 0, there is no relation between variables.
 Correlation is independent of change of scale and origin of the variables.
 Correlation is geometic mean of two regression coefficient.
Types of correlation:-
1. Positive and Negative Correlation:-
 If both the variable are varying in the same direction (i.e., if one variable is increasing the
other is also increasing or vice-versa), then the correlation is positive.
 If one variable is increasing the other is decreasing or vice-versa, the correlation is said to
be negative correlation.
2. Simple, Partial and Multiple Correlation:-
 Simple correlation:- only two variables are under study.
 Partial correlation:- more than two variables but consider only two variables under study
other being kept constant.
 Multiple correlation:- three or more variables are studied simultaneously.
3. Linear and Non-linear correlation:-
 Linear correlation:- the amount of change in one variable tends to bear constant ratio.
 Non-linear correlation or curvilinear:- if the amount of change in one variable does not
bear a constant ratio to the amount of change in the other variable.
Methods of studying correlation:
1. Scatter diagram:- simplest method of studying correlation.
2. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation:-
 Widely used method for calculating correlation.
 Usually it is denoted by r.
 It can be used in the case of quantitative data only.
 Karl Pearson coefficient of correlation ranges from – 1 to + 1.
  r = + 1 :- means perfect positive correlation.
 r = - 1 :- means perfect negative correlation
 r = 0 :- means there is no correlation
 in real conditions, r = 0, 1, or – 1 etc. rarely found.
 The Karl Pearson’s correlation method is used to calculate the magnitude (strength) as
well as direction.
Covariance:-
 Ratio of summation of product of the deviations to the total number pairs of observations.
𝚺 𝑥𝑦
 cov = 𝑁

Properties of Multiple Correlation Coefficient:-

 The multiple correlation coefficient ranges between 0 and 1, i.e. 0 ≥ R ≥ 1
 If R = 1, the association is perfect and all the regression residuals are zero.
 If R = 0, all total and partial correlations are zero.
Regression
 Average relationship between two or more variables.
 Term regression first used by Sir Francis Galton (1877).
 According to Ya Lun Chou “regression analysis attempts to establish the nature of the
relationship between variables- that is, to study the functional relationship between the
variables and thereby provide a mechanism for prediction or forecasting”.
 Regression gives the nature of relationship between two variables.
 Regression gives the causes and effect of relationships.
 Regression coefficient are not symmetric.
 Range : - ∞ to + ∞
 Regression is independent of change of origin but not of scale.
 Regression equation of Y on X :- Y = a + bX
 Regression equation of X on Y :- X = a + bY
Difference between Correlation and Regression:-
Correlation Regression
The correlation is relationship between two or Regression is mathematical measure of the
more variables. Where the change in one average relationship between two or more
variable affects a change in other variable.
Correlation coefficient measures extent of
relationship between two variables.
Correlation is a two way relationship.
Correlation coefficient of units of the variables. Regression coefficient is expressed in the units
Range between – 1 and + 1.
In correlation both the variables are random
We cannot predict
Independent of change of both origin and scale
variables. Where one variable is dependent and
other variable is independent.
Regression coefficient estimates the change in
one variable for a unit change in other related
variable.
Regression is a one way relationship.
of dependent variable.
Range lies between - ∞ to + ∞
In regression one variable will be independent
and other will be dependent.
We can predict
Independent of change of origin but not of
scale.

