Chapter 1

Introduction to Real
Numbers and
Algebraic
Expressions
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRA

a. Evaluate algebraic expressions by

substitution.
b. Translate phrases to algebraic
expressions.
Algebraic Expressions

An algebraic expression consists of variables,

numerals, and operation signs.
5 a x
x + 38 19 – y y

When we replace a variable with a number, we say that

we are substituting for the variable.

This process is called evaluating the expression.

Algebraic Expressions

Sometimes a letter can represent various numbers. In

that case, we call the letter a variable.
Let a = your age.
a is a variable since a changes from year to year.

Sometimes a letter can stand for just one number.

In that case, we call the letter a constant.
Let b = your date of birth.
Then b is a constant.
 Example
x x
1) Evaluate and for x = 72 and y = 8.
y y
Solution
We substitute 72 for x and 8 for y:
x 72  x 72
 9  9
y 8  y 8

2) Evaluate x + y for x = 38 and y = 62.

Solution
We substitute 38 for x and 62 for y.
x + y = 38 + 62 = 100
Translating to Algebraic Expressions
Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division
added to subtracted from multiplied by divided by

sum of difference of product of quotient of

plus minus times divided into

more than less than twice ratio of

increased by decreased by of per

Translate each phrase to an algebraic expression.
Phrase Algebraic Expression
Eight more than some number x + 8, or 8 + x
One-fourth of a number 1 x
x, , or x / 4
4 4

Two more than four times some number 4x + 2, or 2 + 4x

Eight less than some number n–8
Five less than the product of two numbers ab – 5
Twenty-five percent of some number 0.25n
Seven less than three times some number 3w – 7
1.2 THE REAL NUMBERS
a. State the integer that corresponds to a real-world
situation.
b. Graph rational numbers on the number line.
c. Convert from fraction notation to decimal notation
for a rational number.
d. Determine which of two real numbers is greater
and indicate which, using < or >; given an
inequality like a > b, write another inequality with
the same meaning. Determine whether an
inequality like 3  5 is true or false.
e. Find the absolute value of a number.
Natural Numbers
The set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, …}.
These are the numbers used for counting.

Whole Numbers
The set of whole numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
This is the set of natural numbers with 0
included.

Integers
The set of integers = {…, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1,
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}.
Integers
Integers consist of the whole numbers and their
opposites.
0, neither positive nor negative
Negative Positive
integers integers

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Opposites

Integers to the left of zero on the number line are called

negative integers and those to the right of zero are
called positive integers. Zero is neither positive nor
negative and serves as its own opposite.
Rational Numbers
The set of rational numbers = the set of
a
numbers b , where a and b are integers and b is
not equal to 0 (b  0).
Decimal notation for rational numbers either
terminates or repeats.
Decimal notation for irrational numbers
neither terminates nor repeats.

Real Numbers
The set of real numbers = The set of all
numbers corresponding to points on the number
line.
 Positive
Integers: 1, 2, 3,
…

Integers Zero: 0

Negative
Rational
integers: -1, -2, -
numbers
3, …

Rational numbers that

Real
numbers are not integers: 2/3, -
4/5, 19/-5, -7/8, 8.2,

Irrational numbers: pi, square roots,

5.363663666…
The symbol < means “is less than,”
4 < 8 is read “4 is less than 8.”
The symbol > means “is greater than,”
6 > 9 is read “6 is greater than 9.”
a < b also has the meaning b > a.

Write another inequality with the same meaning.

a. 4 > 10
b. c < 7
Solution
a. The inequality 10 < 4 has the same meaning.

b. The inequality 7 > c has the same meaning.

 5 units from 0 5 units from 0

Absolute Value
The absolute value of a number is its distance
from zero on a number line. We use the symbol
|x| to represent the absolute value of a number x.
1.3 ADDITION of REAL NUMBERS

a. Add real numbers without using

a number line.
b. Find the opposite, or additive
inverse, of a real number.
c. Solve applied problems
involving addition of real
numbers.
Rules for Addition of Real Numbers
1. Positive numbers: Add the same as arithmetic
numbers. The answer is positive.
2. Negative numbers: Add absolute values. The answer is
negative.
3. A positive and a negative number: Subtract the smaller
absolute value from the larger. Then:
a) If the positive number has the greater absolute value,
the answer is positive.
b) If the negative number has the greater absolute
value, the answer is negative.
c) If the numbers have the same absolute value, the
answer is 0.
4. One number is zero: The sum is the other number.
 Example
Add.
1. 4 + (6) = 2. 12 + (9) =
3. 8 + 5 = 4. 7 + 5 =

Solution
Think: The absolute values are 4 and 6. The
1. 4 + (6) = 2 difference is 2. Since the negative number
has the larger absolute value, the answer is
2. 12 + (9) = 3 negative, 2.
3. 8 + 5 = 3
4. 7 + 5 = 2
Opposites, or Additive Inverses
Two numbers whose sum is 0 are called
opposites, or additive inverses, of each other.

For any real number a, the opposite, or additive

inverse, of a, expressed as a, is such that
a + (a) = a + a = 0.
 Example

Find the opposite, or additive inverse, of each number.

1. 52 2. 12 3. 0 4.  4
5
Solution
1. 52 The opposite of 52 is 52 because 52 + (52) = 0
2. 12 The opposite of 12 is 12 because 12 + 12 = 0
3. 0 The opposite of 0 is 0 because 0 + 0 = 0

4 4 4 4
4. 4 
The opposite of is because
5 5
  0
5 5
5
1.4 SUBTRACTION of REAL NUMBERS

a. Subtract real numbers and

simplify combinations of
additions and subtractions.
b. Solve applied problems
involving subtraction of real
numbers.
 Example

Subtract.
1. 3 – 7 = 2. –5 – 9 3. –4 – (–10)

Solution
The opposite of 7 is –7. We change
1. 3 – 7 = 3 + (–7) the subtraction to addition and add
= –4 the opposite. Instead of subtracting
7, we add –7.

2. –5 – 9 = –5 + (– 9)
= –14

3. –4 – (–10) = –4 + 10
= 6
1.5 MULTIPLICATION of REAL NUMBERS

a. Multiply real numbers.

b. Solve applied problems
involving multiplication of real
numbers.
The Product of Two Negative Numbers
To multiply two negative numbers, multiply their absolute values. The
answer is positive.
To multiply two nonzero real numbers:
a) Multiply the absolute values.
b) If the signs are the same, the answer is positive.
c) If the signs are different, the answer is negative.

The Multiplication Property of Zero

For any real number a,
a  0 = 0  a.
(The product of 0 and any real number is 0.)
The product of an even number of negative numbers is positive.

The product of an odd number of negative numbers is negative.

 Example

Multiply.
1. 9  3(4) 2. 6  (3)  (4)  (7)

Solution
Multiplying the first two numbers
1. 9  3(4) = 27(4)
Multiplying the results
= 108

Each pair of negatives gives

2. 6  (3)  (4)  (7) = 18  28 a positive product.
= 504
1.6 DIVISION of REAL NUMBERS

a. Divide integers.
b. Find the reciprocal of a real number.
c. Divide real numbers.
d. Solve applied problems involving
multiplication and division of real
numbers.
Division
a
The quotient a  b or , where b  0, is
b
that unique real number c for which
a = b  c.
 Example
Divide, if possible. Check each answer.
45
1. 15  (3) 2.
5

Solution
Think: What number multiplied by –3 gives
1. 15  (3) = 5 15? The number is –5. Check: (–3)(–5) = 15.

45 Think: What number multiplied by –5 gives

2.  9 45? The number is –9. Check: (–5)(–9) = 45.
5
To multiply or divide two real numbers (where the
divisor is nonzero):
a) Multiply or divide the absolute values.
b) If the signs are the same, the answer is positive.
c) If the signs are different, the answer is negative.

Excluding Division by 0 a
Division by zero is not defined: a  0, or 0 , is not
defined for all real numbers a.
Dividends of 0
Zero divided by any nonzero real number
is 0:
0
 0, a  0.
a

Reciprocals
Two numbers whose product is 1 are called
reciprocals, or multiplicative inverses, of
each other.
Properties of Reciprocals
For a  0, the reciprocal of a can be named
1 1
a
and the reciprocal of is a.
a
The reciprocal of any nonzero real number
a b
can be named .
b a
The number 0 has no reciprocal.

The Sign of a Reciprocal

The reciprocal of a number has the same
sign as the number itself.
 Opposite Reciprocal
Number (Change the (Invert but do not
sign.) change the sign.)
3 3 4
 
4 4 3
25 25 1
25
23 23 3

3 3 23
8.5 1 10
8.5  or 
8.5 85
0 0 Undefined
1.7 PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS
a. Find equivalent fraction expressions and
simplify fraction expressions.
b. Use the commutative and associative laws
to find equivalent expressions.
c. Use the distributive laws to multiply
expressions like 8 and x – y.
d. Use the distributive law to factor
expressions like 4x – 12 + 24y.
e. Collect like terms.
Equivalent Expressions
Two expressions that have the same value for all
allowable replacements are called equivalent.
The Identity Property of 0
For any real number a
a+0=0+a= a
(The number 0 is the additive identity.)

The Identity Property of 1

For any real number a
a1=1a=a
(The number 1 is the multiplicative identity.)
The Commutative Laws
For any numbers a, b, and c,
a(b + c) = ab + ac.
a(b  c) = ab  ac.
The Associative Laws
Addition: For any numbers a, b, and c,
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.
Multiplication. For any numbers a, b, and c,
a (b c) = (a b) c
The Distributive Law of Multiplication
Addition: For any numbers a, and b,
a + b = b + a.
Multiplication. For any numbers a and b,
ab = ba
 Example

Use the distributive law to write an expression

equivalent to each of the following:
1. 8(a – b) 2. (b – 7)c 3. –5(x – 3y + 2z)

Solution
1. 8(a – b) = 8a – 8b

2. (b – 7)c = c(b – 7)
= c b – c  7
= cb – 7c
continued

3. –5(x – 3y + 2z) = –5  x – (–5  3)y + (–5  2)z

= –5x – (–15)y + (–10)z
= –5x + 15y – 10z
A term is a number, a variable, a product of numbers
and/or variables, or a quotient of two numbers and/or
variables.

Terms are separated by addition signs. If there are

subtraction signs, we can find an equivalent expression
that uses addition signs.

The process of collecting like terms is based on the

distributive laws.
Like Terms

Terms in which the variable factors are exactly the

same, such as 9x and –5x, are called like, or similar
terms.

Like Terms Unlike Terms

7x and 8x 8y and 9y2

3xy and 9xy 5ab and 4ab2

 SIMPLIFYING EXPRESSION; ORDER OF
1.8 OPERATIONS

a. Find an equivalent expression for an

opposite without parentheses, where
an expression has several terms.
b. Simplify expressions by removing
parentheses and collecting like terms.
c. Simplify expressions with parentheses
inside parentheses.
d. Simplify expressions using rules from
order of operations.
The Property of 1
For any real number a,
1  a = a
(Negative one times a is the opposite,
or additive inverse, of a.)
 Example

Find an equivalent expression without parentheses.

(4x + 5y + 2)
Solution
(4x + 5y + 2) = 1(4x + 5y + 2) Using the property of 1
= 1(4x) + 1(5y) + 1(2)
= 4x – 5y – 2 Using a distributive law
Using the property of 1
 Example

Remove parentheses and simplify.

(3a + 4b – 8) – 3(–6a – 7b + 14)

Solution
(3a + 4b – 8) – 3(–6a – 7b + 14)
= 3a + 4b – 8 + 18a + 21b – 42
= 21a + 25b – 50
 Example

Simplify.
a. 5(3 + 4) – {8 – [5 – (9 + 6)]}
b. [6(x + 3) – 4x] – [4(y + 3) – 8(y – 4)]
Solution
a. 5(3 + 4) – {8 – [5 – (9 + 6)]}
= 5(7) – {8 – [5 – 15]}
= 35 – {8 – [ –10]} Computing 5(7) and 5 – 15
= 35 – 18 Computing 8 – [–10]
= 17
b. [6(x + 3) – 4x] – [4(y + 3) – 8(y – 4)]
= [6x + 18 – 4x] – [4y + 12 – 8y + 32]

= [2x + 18] – [4y + 44] Collecting like terms within brackets

= 2x + 18 + 4y – 44 Removing brackets

= 2x + 4y – 26 Collecting like terms

Rules for Order of Operations
1. Do all calculations within grouping symbols
before operations outside.
2. Evaluate all exponential expressions.
3. Do all multiplications and divisions in order from
left to right.
4. Do all additions and subtractions in order from
left to right.
 Chapter 2

Solving Equations
and Inequalities
2.1 SOLVING EQUATIONS: THE ADDITION
PRINCIPLE

a. Determine whether a given number is a

solution of a given equation.
b. Solve equations using the addition
principle.
Equation
An equation is a number sentence that says that the
expressions on either side of the equals sign, =, represent
the same number.
Determine whether the equation is true, false, or neither.
a. 4 + 6 = 10 b. 8 – 3 = 4 c. x + 9 = 21

Solution of an Equation
Any replacement for the variable that makes an equation
true is called a solution of the equation. To solve an
equation means to find all of its solutions.
Determine whether 8 is a solution of x + 12 = 21.
Equivalent Equations
Equations with the same solutions are called equivalent
equations.

The Addition Principle For Equations

For any real numbers a, b, and c,
a = b is equivalent to a + c = b + c.
Solve: x + 6 = –9.
Solution Check
x + 6 = –9 x + 6 = –9
x + 6 – 6 = –9 – 6 –15 + 6 = | –9
x + 0 = –15
x = –15
–9 True
 Example Solve: 8.3 = y  17.9

Solution 8.3 = y  17.9

8.3 + 17.9 = y  17.9 + 17.9
9.6 = y

Check: 8.3 = y  17.9

8.3 | 9.6  17.9
8.3 = 8.3

The solution is 9.6.

 Example
Solve:  1  x  7
5 10
1 7
 x
5 10
1 1 1 7
 x 
5 5 5 10
1 2 7
x  
5 2 10
2 7 9
x  
10 10 10
 SOLVING EQUATIONS: THE
2.2 MULTIPLICATION PRINCIPLE

a. Solve equations using the multiplication

principle.
The Multiplication Principle For Equations
For any real numbers a, b, and c with c  0,
a = b is equivalent to a • c = b • c.
 Example Solve: 7x = 84

Solution 7x = 84
Dividing both sides by 7.
7 x 8 4

7  7
1 x  12
x  12

Check: 7x = 84
7(12) | 84
84 | True
The solution is 12.
 Example

Solve x = 6.

Solution x = 6
(1)(x) = (1)6 Multiplying by 1 on both sides
1(1)x = 6
x = 6

The solution is 6.

 Example
3
Solve: x  15
4

Solution 3
x  15
4
4 3 4
 x  15  Multiplying by the reciprocal of
3 4 3 ¾ on both sides.

1x  20
x  20
 Example

Solve: 3.2y = 9600

3.2y = 9600
3.2 y 9600

3.2 3.2
y  3000
2.3 USING THE PRINCIPLES TOGETHER

a. Solve equations using both the addition

and multiplication principles.
b. Solve equations in which like terms may
need to be collected.
c. Solve equations by first removing
parentheses and collecting like terms;
solve equations with an infinite number of
solutions and equations with no solutions.
 Example Solve: 9 + 8x = 33
Solution 9 + 8x = 33
9 + 8x  9 = 33  9 Subtracting 9 from both sides
9 + ( 9) + 8x = 24
8x = 24
Dividing both sides by 8
8 x 24

8 8
x=3
Check: 9 + 8x = 33
9 + 8(3) | 33
9 + 24 |
33 TRUE The solution is 3.
 Example

Solve: Solve. 4x + 7  6x = 10 + 3x + 12
Solution: 4x + 7  6x = 10 + 3x + 12
2x + 7 = 22 + 3x Collecting like terms

2x + 7  7 = 22 + 3x  7 sides
Subtracting 7 from both

2x = 15 + 3x Simplifying

2x  3x = 15 + 3x  3x Subtracting 3x from both

sides
5x = 15
5 x 1 5 Dividing both sides by 5

5  5
x = 3
 Example
Solve 18.4 – 6.2y = 7.24
Solution
18.4 – 6.2y = 7.24
100(18.4 – 6.2y) = 100(7.24) Multiplying by 100
(100)(18.4) – 100(6.2y) = 100(7.24) Using the distributive law
1840 – 620y = 724 Simplifying
1840 – 1840 – 620y = 724 – 1840 Subtracting 1840
–620y = – 1116 Collecting like terms
–620 – 620 Dividing by – 620
y = 1.8
 Example

Solve: 9x = 3(15 – 2x)

Solution
9x = 3(15 – 2x)
9x = 45 – 6x Using the distributive law

9x + 6x = 45 – 6x + 6x Subtracting 6x to get all x-terms on one side

15x = 45 Collecting like terms

15 15 Dividing by 15

x=3
 Example
Solve: 3 – 8(x + 6) = 4(x – 1) – 5.
Solution
3 – 8(x + 6) = 4(x – 1) – 5 Using the distributive law
to multiply and remove
3 – 8x – 48 = 4x – 4 – 5 parentheses
–45 – 8x = 4x – 9 Collecting like terms

–8x – 45 + 45 = 4x – 9 + 45 Adding 45
–8x = 4x + 36 Collecting like terms
–8x – 4x = 4x + 36 – 4x Subtracting 4x
–12x = 36 Dividing by 12
–12 –12
x=–3
2.4 FORMULAS

a. Evaluate a formula.

b. Solve a formula for a specified letter.

Many applications of mathematics involve
relationships among two or more quantities. An
equation that represents such a relationship will use
two or more letters and is known as a formula.
 Example

Solve for r: d = rt.

Solution
d = rt We want this letter alone.
Dividing by t
d rt

t t
d t
 r
t t
d
r Simplifying
t
 Example

Solve for x: y = x + b.

Solution
y=x+b We want this letter alone.
y–b=x+b–b Subtracting b
y–b=x Simplifying
 Example

The formula C = d gives the circumference C of

a circle with diameter d. Solve for d.
Solution d

C = d
C d

 
C
d

2.5 APPLICATIONS OF PERCENT

a. Solve applied problems involving percent.

Key Word in Percent Translations
“Of” translates to “•” or “”.

“Is” translates to “=”.

“What number” or “what percent”

translates to any letter.