Probability
 Probability :- No. of favourable cases / Total no. of equally likely cases
 Concept given by Thomas Bayes.
 Probability ranges from 0 to 1.
 Probability of an event uncertain to occur is 0.
 Probability of 7 in throwing a die will be 0.
 Probability of sure or certain event is 1.
 Different possible results of an experiment are outcome.
 Outcome or set of outcomes associated with a certain condition is event.
 Events which occur only once or will exclude the occurrence of other is called mutually
exclusive event.
 Mutually exclusive events do not have any common element.
 The occurrence of one event does not affect the occurrence of other is called independent
event.
  If A and B are independent, then P (AB) = P (A). P (B), So, P(A+B) = P (A) + P(B).
 Probability of happening of event A is given as P (A-) and P (A-) = 1 – P (A) or P (A) +
P(A-) = 1.
 P(A+B), Probability of occurrence of at least one of the event A or B (i.e. either A, B or
both) or (PUB).
 P(A+B), Probability of occurrence of both the events A and B.
 P(B/A) Probability of occurrence of B when A has already occurred, it is called the
conditional probability.
 The conditional probability is given as :- P (B/A) = P(AB)/P(B)
 P(A+B) = P(A) + P(B) – (AB)
 If A and B are independent, then P(AB) = P (A), P(B), so P(A+B) = P(A) + (B)
 Probability of not happening of event A is given as
Additive theorem:-
i. Mutually exclusive events:- P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B), where P (AB) = 0
ii. Not mutually exclusive events :- P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B) – P (AB)
 Multiplication theorem :- P (A and B) = P (A) x P (B)

Probability Distributions

Discrete probability distribution Continuous probability distribution

Binomial distribution Normal distribution

Poisson distribution,
Hyper-geometric distribution
Multinomial distribution
Negative Binomial distribution

1. Binomial Probability Distribution:-

 Given by Jacob Bernoulli

 Also known as “Bernoulli’s distribution”.
 It is associated with a multiple step experiment.
  Random variable of BD is a discrete one.
 BD has Bernoulli trails containing two outcomes (i.e. success, failure)
 The probability of success is denoted by ‘p’ and the probability of a failure, denoted by
‘1-p’.
 The probability of a head and the probability of a tail are the same for each trail (i.e., p =
0.5 and 1 – p = 0.5)
 Mean of BD = np
 Mode = (n + 1) p
 Standard deviation of BD = √𝑛𝑝𝑞
 Mean (np) ≠ Variance (npq) or Mean > Variance
 If n is large and if neither p of q is too close to 0, then BD approaches normal
distribution.
 When n > 20; p < 0.05, BD approaches poisson distribution.

2. Poisson Probability Distribution:-

 Developed by Simeon Denis Poisson (1837).

 Discrete type of probability distribution.
 Generally found in cases of rare events.
 𝜆 = Mean (np)
 𝜆 = Variance
 Mean (np) = Variance (npq)
 Uses of PD:- printing errors in a book, number of deaths in a district in a given period
 Poisson distribution is very useful in a problem such as insurance, physics, economics,
weighing time problem etc.

3. Normal Distribution (ND):-

 Developed by A. Demoveries (1733)

 Also known as mesokurtic or Gaussian distribution.
 It is a most commonly used probability distribution for describing a continuous random
variable.
 Used in statistical quality control.
  Has a variety of practical applications in which the random variables are heights and
weights of people, test scores, scientific measurements, amount of rainfall etc.
 The normal curve is bell shaped and symmetrical.
 Mean = Median = Mode
 Area under standard normal curve is one,
 Mean = 0, Standard Deviation = 1
 The normal curve has two parameters, 𝜇 and 𝜎. They determine the location and shape of
the normal distribution respectively.
 Only one mode that is unimoded.
2
 Q.D. = 3 S.D.

 QD : MD : SD : : 10 : 12 : 15
 Area properties:-
i. p (𝜇 – 𝜎 < x < 𝜇 + 𝜎) = 0.68
ii. p (𝜇 – 2𝜎 < x < 𝜇 + 2𝜎) = 0.95
i. p (𝜇 – 3𝜎 < x < 𝜇 + 3𝜎) = 0.99 (used in statistical quality control limit)

Tests of Significance

Hypothesis :-

 The assumption made about any unknown characteristics is called hypothesis.

 It may or may be true.
 Population follows normal distribution.

Type of hypothesis:-

1. Null Hypothesis:-

 A hypothesis of no difference is called null hypothesis and denoted by H0.

 Or any statistical hypothesis under test.
 Making a tentative assumption about a population parameter.
 H0 : 𝜇 = 𝜇 0; H0 : 𝜇 1 = 𝜇 2
  Eg. There are two group A and B and both perform a test on the same data and if they
result zero (no difference) then it is null hypothesis.

2. Alternative Hypothesis:-

 Any hypothesis, which is complementary to the null hypothesis is called as alternative

hypothesis and usually denoted as H1.
 H1 :- 𝜇 1 ≠ 𝜇 2 (two tailed test)
 H1 :- 𝜇 1 > 𝜇 2 (one tailed test)
 H1 :- 𝜇 1 < 𝜇 2 (one tailed test)
 Eg. There are two group A and B and both perform a test on the same data and if there is
a difference, it is alternative hypothesis.

Simple Hypothesis:-

 A hypothesis is said to be simple if it completely specifies the distribution of the

population.
 Eg. H0 : 𝜇 = 𝜇 0

Composite Hypothesis:-

 If the hypothesis does not specify the distribution of the population completely, it is said
to be a composite hypothesis.
 Eg. H0 : 𝜇 ≤ 𝜇 0 and 𝜎 is known.
 H0 : 𝜇 ≥ 𝜇0 and 𝜎 is known.

Parameter:-

 A characteristics of population values is known as parameters.

 Eg. Population mean (𝜇) and population variance (𝜎2).

Statistics:- A characteristic of sample values is called a statistic.

Sampling distribution:-

 The distribution of a statistic computed from all possible samples is known as sampling
distribution of that statistic.
Standard Error :-

 The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of a statistic is known as its standard
error.
𝜎
 S.E. (𝑋) =
√𝑛

 Where, 𝜎 = population standard deviation, n = sample size

 Provides an idea about the unreliability of a sample.
 It used for testing of hypothesis.

Sample:-

 A finite subset of statistical objects in a population is called a sample and the number of
objects in a sample is called the sample size.

Random Sampling:-

 If the sampling units in a population are drawn independently with equal chance, to be
include in the sample then the sampling will be called random sampling.

Type of Error:-

1. Type I Error:- rejecting H0 when H0 is true.

 Type I Error is denoted by 𝛼.

 Also known as a false positive error.

2. Type II Error:- accepting H0 when H0 is false.

 Type II Error is denoted by 𝛽.

 Also known as false negative error.

 Rejecting H0 when H0 is true.

 Rejecting H0 when H0 is false.
 Accepting H0 when H0 is true.
 Accepting H0 when H0 is false.
 H0 is true H0 is false
Rejecting H0 Type – I error Correct
(wrong decision) (Right decision)
Accepting H0 Correct Type – II error
(Right decision) (More risky)
Degree of freedom (df):-

 It is defined as the difference between the total number of items and the total number of
constraints.
 If ‘n’ is the total number of items and ‘k’ total number of constraints then the degree of
freedom is given by d.f. = n – k
 Concept of freedom is closely related to 𝜒2 test.
 Student’s t – distribution is also calculated with n – 1 degree of freedom
 Degrees of freedom for Binomial distribution = n – 1
 Degrees of freedom for Poisson distribution = n – 2
 Degrees of freedom for Normal distribution = n – 3
 Degrees of freedom for 𝜒2 test = (c – 1) (r – 1), where c = columns and r = rows.

Level of Significance:-

 The maximum probability at which we would be willing to risk a type-I error is known as
level of significance or the size of type-I error is level of significance.
 The levels of significance usually employed in testing of hypothesis are 5 % and 1 %
(more risky). The level of significance is always fixed in advance before collecting the
sample information.

Critical value:-

 While testing for the difference between means of populations, our concern is whether
the observed difference is too large to believe that it has occurred just by chance.
 But then the question is how much difference should be treated as too large.
 It is based on level of significance.

Statistical Tests
Parametric Test Non- parametric Test

Require quantitative data based on categorical or qualitative data

Distribution to be assumed normal no need not to assume distribution as a normal
Mean used as measure of central tendency Median used as measure of central tendency
Variance assumed to be homogeneous Variance can be of any type
Eg. Z – test, t – test, F – test 𝜒2 - test

Z – Test:-

 Given by R.A. Fisher.