% translates to 1
" ", or "  0.01".
100
3 Types of Percent Problems
1. Finding the amount (the result of taking the percent)
Example: What is 25% of 60?
Translation: a = 0.25  60

2. Finding the base (the number you are taking the

percent of)
Example: 15 is 25% of what number?
Translation: 15 = 0.25  b

3. Finding the percent number (the percent itself)

Example: 15 is what percent of 60?
Translation: 15 = p  60
 Example

To complete her water safety course instruction,

Catherine must complete 45 hours of instruction. If she
has completed 75% of her requirement, how many hours
has Catherine completed?
Solution
Rewording: What is 75% of 45?
Translating: a = 0.75  45
a = 33.75
Catherine has completed 33.75 hours of instruction.
2.6 APPLICATIONS AND PROBLEM SOLVING

a. Solve applied problems by translating to

equations.
Five Steps for Problem Solving in
Algebra
1. Familiarize yourself with the problem
situation.
2. Translate the problem to an equation.
3. Solve the equation.
4. Check the answer in the original problem.
5. State the answer to the problem clearly.
 Example

A 480-in. piece of pipe is cut into two pieces. One piece

is three times the length of the other. Find the length of
each piece of pipe.
Solution
1. Familiarize. Make a drawing. Noting the lengths.
480 in

3x x
2. Translate. From the statement of the problem.
One piece is three times the length of the other the total is
480 inches.
x + 3x = 480
3. Solve.
x + 3x = 480
4x = 480
4 4
x = 120 inches
4. Check. Do we have an answer to the problem?
No, we need the lengths of both pieces of pipe.
If x = 120 the length of one piece
3x = the length of the other piece. 3(120) = 360 inches
Since 120 + 360 = 480 our answer checks.
5. State. One section of pipe is 120 inches and the other
section is 360 inches.
2.7 SOLVING INEQUALITIES

a. Determine whether a given number is a

solution of an inequality.
b. Graph an inequality on a number line.
c. Solve inequalities using the addition
principle.
d. Solve inequalities using the multiplication
principle.
e. Solve inequalities using the addition and
multiplication principles together.
Solutions of Inequalities

An inequality is a number sentence containing > (is

greater than), < (is less than),  (is greater than or
equal to), or  (is less than or equal to).

Solution of an Inequality
A replacement that makes an inequality true is called a
solution. The set of all solutions is called the solution
set. When we have found the set of all solutions of an
inequality, we say that we have solved the inequality.
 Example

Determine whether the given number is a solution

of x < 5: a) 4 b) 6

Solution
a) Since 4 < 5 is true, 4 is a solution.

b) Since 6 < 5 is false, 6 is not a solution.

Graphs of Inequalities

Because solutions of inequalities like x < 4 are too

numerous to list, it is helpful to make a drawing that
represents all the solutions.

The graph of an inequality is a drawing that represents

its solutions. Graphs of inequalities in one variable can
be drawn on a number line by shading all the points
that are solutions.
 Example

Graph each inequality:

a) x < 3, b) y  4; c) 3 < x  5
Solution
a) The solutions of x < 3 are those numbers less than 3.
Shade all points to the left of 3.
The parenthesis at 3 and the shading to the left
indicate that 3 is not part of the graph, but numbers like
1 and 2 are.
)
Solution
b) The solutions of y  4 are shown on the number
line by shading the point for 4 and all points to the
right of 4. The bracket at 4 indicates that 4 is
part of the graph.
[

c) The inequality 3 < x  5 is read “3 is less than x

and x is less than or equal to 5.”

( ]
 Example

Solve and graph each inequality:

a) 7 x  35 b) 4y < 20
Solution
a)
7 x  35
7 x 35
 Dividing by 7
7 7
The symbol stays the same.

x5 Simplifying

]
Solution
b) 4y < 20
4 y 20 Dividing both sides by 4

4 4
The symbol must be reversed!
y  5

The solution set is {y|y > 5}. The graph is shown

below.
(
 Example

Solve x + 6 > 2 and then graph the solution.

Solution
x+6>2
x+66>26
x > 4

Any number greater than 4 makes the statement true.

(
 Example Solve. 3x  3 > x + 7

3x  3 > x + 7
3x  3 + 3 > x + 7 + 3 Adding 3 to both sides

3x > x + 10 Simplifying

3x  x > x  x + 10 Subtracting x from both sides

2x > 10 Simplifying
2 x 10
 Dividing both sides by 2
2 2
x>5 Simplifying
The solution set is {x|x > 5}.
(
 Example Solve: 5(x  3)  7x  4(x  3) + 9

5(x  3)  7x  4(x  3) + 9
Using the distributive law to
5x  15  7x  4x  12 + 9 remove parentheses
2x  15  4x  3 Simplifying
2x  15 + 3  4x  3 + 3 Adding 3 to both sides
2x  12  4x Simplifying
2x + 2x  12  4x + 2x Adding 2x to both sides
12  6x
Dividing both sides by 6
2  x
The solution set is {x|x  2}.
]
 Example Solve. 15.4  3.2x < 6.76

15.4  3.2x < 6.76

100(15.4  3.2x) < 100(6.76)
100(15.4)  100(3.2x) < 100(6.76)
1540  320x < 676
320x < 676 1540
320x < 2216
2216
x
320 Remember to reverse
the symbol!
x > 6.925
The solution set is {x|x > 6.925}.
 APPLICATIONS AND PROBLEM SOLVING
2.8 WITH INEQUALITIES

Translate number sentences to inequalities.

Important Words Sample Sentence Translation
is at least Brian is at least 16 years old b  16
is at most At most 3 students failed the course s3
cannot exceed To qualify, earnings cannot exceed e  $5000
$5000
must exceed The speed must exceed 20 mph s > 20
is less than Nicholas is less than 60 lb. n < 60
is more than Chicago is more than 300 miles c > 300
away.
is between The movie is between 70 and 120 70 < m < 120
minutes.
no more than The calf weighs no more than 560 w  560
lb.
no less than Carmon scored no less than 9.4. c  9.4
Translating “at least” and “at most”
The quantity x is at least some amount q: x  q.
(If x is at least q, it cannot be less than q.)

The quantity x is at most some amount q: x  q.

(If x is at most q, it cannot be more than q.)
 Chapter 3

Graphs of Linear
Equations
3.1 INTRODUCTION to GRAPHING

a. Plot points associated with ordered pairs

of numbers; determine the quadrant in
which a point lies.
b. Find the coordinates of a point on a graph.
c. Determine whether an ordered pair is a
solution of an equation with two variables.
Points and Ordered Pairs
To graph, or plot, points we use two perpendicular
number lines called axes. The point at which the axes
cross is called the origin. Arrows on the axes indicate
the positive directions.

Consider the pair (2, 3). The numbers in such a pair

are called the coordinates. The first coordinate in this
case is 2 and the second coordinate is 3.
Points and Ordered Pairs continued
To plot the point (2, 3) we start
at the origin.
Move 2 units in the horizontal
(2,
(2,3)
3)
direction.

The second number 3, is

positive. We move 3 units in
the vertical direction (up).

Make a “dot” and label the

point.
The horizontal and vertical axes divide the plane
into four regions, or quadrants.

In which quadrant is the

point (3, 4) located?
IV

In which quadrant is the

point (3, 4) located?
III
 Find the coordinates of points A, B,
Example C, D, E, F, and G.

Solution
Point A is 5 units to the right B
E A
of the origin and 3 units above
the origin. Its coordinates are G

(5, 3). The other coordinates F

are as follows:
B: (2, 4) D
C: (3, 4)
D: (3, 2) C

E: (2, 3)
F: (3, 0)
G: (0, 2)
 Determine whether each of the
Example following pairs is a solution of
4y + 3x = 18: a) (2, 3); b)(1, 5).

Solution
a) We substitute 2 for x and 3 for y.
4y + 3x = 18
4•3 + 3•2 | 18
12 + 6 | Since 18 = 18 is true, the pair (2, 3) is a
solution.
18 | True
b) We substitute 1 for x and 5 for y.
4y + 3x = 18
4•5 + 3•1 | 18
20 + 3 |
23 | False Since 23 = 18 is false, the pair (1, 5) is
not a solution.
3.2 GRAPHING LINEAR EQUATIONS

a. Graph linear equations of the type

y = mx + b and Ax + By = C, identifying the
y-intercept.
e. Solve applied problems involving graphs
of linear equations.
 Example Graph y = 3x
Solution Find some ordered pairs that are solutions. We choose any number for x
and then determine y by substitution.
y
x y = 3x (x, y)
2 6 (2, 6) (2, 6)
1 3 (1, 3) (1, 3)
0 0 (0, 0) (0, 0)
1 3 (1, 3)
2 6 (2, 6)

1. Choose x.
2. Compute y.
4. Plot the points.
3. Form the ordered pair (x, y).
 Example Graph y = 4x + 1

Solution
We select convenient values for x and compute y, and
form an ordered pair.
If x = 2, then y = 4(2) + 1 = 7 and (2, 7) is a solution.

If x = 0, then y = 4(0) + 1 = 1 and (0, 1) is a solution.

If x = 2, then y = 4(2) + 1 = 9 and (2, 9) is a

solution.
Solution (continued)
Results are often listed in a table.
x y (x, y)
2 7 (2, 7)
0 1 (0, 1)
2 9 (2, 9)
(1) Choose x.
(2) Compute y.
(3) Form the pair (x, y).
(4) Plot the points.
 1
Example Graph y  x3
4

Solution Complete a table of values.

x y (x, y) y-intercept (4, 4)

4 4 (4, 4)
0 3 (0, 3)
(4, 2)
4 2 (4, 2)
We see that (0, 3) is a
solution. It is the y-intercept.
1
y  x3 (0, 3) is the y-intercept.
4
 MORE with GRAPHING and
3.3 INTERCEPTS
a. Find the intercepts of a linear equation,
and graph using intercepts.
b. Graph equations equivalent to those of the
type x = a and y = b.
Intercepts
The y-intercept is (0, b). To find b, let x = 0 and
solve the original equation for y.