 Based on z-distribution.
 Used for testing the significance of difference for large samples (> 30).

t - Test:-

 Given by William Gosset.

 Based on value of the t-distribution.
 Used when the sample size is 30 or less and the population standard deviation is
unknown.
 t – test used to compare the means of the two groups of data i.e., it determinates whether
the data has come from the same population or not.
 t – test can be of two types as paired and unpaired t – test.
 Unpaired t – test is applied for two independent groups. So, this test is also known as
independent samples t – test.
 An unpaired t – test used to compare the two population means.
 Student’s t – test was developed by Gosset.
 Student t – test used for paired samples or paired data.
 t – distribution ranges between + ∞ to - ∞

F – Test:-
  A test of significance which is used for testing the significance of differences among
several treatments.
 F- test is also known as the variance ratio test.
 The F- values are all non-negative.
 The F- distribution is non-symmetric.
 The mean of the F- distribution is approximately 1.

𝝌2 test (Chi – square test):-

 It is distribution free method.

 𝜒2 test is most widely used non parametric test.
 𝜒2 test was developed by Karl Pearson (1900).
 𝜒2 test has the characteristics of both parametric tests and non-parametric tests but mainly
it is considered as non-parametric test.
 𝜒2 test may be defined as the difference between observed and expected frequencies.
(𝑂−𝐸)2
 Mathematically, 𝜒2 = Σ ; Where, O = observed freq., E = Expected freq.
𝐸

Properties of 𝝌2 test:-

 The sum of the observed and expected frequencies is always zero, mathematically :- Σ (O
– E) = 0
 The 𝜒2 test depends only on the set of observed and expected frequencies but not on
degrees of freedom.
 𝜒2 distribution is a continuous distribution.
 𝜒2 distribution is limiting case of the multinomial distribution.
 The mean of the 𝜒2 distribution is equal to the number of degrees of freedom.
 The variance of 𝜒2 distribution is twice the degree of freedom.

Uses of 𝝌2 test:-

 Used as test of independence

 Used as a test of goodness of fit
 Used as a test of homogeneity
 Experimental Design

Treatment:- various objects or procedure to be compare in a competitive experiment.

1
Precision:- the reciprocal of the variance of the mean, i.e. 𝑉𝑎𝑟 (𝑋 )

Fertility contour map:-

 In uniformity trial, a graphic picture of the nature of the soil fertility variation is obtain by
joining the points of equal fertility through lines. This graphic picture is known as
fertility contour map.

ANOVA:-

 Technique was developed by R.A. Fisher.

 To compare the means is called analysis of variance.
 Used to test for significant differences between means.
 If we are comparing two variables, then ANOVA will give the same results as the t – test
for dependent samples.
 Basic purpose of ANOVA technique is to test the homogeneity (equality) of several
means.

Principles of the design:-

1. Replication:- The repetition of the treatment under comparison is called the replication.
2. Randomisation:- The allocation of the treatments to various plots in a random manner.
3. Local Control:-
 The process of reducing the experimental errors by dividing the experimental area into
more homogenous block is known as local control.

Types of Model:-
1. Fixed Effect Model:-
 A model in which each of the factor has fixed effect and only error effect is random.
2. Mixed Effect Model:-
 A model in which some factor has fixed effect and some factors have random effect.
3. Random Effect Model:-
 A model in which all the factors have random effect.

CRD:- Completely Randomised Design

 Useful when the experimental material is of uniform nature.

 In this design, randomization and replication are used, i.e. no use of local control.
 Not much used in field experiment.
 The pot culture experiments and laboratory experiments, the material is expected to be
uniform in nature the CRD is often used.
 Simplest least restrictive experimental design.
 In CRD, the treatments are assigned to the plots without restriction.
 This design provides a one way classified data according to levels of a single factor.
 For analysis linear model is :- Yij = 𝜇 + ti + eij
Where, Yij = yield from the jth receiving ith treatment.
𝜇 = general mean
ti = the fixed effect of ith treatment.
eij = error effect due to chance.
 Any number of treatments and any number of replications may be used, i.e. flexibility.
 Easy statistical analysis.
 The analysis is not complicated if data are missing.
 Maximum error degrees of freedom.
 d.f. = n – 1

RBD:- Randomised Block Design

 RBD is used most often in agricultural research.