The x-intercept is (a, 0). To find a, let y = 0 and

solve the original equation for x.
y-intercept
(0, b) x-intercept

(a, 0)
 Consider 5x + 2y = 10. Find the
Example intercepts. Then graph the equation using
the intercepts.
Solution
To find the y-intercept, we let x = 0 and solve for y:
5 • 0 + 2y = 10 Replacing x with 0
2y = 10
y=5
The y-intercept is (0, 5).
To find the x-intercept, we let y = 0 and solve for x.
5x + 2• 0 = 10
Replacing y with 0
5x = 10
x=2
The x-intercept is (2, 0).
continued
We plot these points and draw
the line, or graph. A third point
should be used as a check. We
substitute any convenient
value for x and solve for y. y-intercept (0, 5)
If we let x = 4, then
5 • 4 + 2y = 10
x-intercept (2, 0)
20 + 2y = 10
2y = 10
y = 5 5x + 2y = 10
x y
0 5
2 0
4 5
Horizontal and Vertical Lines

The graph of y = b is a horizontal line. The y-

intercept is (0, b).
The graph of x = a is a vertical line. The x-
intercept is (a, 0).
 Example Graph y = 2

Solution
We regard the equation y = 2 as 0 • x + y = 2. No matter what
number we choose for x, we find that y must equal 2.

y=2
Choose any number for x. x y (x, y)
0 2 (0, 2)
4 2 (4, 2)
4 2 (4 , 2)
y must be 2.
continued y=2

Solution
When we plot the ordered
pairs (0, 2), (4, 2) and y=2
(4, 2) and connect the points, (0, 2)
we obtain a horizontal line. (4, 2) (4, 2)

Any ordered pair of the form

(x, 2) is a solution, so the line
is parallel to the x-axis with
y-intercept (0, 2).
 Example Graph x = 2

Solution
We regard the equation x = 2 as x + 0 • y = 2. We
make up a table with all 2 in the x-column.

x = 2
x must be 2. x y (x, y)
2 4 (2, 4)
2 1 (2, 1)
2 4 (2, 4)

Any number can be used for y.

continued x = 2

Solution x = 2
When we plot the ordered (2, 4)
pairs (2, 4), (2, 1), and
(2, 4) and connect them,
we obtain a vertical line. (2, 1)

Any ordered pair of the form

(2, y) is a solution. The line
is parallel to the y-axis with (2, 4)
x-intercept (2, 0).
3.4 SLOPE and APPLICATIONS

a. Given the coordinates of two

points on a line, find the slope of
the line, if it exists.
b. Find the slope of a line from an
equation.
c. Find the slope, or rate of change,
in an applied problem involving
slope.
We have looked at two forms of a linear equation,
Ax + By = C and y = mx + b

We know that the y-intercept of a line is (0, b).

y = mx + b

? The y-intercept is (0, b).

What about the constant m? Does it give certain

information about the line?
Slope
The slope of the line containing points (x1, y1)
and (x2, y2) is given by
rise change in y y2  y1
m   .
run change in x x2  x1
 Example
Graph the line containing the points (4, 5) and
(4, 1) and find the slope.
rise change in y
Slope = =
run change in x
y2  y1 rise

x2  x1
1  5
=
4  (4) run
6
=
8
6 3
=  , or 
8 4
The slope of a line tells how it slants.
A line with a positive slope slants up from left to right.
The larger the slope, the steeper the slant.

A line with a negative slope slants downward from left

to right.
It is possible to find the slope of a line from its
equation.

Determining Slope from the

Equation y = mx + b
The slope of the line y = mx + b is m. To find the
slope of a nonvertical line, solve the linear
equation in x and y for y and get the resulting
equation in the form y = mx + b. The coefficient
of the x-term, m is the slope of the line.
 Example
Find the slope of the line.
a. y  4 x  2 b. 2
y x
3 3

m = 4 = Slope 2
m = = Slope
3
c. y = x + 8 d. y  0.25 x  6.8

m = 1 = Slope m = 0.25 = Slope

 Example

Find the slope of the line 3x + 5y = 15.

Solution
We solve for y to get the equation in the
form y = mx + b.
3x + 5y = 15
5y = –3x + 15
3 x  15
y
5
3
3
y   x3 The slope is  .
5 5
 Example Find the slope of the line y = 3

Solution
Consider the points (3, 3)
and (2, 3), which are on the (3, 3) (2, 3)

line.
33
m
2  (3)
0

5
0
A horizontal line has
slope 0.
 Example Find the slope of the line x = 2

Solution
Consider the points (2, 4) (2, 4)
and (2, 2), which are on
the line.
4  (2)
m
22
6 (2, 2)
 undefined
0

The slope of a vertical line

is undefined.
Chapter 4

Polynomials:
Operations
4.1 INTEGERS as EXPONENTS

a. Tell the meaning of exponential notation.

b. Evaluate exponential expressions with exponents of
0 and 1.
c. Evaluate algebraic expressions containing
exponents.
d. Use the product rule to multiply exponential
expressions with like bases.
e. Use the quotient rule to divide exponential
expressions with like bases.
f. Express an exponential expression involving
negative exponents with positive exponents.
An exponent of 2 or greater tells how many times the
base is used as a factor.

a  a  a  a = a4 This is the exponent.

This is the base.

The exponent is 4 and the base is a.

An expression for a power is called exponential
notation.
n This is the exponent.
a
This is the base.
Definition and Rules for Definitions and
Rules for Exponents
1 as an exponent: a1 = a

0 as an exponent: a0 = 1, a  0

Negative integers 1 1
n
as exponents: a  n , n  an , a  0
a a

Product Rule: a m  a n  a mn

am mn
Quotient Rule: n
 a ,a  0
a
 Example

Evaluate (6x)3 when x = –3 .

Solution
(6x)3 = [6  (3)]3 Substituting
= [–18]3 Multiplying within brackets first
= [–18]  [–18]  [–18]
= –5832 Evaluating the power
 Example

Evaluate 6x3 when x = –3 .

Solution

6x3 = 6  (3)3 Substituting

= 6  (3) (3) (3) Evaluating the power first
= 6  (27)
= –162
4.2 EXPONENTS AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

a. Use the power rule to raise powers to

powers.
b. Raise a product to a power and a quotient to
a power.
c. Convert between scientific notation and
decimal notation.
d. Multiply and divide using scientific notation.
e. Solve applied problems using scientific
notation.
The Power Rule
For any real number a and any integers m and n,

a 
m n
a .
mn

(To raise a power to a power, multiply the

exponents.)
Raising a Product to a Power
For any real number a and b and any integer n,

(ab)  a b .
n n n

(To raise a product to the nth power, raise each

factor to the nth power.)
Raising a Quotient to a Power
For any real numbers a and b, b  0, and any
integer n, n
 
n
a a
   n.
b b
(To raise a quotient to the nth power, raise both the
numerator and the denominator to the nth power.)
Scientific Notation
Scientific notation for a number is an expression
of the type
M 10n ,
where n is an integer, M is greater than or equal
to 1 and less than 10 (1 ≤ M < 10), and M is
expressed in decimal notation. 10n is also
considered to be scientific notation when M = 1.
 Example

Convert to scientific notation:

a) 94,000 b) 0.0423
Solution
a) 94,000 = 9.4  104
Large number so the
9.4,000.
4 places exponent is positive.

b) 0.0423 = 4.23  102

0.04.23 Small number so the
2 places exponent is negative.
 Example

Simplify: (1.7  108)(2.2  105)

Solution (1.7  108)(2.2  105)

= (1.7  2.2)  (108  105)
= 3.74  108 +(5)
= 3.74  103
Chapter 4

Polynomials:
Operations
4.3 INTRODUCTION TO POLYNOMIALS

a. Evaluate a polynomial for a given value of a

variable.
b. Identify the terms of a polynomial and classify a
polynomial by its number of terms.
c. Identify the coefficient and the degree of each
term of a polynomial and the degree of the
polynomial.
d. Collect the like terms of a polynomial.
e. Arrange a polynomial in descending order, or
collect like terms and then arrange in descending
order.
f. Identify the missing terms of a polynomial.
Monomial
A monomial is an expression of the type axn, where a
is a real number constant and n is a nonnegative integer.

Examples:
3x2 2 2x 3x6 0
Polynomial
A polynomial is a monomial or a combination
of sums and/or differences of monomials.
Examples:
5w + 8, 3x2 + x + 4, x, 0, 75y6
 A polynomial that is composed of two terms is called a
binomial, whereas those composed of three terms are
called trinomials. Polynomials with four or more
terms have no special name.

Monomials Binomials Trinomials None of These

5x2 3x + 4 3x2 + 5x + 9 5x3  6x2 + 2xy  9
8 4a5 + 7bc 7x7  9z3 + 5 a4 + 2a3  a2 + 7a  2
8a23b3 10x3  7 6x2  4x  ½ 6x6  4x5 + 2x4  x3 + 3x  2
The part of a term that is a constant factor is the
coefficient of that term. The coefficient of 4y is 4.

Example Identify the coefficient of each term in the

polynomial. 5x4  8x2y + y  9

Solution
The coefficient of 5x4 is 5.
The coefficient of 8x2y is 8.
The coefficient of y is 1, since y = 1y.
The coefficient of 9 is simply 9.
The degree of a term of the exponent of the variable.