 Two way classification of data.
 All three principles are used in this design.
 For analysis linear model is :- Yij = 𝜇 + ti + rj + eij where, rj = the jth replication effect.
 Total d.f. = rt – 1 where, r = replication (r - 1), t = treatments (t – 1)
 This design is more accurate and efficient then CRD for most types of experimental
work.
  This design is not suitable for large number of treatments.

LSD:- Latin Square Design

 Two directional blocking in a LSD, commonly referred to as row blocking and column
blocking.
 LSD is suitable for 5 to 12 treatments.
 LSD is used when fertility gradients are to be in two directions.
 Data must be arranged in square form, i.e. treatments = replications
 Linear model :- Yij = 𝜇 + ri + tj + ck + eijk
Where, 𝜇 = general mean, ri = row effect, tj = treatment effect,
ck = column effect, eijk = residual
 Total d.f. = (V2 – 1)
 LSD more efficient than CRD and RBD.
 This design can be used for making up residual effect and cross over design.

Factorial Experiment:-

 If one treatment in CRD, RBD and LSD than simple experiment, but if we take two or
more factors than called factorial experiments.
 If 2 factors and 2 levels :- 22 factorial experiment.
 If 2 factors and 3 levels :- 32 factorial experiment.
 If factor = level :- symmetrical factorial experiment
 If factor ≠ level :- asymmetrical factorial experiment

SPD:- Split Plot Design

 Same as factorial experiment.

 Replication divided into main plots then divided in sub plots.
 Main plots taken larger than sub plot
 Number of treatment for which it is used :- > 20

Difference between factorial experiment and split plot design:

Factorial Experiment Split Plot Design

One error is there Two or three error are there
One coefficient of variation is calculated. Number of CV is equal to number of errors
Calculate one interaction SEm Calculate two interaction SEm
Complete block design Incomplete block design

Strip Plot Design:-

 If sub treatments are laid out in strips then the design is called as strip plot design. It is
also known as “Split Block Design”.
 Used when both main and sub treatment require large experimental material. Thus if two
factors are involved and if both the factors require large plot size, it is difficult to carry
out the experiment in split plot design.
 In this design, the use of 3 plot sizes :- (i) vertical strip plot for first factor, (ii) horizontal
strip plot for the second factor and (iii) intersection plot for the interaction between the
two factors.

Confounding

 Factorial experiments are usually conducted in RBD and seldom in LSD and other
designs.
 In factorial experiments when the numbers of factors are increased, the number of
treatment combinations increased rapidly. This would increase the block size; we know
that as the block size increases, it is difficult to ensure the homogeneity within the blocks.
 To keep the advantage of the factorial experiment and at the same time reduce the
experimental error to a minimum, a device called as confounding is adopted. By this
device it is possible to keep block sizes small.

1. Complete confounding:-
 If the same effect is confounded in all the replicates, it is called as complete confounding.

2. Partial confounding:-
 If a treatment effect is confounded in some replications and un-confounded in other
replications, the system is known as partial confounding.
 Contrast
 Comparison of treatement. Control is compared with others.
 Contrast is a linear combination of treatment mean such that the sum of the coefficient is
zero, i.e. C1 + C2 + C3 + …………+ Cn = 0
 Each contrast has one degree of freedom.
 Contrast provides more information about the treatment than F-test along in analysis of
variance.
 If the sum of the product of their coefficient are zero, i.e. C1d1 + C2d2 + ………..+ Ckdk =
0, then this is said to be orthogonal contrast.