Example
Determine the degree of each term:
a) 9x5 b) 6y c) 9

Solution
a) The degree of 9x5 is 5.
b) The degree of 6y is 1.
c) The degree of 9 is 0.
The degree of the polynomial is the largest of the
degrees of the terms, unless it is a polynomial 0.

Example
Identify the degree of the polynomial.
4x2  9x3 + 6x4 + 8x  7.

Solution
The largest exponent is 4.
The degree of the polynomial is 4.
When terms have the same variable and the variable is
raised to the same power, we say that they are like
terms.
 Example

Combine like terms:

a) 4y4  9y4
b) 7x5 + 9 + 3x2 + 6x2  13  6x5
c) 9w5  7w3 + 11w5 + 2w3
Solution
a) 4y4  9y4 = (4  9)y4 = 5y4

b) 7x5 + 9 + 3x2 + 6x2  13  6x5 = 7x5  6x5 + 3x2 + 6x2 + 9  13

= x5 + 9x2  4
c) 9w5  7w3 + 11w5 + 2w3 = 9w5 + 11w5  7w3 + 2w3
= 20w5  5w3
 Example

Arrange the polynomial in descending order.

7x5 + 5x7 + x2 + 3x3

Solution
7x5 + 5x7 + x2 + 3x3 = 5x7 + 7x5 + 3x3 + x2

We usually arrange polynomials in descending

order, but not always. The opposite order is called
ascending order.
 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF
4.4 POLYNOMIALS

a. Add polynomials.
b. Simplify the opposite of a polynomial.
c. Subtract polynomials.
d. Use polynomials to represent perimeter
and area.
 Example

Add: (6x3 + 7x  2) + (5x3 + 4x2 + 3).

Solution
(6x3 + 7x  2) + (5x3 + 4x2 + 3)
= (6 + 5)x3 + 4x2 + 7x + (2 + 3)
= x3 + 4x2 + 7x + 1
 Example

Add: 10x5  3x3 + 7x2 + 4 and 6x4  8x2 + 7 and

4x6  6x5 + 2x2 + 6.
Solution
10x5  3x3 + 7x2 + 4
6x4  8x2 + 7
4x6  6x5 + 2x2 + 6
4x6 + 4x5 + 6x4  3x3 + x2 + 17
The answer is 4x6 + 4x5 + 6x4  3x3 + x2 + 17.
 Example

Simplify: (8x4  34 x3 + 9x2  2x + 72).

Solution
(8x  4 x + 9x2  2x + 72)
4 3 3

 9x2 + 2x  72
3 3
= 8x4 + 4x
Subtraction of Polynomials

We can now subtract one polynomial from another by

adding the opposite of the polynomial being
subtracted.
 Example

(10x5 + 2x3  3x2 + 5)  (3x5 + 2x4  5x3  4x2)

Solution
(10x5 + 2x3  3x2 + 5)  (3x5 + 2x4  5x3  4x2)

= 10x5 + 2x3  3x2 + 5 + 3x5  2x4 + 5x3 + 4x2

= 13x5  2x4 + 7x3 + x2 + 5

 Example

Subtract: (8x5 + 2x3  10x)  (4x5  5x3 + 6).

Solution
(8x5 + 2x3  10x)  (4x5  5x3 + 6)
= 8x5 + 2x3  10x + (4x5) + 5x3  6
= 4x5 + 7x3  10x  6
4.5 MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS

a. Multiply monomials.
b. Multiply a monomial and any polynomial.
c. Multiply two binomials.
d. Multiply any two polynomials.
To Multiply Monomials
To find an equivalent expression for the
product of two monomials, multiply the
coefficients and then multiply the
variables using the product rule for
exponents.
 Example
Multiply: a) (6x)(7x) b) (5a)(a) c) (8x6)(3x4)
Solution
a) (6x)(7x) = (6  7) (x  x)
= 42x2
b) (5a)(a) = (5a)(1a)
= (5)(1)(a  a)
= 5a2
c) (8x6)(3x4) = (8  3) (x6  x4)
= 24x6 + 4
= 24x10
Multiplying a Monomial and a
Polynomial
To multiply a monomial and a polynomial,
multiply each term of the polynomial by
the monomial.
 Example

Multiply: 5x2(x3  4x2 + 3x  5)

Solution

5x2(x3  4x2 + 3x  5)
= (5x2)(x3) – (5x2)(4x2) + (5x2)(3x) – (5x2)(5)

= 5x5  20x4 + 15x3  25x2

 Example

Multiply each of the following.

a) x + 3 and x + 5 b) 3x  2 and x  1
Solution

a) (x + 3)(x + 5) = x(x + 5) + 3(x + 5)

=xx+x5+3x+35
= x2 + 5x + 3x + 15
= x2 + 8x + 15
continued
Solution
b) (3x  2)(x  1) = 3x(x – 1)  2(x  1)
= 3x  x  3x  1  2  x  2(1)
= 3x2  3x  2x + 2
= 3x2  5x + 2
Product of Two Polynomials
To multiply two polynomials P and Q,
select one of the polynomials, say P. Then
multiply each term of P by every term of Q
and collect like terms.
 Example

Multiply: (5x3 + x2 + 4x)(x2 + 3x).

Solution
5x3 + x2 + 4x
x2 + 3x
15x4 + 3x3 + 12x2 Multiplying the top row by 3x

5x5 + x4 + 4x3 Multiplying the top row by x2

5x5 + 16x4 + 7x3 + 12x2 Collecting like terms

Line up like terms in columns.

 Example

Multiply: (3x2  4)(2x2  3x + 1).

Solution
2x2  3x + 1
3x2 4
 8x2 + 12x  4 Multiplying by 4

6x4 + 9x3  3x2 Multiplying by 3x2

6x4 + 9x3  11x2 + 12x  4 Collecting like terms

4.6 SPECIAL PRODUCTS

a. Multiply two binomials mentally using the

FOIL method.
b. Multiply the sum and the difference of the
same two terms mentally.
c. Square a binomial mentally.
d. Find special products when polynomial
products are mixed together.
The FOIL Method
To multiply two binomials, A + B and C + D, multiply the
First terms AC, the Outer terms AD, the Inner terms BC, and
then the Last terms BD. Then combine like terms, if possible.
(A + B)(C + D) = AC + AD + BC + BD

Multiply First terms: AC.

L
Multiply Outer terms: AD. F
Multiply Inner terms: BC
Multiply Last terms: BD (A + B)(C + D)
↓ I
O
FOIL
 Example

Multiply: (x + 4)(x2 + 3).

Solution
F L F O I L
(x + 4)(x2 + 3) = x3 + 3x + 4x2 + 12
= x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 12
I
O

The terms are rearranged in descending

order for the final answer.
 Example

Multiply.
a) (x + 8)(x + 5) b) (y + 4) (y  3)
c) (5t3 + 4t)(2t2  1) d) (4  3x)(8  5x3)
Solution
a) (x + 8)(x + 5) = x2 + 5x + 8x + 40
= x2 + 13x + 40
b) (y + 4) (y  3)= y2  3y + 4y  12
= y2 + y  12
continued
Solution
c) (5t3 + 4t)(2t2  1) = 10t5  5t3 + 8t3  4t
= 10t5 + 3t3  4t

d) (4  3x)(8  5x3) = 32  20x3  24x + 15x4

= 32  24x  20x3 + 15x4

In general, if the original binomials are written in ascending

order, the answer is also written that way.
Product of the Sum and
Difference of Two Terms

The product of the sum and difference of the

same two terms is the square of the first term
minus the square of the second term.
(A + B)(A – B) = A2 – B2.
 Example

Multiply.
a) (x + 8)(x  8)
b) (6 + 5w) (6  5w)
c) (4t3  3)(4t3 + 3)
Solution
(A + B)(A  B) = A2  B2
a) (x + 8)(x  8) = x2  82
= x2  64
continued
Solution
b) (6 + 5w) (6  5w) = 62  (5w)2
= 36  25w2

c) (4t3  3)(4t3 + 3) = (4t3)2  32

= 16t6  9
Square of a Binomial

The square of a binomial is the square of the

first term, plus twice the product of the two
terms, plus the square of the last term.
(A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B2;

(A – B)2 = A2 – 2AB + B2;

 Example

Multiply.
a) (x + 8)2
b) (y  7)2
c) (4x  3x5)2
Solution
(A + B)2 = A2+2AB + B2
a) (x + 8)2 = x2 + 2x8 + 82
= x2 + 16x + 64
continued (A  B)2 = A2 2AB + B2
Solution
b) (y  7)2 = y2  2  y  7 + 72
= y2  14y + 49

c) (4x  3x5)2 = (4x)2  2  4x  3x5 + (3x5)2

= 16x2  24x6 + 9x10
 Example

Multiply.
a) (x + 5)(x  5) b) (w  7)(w + 4)
c) (x + 9)(x + 9) d) 3x2(4x2 + x  2)
e) (p + 2)(p2 + 3p  2) f) (2x + 1)2

Solution
a) (x + 5)(x  5) = x2  25
b) (w  7)(w + 4) = w2 + 4w  7w  28
= w2  3w  28
continued
c) (x + 9)(x + 9) = x2 + 18x + 81

d) 3x2(4x2 + x  2) = 12x4 + 3x3  6x2

e) p2 + 3p  2
p+2
2p2 + 6p  4
p3 + 3p2  2p
p3 + 5p2 + 4p  4
continued
f) (2x + 1)2 = 4x2 + 2(2x)(1) + 1
= 4x2 + 4x + 1
 OPERATIONS WITH POLYNOMIALS IN
4.7 SEVERAL VARIABLES
a. Evaluate a polynomial in several variables
for given values of the variables.
b. Identify the coefficients and the degrees of
the terms of a polynomial and the degree
of a polynomial.
c. Collect like terms of a polynomial.
d. Add polynomials.
e. Subtract polynomials.
f. Multiply polynomials.
 Example

Evaluate the polynomial 5 + 4x + xy2 + 9x3y2

for x = 3 and y = 4.

Solution
We substitute 3 for x and 4 for y:
5 + 4x + xy2 + 9x3y2
= 5 + 4(3) + (3)(42) + 9(3)3(4)2
= 5  12  48  3888
= 3943
Recall that the degree of a monomial is the number of
variable factors in the term.
Example Identify the coefficient and the degree of
each term and the degree of the polynomial
10x3y2  15xy3z4 + yz + 5y + 3x2 + 9.

Term Coefficient Degree Degree of the

Polynomial
10x3y2 10 5
15xy3z4 15 8
yz 1 2 8
5y 5 1
3x2 3 2
9 9 0
Like Terms
Like, or similar terms either have exactly the
same variables with exactly the same exponents
or are constants.
For example,
9w5y4 and 15w5y4 are like terms
and
12 and 14 are like terms,
but
6x2y and 9xy3 are not like terms.
 Example

Collect like terms.

a) 10x2y + 4xy3  6x2y  2xy3
b) 8st  6st2 + 4st2 + 7s3 + 10st  12s3 + t  2
Solution
a) 10x2y + 4xy3  6x2y  2xy3
= (10 6)x2y + (42)xy3
= 4x2y + 2xy3
b) 8st  6st2 + 4st2 + 7s3 + 10st  12s3 + t  2
= 5s3  2st2 + 18st + t  2
Example

Add: (6x3 + 4y  6y2) + (7x3 + 5x2 + 8y2).

Solution
(6x3 + 4y  6y2) + (7x3 + 5x2 + 8y2)
= (6 + 7)x3 + 5x2 + 4y + (6 + 8)y2
= x3 + 5x2 + 4y + 2y2
 Example

Subtract:
(5x2y + 2x3y2 + 4x2y3 + 7y)  (5x2y  7x3y2 + x2y2  6y).

Solution
(5x2y + 2x3y2 + 4x2y3 + 7y)  (5x2y  7x3y2 + x2y2  6y)
= 5x2y + 2x3y2 + 4x2y3 + 7y  5x2y + 7x3y2  x2y2 + 6y
= 9x3y2 + 4x2y3  x2y2 + 13y
 Example

Multiply: (4x2y  3xy + 4y)(xy + 3y).

Solution
4x2y  3xy + 4y
xy + 3y
12x2y2  9xy2 + 12y2
4x3y2  3x2y2 + 4xy2
4x3y2 + 9x2y2  5xy2 + 12y2
4.8 DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS

a. Divide a polynomial by a
monomial.
b. Divide a polynomial by a divisor
that is a binomial.
 Example

12 x 2 x12 54a3b6
Divide: a. b. c.
4x 6 x3 6a 2b3

Solution2
12 x x12 54a3b6
a. b. c.
4x 6 x3 6a 2b3
12 x 2 1 x12 54 a 3 b 6
    3   2 3
4 x 6 x 6 a b
 3x 2 1 1
 x129
6  9a 3 2b63
 3x
1 9  9ab3
 x
6
 Example

Divide. 21a b  14a b  7a b  7a b

5 4 3 2 2 2

Solution
21a5b4  14a3b2  7a 2b 21a5b4 14a3b 2 7a 2b
  
7a b
2
7a b 7a b 7a 2b
2 2

21 5 2 41  14  3 2 21  7 
  a b  a b  
7 7  7 

 3a b  2ab  1
3 3
Chapter 5

Polynomials:
Factoring
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO FACTORING

a. Find the greatest common factor,

the GCF, of monomials.
b. Factor polynomials when the terms
have a common factor, factoring out
the greatest common factor.
c. Factor certain expressions with four
terms using factoring by grouping.
Factoring
To factor a polynomial is to find an
equivalent expression that is a product.
An equivalent expression of this type is
called a factorization of the polynomial.
The numbers 20 and 30 have several factors in
common, among them 2 and 5. The greatest of these
common factors is called the greatest common factor,
GCF. One way to find the GCF is by making a list of
the factors of each number.
The factors of 20: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and 20
The factors of 30: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, and 30
Common numbers: 1, 2, 5, and 10.
The GCF is 10.
Another way to find the GCF is to find the prime
factorization of each number. Then draw lines between
common factors.
 Example

Find the GCF of 420 and 924.

Solution
Write the prime factorization of each number.
420 = 2  2  3 5  7

924 = 2  2  3  7 11

The GCF is 2  2  3  7  84
Factor: Factorization
To factor a polynomial is to express it as a
product.
A factor of a polynomial P is a polynomial that
can be used to express P as a product.
A factorization of a polynomial is an
expression that names that polynomial as a
product.
 Example
Find the GCF of 30x3, 48x4, 54x5, and 12x2.
Solution
Prime factor of each number.
30x = 2  3  5  x
3 3

–48x4 = 1 2  2  2  2  3  x The GCF of the

4

coefficients is 6.
54x5 = 2  3  3  3  x5 The GCF of these
monomials is x2,
12x2 = 2  2  3  x
2
because 2 is the smallest
exponent of x.
 Example

Factor: 28x6 + 32x3.

Solution

28x6 + 32x3 = 4x3  7x3 + 4x3  8 Factoring each term

= 4x3(7x3 + 8) Factoring out the GCF, 4x3
 Example

Factor: 12x5  21x4 + 24x3

Solution
The largest common factor is 3x3.

12x5  21x4 + 24x3 = 3x3  4x2  3x3  7x + 3x3  8

= 3x3(4x2  7x + 8)
Factoring by Grouping
Sometime algebraic expressions contain a common
factor with two or more terms.
Example I Factor x2(x + 2) + 3(x + 2).

Solution The binomial (x + 2) is a factor of both

x2(x + 2) and 3(x + 2). Thus, x + 2 is a common factor.
x2(x + 2) + 3(x + 2) = (x2 + 3) (x + 2)

The factorization is (x2 + 3)(x + 2).

 Example

Factor by grouping.
a) 3x3 + 9x2 + x + 3
b) 9x4 + 6x  27x3  18
Solution
a) 3x3 + 9x2 + x + 3 = (3x3 + 9x2) + (x + 3)
= 3x2(x + 3) + 1(x + 3)
= (3x2 + 1)(x + 3)
Don’t forget to
include the 1.
continued
b) 9x4 + 6x  27x3  18
= (9x4 + 6x) + (27x3  18)
= 3x(3x3 + 2) + (9)(3x3 + 2)
= (3x – 9)(3x3 + 2)
 FACTORING TRINOMIALS of the
5.2 Type x2 + bx + c

a. Factor trinomials of the type

x2 + bx + c by examining the
constant term c.
To Factor x2 + bx + c when c is Positive
When the constant term of a trinomial is
positive, look for two numbers with the
same sign. The sign is that of the middle
term:
x2 – 7x + 10 (x – 2)(x – 5);

x2 + 7x + 10 (x + 2)(x + 5);
 Example

Factor: y2  8y + 15.
Solution
Since the constant term is positive and the coefficient of the
middle term is negative, we look for the factorization of 15 in
which both factors are negative. Their sum must be 8.

Pairs of Sums of
Factors of 15 Factors
1, 15 16
3, 5 8 Sum of 8

y2  8y + 15 = (y  3)(y  5)
To Factor x2 + bx + c When c is Negative
When the constant term of a trinomial is negative,
look for two numbers whose product is negative.
One must be positive and the other negative:

x2 – 4x – 21 = (x + 3)(x – 7);

x2 + 4x – 21 = (x – 3)(x + 7).

Select the two numbers so that the number with the larger absolute value
has the same sign as b, the coefficient of the middle term.
 Example

Factor: x2  5x  24.
Solution The constant term Pairs of Sums of
must be expressed as the Factors of 24 Factors

product of a negative number 1, 24 23

and a positive number. Since the 2, 12 10
sum of the two numbers must 3, 8 5
be negative, the negative 4, 6 2
number must have the greater 6, 4 2
absolute value. 8, 3 5

x2  5x  24 = (x + 3)(x  8)
 Example

Factor: t2  32 + 4t.
Solution Rewrite the Pairs of Sums of
trinomial t2 + 4t  32. We Factors of 3 Factors

need one positive and one 1, 32 31

negative factor. The sum must 2, 16 14
be 4, so the positive factor 4, 8 4
must have the larger absolute
value.

t2 + 4t  32 = (t + 8)(t  4)
Prime Polynomials

A polynomial that cannot be factored is considered

prime.
Example: x2  x + 7

Often factoring requires two or more steps. Remember,

when told to factor, we should factor completely. This
means the final factorization should contain only prime
polynomials.
 Example

Factor: 2x3  24x2 + 72x.