Shape and Size of Experimental Unit

 There are two ways to take shape and size of experimental unit i.e. (i) maximum
curvature method and (ii) Fair Field Smith Law (variance law of Smith).
 Fair Field Smith Law :- a suitable model represent the relationship between size and
shape (variance of the mean/unit) of experimental plot given by Smith is V𝜒 = V1/ Xb

Data Transformation

 We do transformation because we always assume population to be normal in each test, so

it is done to stabilize the variance.
 Concept given by Barthlate (1974).

Types of data transformation:-

1. Square Root Transformation:-

 When data follows poisson distribution (mean = variance)

 When variance is proportional to mean, then do, y = √𝑥 , where x = observed value.
 If any observation is ‘zero’ (0) than do, y = √𝑥 + 0.5 or √𝑥 + 1
 The transformation is used specially when a data consist of a integral values like number
of bacterial counts, number of plants in a given area, number of infested plants in a plot,
number of insect count in trap etc.
2. Log Transformation:-

 When the original observation is converted itno the Log, the conversion is known as
“Log Transformation”.
 The Log Transformation is most appropriate when data mean is proportional to standard
deviation.
 The transformation is used when the observed data consists of big integers such as index
number, biological populations etc.
 In case of observed value is zero, the constant value preferably ‘1’ is to be added to avoid
negative logarithm. When such constant is added, it is added to all the observations.
 The Log transformation particularly prefers effective in normalizing positively skewed
distribution.

3. Angular Transformation:-

 Used when data follows binomial distribution ( Mean > Variance)

 Always in per cent (%) value.
 Given by equation:- 𝜃 = Sin-1 (√𝑥), where 𝜃 is the degree and 𝑥 is the per cent value
expressed as fraction.
 This transformation is not applicable to percentage data which are not derived from the
count data eg. % of marks, % of profit, % of protein in fatal index etc. cannot be
subjected to angular transformation.
 Further, there is no need to transform the data, in case when all the data (% value) lies
between 30 to 70.
 The data are expected to follow approximate normal distribution.
1 1
 But in case of ‘0’ observation put 4𝑛 for zero and the value of 100 % by 100 - 4𝑛 where,

n = number of unit

Index Numbers

 Crozton and Cowden defined index numbers are devices for measuring differences in the
magnitude of a group of related variables.

Uses of index number:-

  Used in framing suitable policies.
 Useful in deflating prices of various commodities.
 Index number reveals trends and tendencies.

Vital Statistics

 The branch of statistics which is concerned with the various important events in human
life, such as births, deaths and migration etc.

i. Crude Birth Rate (CBR):-

 CBR :- Annual birth / Annual mean population x 1000

 The crude birth rate usually lies between 10 and 55 per 1000.
 In 2012, the global birth rate was 19.15 births per 1000 mean population.
 India’s birth rate was 22.7 births per 1000 mean population in 2010.
 Japan has the lowest birth rate in the world and Niger has the highest birth rate in the
world.

ii. Crude Death Rate (CDR):-

 The crude death rate can be defined as the ratio of annual deaths per 1000 annual mean
population.
 CDR :- Annual deaths / Annual mean population x 1000
 Death rate usually lies between 8 and 30 per 1000.
 The death rate in India in 2010 was 8.04.
 The average death rate of the world was 8.37 in 2009.

iii. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):-

 the ratio of the number of deaths under 1 year of age which occurred among the
population of a given geographic area during a given year (B) to the number of live births
which occurred among the population of the given geographic area during the given year
(P) which is multiplied by 1000.
𝐵
 IMR :- 𝑃 x 1000
iv. Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR):-

 The maternal mortality rate is the number of maternal deaths per 1,000 women of
reproductive age in the population (generally for 15 – 44 years of age).
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
 MMR :- 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑔𝑒 x 1000

The vital Index :-

 The ratio of total live births to the total deaths.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑠
 Vital index =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠

Human Migration:- Physical movement from one area to another area.

𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑀𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Net Migration Ratio:- 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑒𝑛𝑎 𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Life Tables:-

 A life table is also known as an actuarial table or a mortality table.

 Life table is a measure of the longevity of the population.