Solution
Always look first for a common factor. We can
factor out 2x:
2x(x2  12x + 36)
Since the constant term is positive and the
coefficient of the middle term is negative, we
look for the factorization of 36 in which both
factors are negative. Their sum must be 12.
continued Factor: 2x3  24x2 + 72x
The factorization of
(x2  12x + 36) is Pairs of
Factors of 36
Sums of
Factors
(x  6)(x  6) or (x  6)2 1, 36 37
2, 18 20
3, 12 15
The factorization of 4, 9 13
2x3  24x2 + 72x is 6, 6 12
2x(x  6)2 or 2x(x  6)(x  6)
 Factoring ax2 + bx + c, a  1: The FOIL
5.3 Method

a. Factor trinomials of the type

ax2 + bx + c, a  1, using the
FOIL Method.
The Foil Method
 Example Factor: 3x2  14x  5

Solution
1. First, check for a common factor. There is
none other than 1 or 1.
2. Find the First terms whose product is 3x2.
The only possibilities are 3x and x:
(3x + )(x + )
3. Find the Last terms whose product is 5.
Possibilities are (5)(1), (5)(1)
Important!: Since the First terms are not identical,
we must also consider the above factors in reverse
order: (1)(5), and (1)(5).
continued Factor: 3x2  14x  5
4. Knowing that the First and Last products will check, inspect
the Outer and Inner products resulting from steps (2) and (3)
Look for the combination in which the sum of the products is
the middle term.
(3x  5)(x + 1) = 3x2 + 3x  5x  5
= 3x2  2x  5 Wrong middle term
(3x  1)(x + 5) = 3x2 + 15x  x  5
= 3x2 + 14x  5 Wrong middle term
(3x + 5)(x  1) = 3x2  3x + 5x  5
= 3x2 + 2x  5 Wrong middle term
(3x + 1)(x  5) = 3x2  15x + x  5
= 3x2  14x  5
Correct middle term!
 FACTORING ax2 + bx + c, a  1: The
5.4 ac- Method

a. Factor trinomials of the type ax2 + bx + c,

a  1, using the ac-method.
The ac-Method
1. Factor out the largest common factor, if any.
2. Multiply the leading coefficient a and the
constant c.
3. Try to factor the product ac so that the sum of
the factors is b. That is, find integers p and q
such that pq = ac and p + q = b.
4. Split the middle term. That is, write it as a
sum or difference using the factors found in
step (3).
5. Factor by grouping.
6. Check by multiplying.
 Factor 4x2  5x  6
Example

Solution
1. First, we note that there is no common factor (other
than 1 or 1).
2. We multiply the leading coefficient, 4 and the
constant, 6:
(4)(6) = 24.
3. We next look for the factorization of 24 in which
the sum of the factors is the coefficient of the
middle term, 5.
continued Factor 4x2  5x  6
3. Pairs of Factors Sums of
of 24 Factors
1, 24 23
1, 24 23
2, 12 10
2, 12 10
3, 8 5
3, 8 5 We would normally
stop listing pairs of
4, 6 2 factors once we have
4, 6 2 found the one we are
after.
continued Factor 4x2  5x  6
4. Next, we express the middle term as a sum or
difference using the factors found in step (3):
5x = 8x + 3x.
5. We now factor by grouping as follows:
4x2  5x  6 = 4x2  8x + 3x  6
= 4x(x  2) + 3(x  2)
= (x  2)(4x + 3)
6. Check: (x  2)(4x + 3) = 4x2 + 3x  8x  6
= 4x2  5x  6
The factorization of 4x2  5x  6 is (x  2)(4x + 3).
 FACTORING TRINOMIAL SQUARES and
5.5 DIFFERENCES OF SQUARES

a. Recognize trinomial squares.

b. Factor trinomials squares.
c. Recognize differences of squares.
d. Factor differences of squares, being
careful to factor completely.
A trinomial that is the square of a binomial is called a
perfect-square trinomial.

Trinomial Squares
(A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B2;
(A – B)2 = A2 – 2AB + B2
 Example

Determine whether each of the following is a perfect-

square trinomial.
a) x2 + 8x + 16 b) t2  9t  36 c) 25x2 + 4  20x
Solution
a) x2 + 8x + 16
1. Two terms, x2 and 16, are squares.
2. Neither x2 or 16 is being subtracted.
3. The remaining term, 8x, is 2  x  4, where x
and 4 are the square roots of x2 and 16. Thus
x2 + 8x + 16 is a perfect-square trinomial.
continued
b) t2  9t  36
1. Two terms, t2 and 36, are squares. But
2. Since 36 is being subtracted t2  9t  36 is not
a perfect-square trinomial.
c) 25x2 + 4  20x
It helps to write it in descending order.
25x2  20x + 4
1. Two terms, 25x2 and 4, are squares.
2. There is no minus sign before 25x2 or 4.
3. Twice the product of the square roots is 2  5x  2,
is 20x, the opposite of the remaining term, 20x.
Thus 25x2  20x + 4 is a perfect-square trinomial.
 Example

Factor: a) x2 + 8x + 16 b) 25x2  20x + 4

Solution
a) x2 + 8x + 16 = x2 + 2  x  4 + 42 = (x + 4)2

A2 + 2 A B + B2 = (A + B)2

b) 25x2  20x + 4 = (5x)2  2  5x  2 + 22 = (5x  2)2

A2 – 2 A B + B2 = (A – B)2
 Example

Factor: 16a2  24ab + 9b2

Solution
16a2  24ab + 9b2 = (4a)2  2(4a)(3b) + (3b)2
= (4a  3b)2

Check: (4a  3b)(4a  3b) = 16a2  24ab + 9b2

The factorization is (4a  3b)2.

Factoring a Difference of Squares
A2 – B2 = (A + B)(A – B)
 Example

Factor: a) x2  9 b) y2  16w2
Solution
a) x2  9 = x2  32 = (x + 3)(x  3)

A2  B2 = (A + B)(A  B)

b) y2  16w2 = y2  (4w)2 = (y + 4w)(y  4w)

A2  B2 = (A + B) (A  B)
Factoring Completely
Sometimes, a complete factorization requires two or
more steps. Factoring is complete when no factor can
be factored further.
Example Factor 5x4  3125.
Solution We have
5x4  3125 = 5(x4  625)
= 5[(x2)2  252]
= 5(x2  25)(x2 + 25)
= 5(x  5)(x + 5)(x2 + 25)
The factorization is 5(x  5)(x + 5)(x2 + 25).
Chapter 5

Polynomials:
Factoring
 SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS BY
5.8 FACTORING

a. Solve equations (already

factored) using the principle of
zero products.
b. Solve quadratic equations by
factoring and then using the
principle of zero products.
Second degree equations like 9t2  4 = 0 and
x2 + 6x + 9 = 0 are called quadratic equations.

Quadratic Equation
A quadratic equation is an equation
equivalent to an equation of the type
ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0.
Second degree equations like 9t2  4 = 0 and
x2 + 6x + 9 = 0 are called quadratic equations.

The Principle of Zero Products

An equation ab = 0 is true if and only if a = 0 is
true or b = 0 is true, or both are true.
(A product is 0 if and only if one or both of the
factors is 0.)
 Example
Solve: (x + 4)(x  3) = 0
Solution
In order for a product to be 0, at least one factor must
be 0. Therefore, either
x + 4 = 0 or x3=0
We solve each equation:
x + 4 = 0 or x3=0
x = 4 or x=3
Both 4 and 3 should be checked in the original
equation.
continued Solve: (x + 4)(x  3) = 0
Check: For 4: For 3:
(x + 4)(x  3) = 0 (x + 4)(x  3) = 0
(4 + 4)(4  3) (3 + 4)(3  3)
0(7) 7(0)
0=0 0=0
True True

The solutions are 4 and 3.

 Example
Solve: 4(3x + 1)(x  4) = 0
Solution Since the factor 4 is constant, the only way for
4(3x + 1)(x  4) to be 0 is for one of the other factors to be 0.
That is,
3x + 1 = 0 or x4=0
3x = 1 or x=4
1 x = 4.
x
3
Check: For 1/3: For 4:
4(3x + 1)(x  4) = 0 4(3x + 1)(x  4) = 0
4((3  31 ) + 1)( 1  4) = 0 4(3(4) + 1)(4  4) = 0
3
4(0)( 4 13 ) = 0 4(13)(0) = 0
0=0 0=0
The solutions are 1/3 and 4.
 Example

Solve: 3y(y  7) = 0

Solution
3  y(y  7) = 0
y=0 or y7=0
y=0 or y =7

The solutions are 0 and 7. The check is left to the

student.
Factoring to Solve Equations
By factoring and using the principle of zero products, we
can now solve a variety of quadratic equations.
Example Solve: x2 + 9x + 14 = 0
Solution This equation requires us to factor the
polynomial since there are no like terms to combine and
there is a squared term. Then we use the principle of zero
products:
x2 + 9x + 14 = 0
(x + 7)(x + 2) = 0
x+7=0 or x + 2 = 0
x = 7 or x = 2.
continued Solve: x2 + 9x + 14 = 0
Check: For 7: For 2:
x2 + 9x + 14 = 0 x2 + 9x + 14 = 0
(7)2 + 9(7) + 14 0 (2)2 + 9(2) + 14 0
49  63 + 14 4 18 + 14
14 + 14 14 + 14
0=0 0=0
True True

The solutions are 7 and 2.

 Example
Solve: x2 + 9x = 0
Solution Although there is no constant term, because of
the x2-term, the equation is still quadratic. Try factoring:

x2 + 9x = 0
x(x + 9) = 0
x=0 or x+9=0
x=0 or x = 9
The solutions are 0 and 9. The check is left to the
student.
Caution! We must have 0 on one side of the equation
before the principle of zero products can be used. Get
all nonzero terms on one side and 0 on the other.

Example Solve: x2  12x = 36

Solution We first add 36 to get 0 on one side:
x2  12x = 36
x2  12x + 36 = 36 + 36
(x  6)(x  6) = 0
x  6 = 0 or x6=0
x = 6 or x=6
There is only one solution, 6.
 Example
Solve: 9x2 = 49
Solution
9x2 = 49
9x2  49 = 0
(3x  7)(3x + 7) = 0
3x  7 = 0 or 3x + 7 = 0
3x = 7 or 3x = 7
7 7
x x
3 3
7 7
The solutions are and  .
3 3
 Example
Solve: 14x2 + 9x + 2 = 10x + 6
Solution Be careful with an equation like this! Since we need 0
on one side, we subtract 10x and 6 from the right side.
14x2 + 9x + 2 = 10x + 6
14x2 + 9x  10x + 2  6 = 0
14x2  x  4 = 0
(7x  4)(2x + 1) = 0
7x  4 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0
7x = 4 or 2x = 1
x = 4/7 or x = 1/2
The solutions are 4/7 and 1/2.
 APPLICATIONS OF QUADRATIC
5.9 EQUATIONS

a. Solve applied problems

involving quadratic equations
that can be solved by factoring.
 Example

The Mitchells are designing a garden. The garden will

be in the shape of a rectangle and have an area of 270
square feet. The width of the garden is 3 feet less than
the length. Find the length and width.
Solution
1. Familiarize. We first make a
drawing. Recall that the area of
a rectangle is Length  Width. x

We let x = the length, in feet. x3

The width is then x  3.
2. Translate.
Rewording: The area of the rectangle is 270 ft2.

Translating: x(x  3) = 270

3. Solve. We solve the equation.

x(x  3) = 270
x2  3x = 270
x2  3x  270 = 0
(x  18)(x + 15) = 0
x  18 = 0 or x + 15 = 0
x = 18 or x = 15
4. Check. The solutions of the equation are 18 and
15. Since the length must be positive, 15 cannot be a
solution.
To check 18, we note that if the length is 18, then the
width is x  3 or 15 and the area is 18 ft  15 ft = 270 ft2.
Thus the solution checks.

5. State. The garden is 18 feet long and 15 feet wide.

 Chapter 6

Rational
Expressions and
Equations
 MULTIPLYING AND SIMPLIFYING
6.1 RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

a. Find all numbers for which a rational

expression is not defined.
b. Multiply a rational expression by 1,
using an expression such as A/A.
c. Simplify rational expressions by
factoring the numerator and the
denominator and removing factors of 1.
d. Multiply rational expressions and
simplify.
Rational Expression
A rational expression is any expression that can be written as a
quotient of two polynomials.

Examples of rational expressions:

8
,
6
, x 2  3x  8 3y  8 
1
,
11 x5 8x  9
2 y
Rational expressions are examples of algebraic fractions. They
are also examples of fractional expressions. Because rational
expressions indicate division, we must be careful to avoid
denominators that are 0.
 Example

Find all numbers for which the rational expression

x3 is undefined.
x 2  3 x  28

x2  3x  28 = 0
(x  7)(x + 4) = 0 Factoring
x  7 = 0 or x + 4 = 0 Using the principle of zero products

x = 7 or x = 4 Solving each equation

Multiplying Rational Expressions
To multiply rational expressions, multiply
numerators and multiply denominators:
A C AC
  .
B D BD
 Example

a) 3 x  12 b) 8a  28a
2
Simplify:
5 x  20 4a 2  12a
c) x  2 x  15
2

x 9
2

Solution a) 3x  12  3( x  4)
5 x  20 5( x  4)
3 x4
 
5 x4
3 3
 1 
5 5
continued
b) 8a 2  28a c) x 2  2 x  15
4a 2  12a x2  9
8a 2  28a 4a(2a  7) x 2  2 x  15 ( x  3)( x  5)
 
4a  12a 4a(a  3)
2
x 9
2
( x  3)( x  3)
4a 2a  7 x3 x 5
   
4a a  3 x3 x 3
2a  7 x5
 1  1
a3 x3
2a  7 x5
 
a3 x3
 Example

Simplify: 2 y 2
 y 6
.
y  2y 8
2

Solution
We factor the numerator and denominator and
look for common factors:
2 y 2  y  6 ( y  2)(2 y  3)

y  2 y  8 ( y  2)( y  4)
2

( y  2) (2 y  3)

( y  2) ( y  4)
2y  3

y4
Factors that are Opposites
x 3
Example Simplify: .
6  2x
x 3 x 3
Solution  Factoring
6  2 x 2(3  x)
x 3
 Note that 3  x = x + 3 = 1(x  3)
2(1)( x  3)
x 3
 Had we originally factored out 2, we
2( x  3) could have gone directly to this step.

1 x 3
  Rewriting as a product. It is important
2 x  3 to write the 1 in the numerator.

1
 Removing a factor equal to 1.
2
 Example

Multiply and, if possible, simplify.

a) 6a 4 5 b) x 2  5 x  4 x  3
 
10 6a x 9
2
x4
Solution
a) 6a 4 5 6a 4 (5)
 
10 6a 10(6a)
2 3 a  a  a  a  5

2 5 2 3 a
2 3 a  a  a  a  5 a 3
 
2 5 2 3 a 2
continued
x2  5x  4 x  3
b) 
x 9
2
x4
x 2  5 x  4 x  3 ( x 2  5 x  4)( x  3)
 
x 9
2
x4 ( x 2  9)( x  4)
( x  4)( x  1)( x  3)

( x  3)( x  3)( x  4)
( x  4)( x  1)( x  3)

( x  3)( x  3)( x  4)
x 1

x3
 Example

x 2  x  20 7
Multiply and simplify.  2
21 3x  11x  4
Solution
x 2  x  20 7 x 2  x  20(7)
 2 
21 3x  11x  4 21(3x 2  11x  4)
( x  4)( x  5)7

7(3)(3x  1)( x  4)
( x  4)( x  5)7

7(3)(3x  1)( x  4)
( x  5)

3(3x  1)
6.2 DIVISION AND RECIPROCALS

a. Find the reciprocal of a rational

expression.
b. Divide rational expressions and
simplify.
Two expressions are reciprocals of each other if their
product is 1.

3 4
The reciprocal of is .
4 3

3 x 2
 1 x4
The reciprocal of is .
x4 3x  1
2
Dividing Rational Expressions
To divide by a rational expression, multiply
by its reciprocal:
A C A D AD
    .
B D B C BC
Then factor and, if possible, simplify.
 Example

Divide: a) x  8 b) x  3  x  2
9 y x5
Solution
a) x  8  x  y Multiplying by the reciprocal of the divisor
9 y 9 8
xy
 Multiplying rational expressions
72

b) x2 x3 x5

x 3  
x5 1 x2
( x  3)( x  5)

x2
 Example
x2 x2
Divide and, if possible, simplify: 2  2
x  4 x  4x  4
Solution
x2 x2 x  2 x2  4x  4
 2  2 
x  4 x  4x  4 x  4
2
x2
( x  2)( x  2)( x  2)

( x  2)( x  2)( x  2)
( x  2) ( x  2) ( x  2)

( x  2) ( x  2) ( x  2)
x2

x2
 Example
x 2  3x  2 x2  5x  6
Divide and, if possible, simplify: 2  2
x  5 x  4 x  10 x  24
Solution
x 2  3x  2 x2  5x  6 x 2  3x  2 x 2  10 x  24
 2  2  2
x  5 x  4 x  10 x  24 x  5 x  4 x  5 x  6
2

( x  1)( x  2)( x  6)( x  4)


( x  4)( x  1)( x  2)( x  3)
( x  1) ( x  2) ( x  6) ( x  4)

( x  4) ( x  1) ( x  2) ( x  3)
( x  6)

( x  3)
 Example
x 2  3x  4 x  1
Divide and, if possible, simplify: 
x  25
2
x6
Solution
x 2  3x  4 x  1 x 2  3x  4 x  6
  
x  25
2
x6 x  25 x  1
2

( x  4)( x  1)( x  6)

( x  5)( x  5)( x  1)
( x  4) ( x  1) ( x  6)

( x  5)( x  5) ( x  1)
( x  4)( x  6)

( x  5)( x  5)
 LEAST COMMON MULTIPLES AND
6.3 DENOMINATORS

a. Find the LCM of several

numbers by factoring.
b. Add fractions, first finding the
LCD.
c. Find the LCM of algebraic
expressions by factoring.
Least Common Multiples
To add when denominators are different, we first find
a common denominator.

To find the LCM of 12 and 30, we factor:

12 = 2  2  3
30 = 2  3  5
The LCM is the number that has 2 as a factor twice, 3
as a factor once, and 5 as a factor once:
LCM = 2  2  3  5 = 60
 Example

Find the LCM of 48 and 54.

Solution

48 = 2  2  2  2  3
LCM = 2  2  2  2  3  3  3

54 = 2  3  3  3 or 432
 Example

Find the LCM of 6x2 and 4x3.

Solution
6x2 = 2  3  x  x
4x3 = 2  2  x  x  x

LCM = 2  2  3  x  x  x

The LCM = 22  3  x3, or 12x3.

 Example
For each group of polynomials, find the least common
multiple.
a) 15x, 30y, 25xyz b) x2 + 3, x + 2, 7
Solution
a) 15x = 3  5  x
30y = 2  3  5  y
25xyz = 5  5  x  y  z
LCM = 2  3  5  5  x  y  z
The LCM is 2  3  52  x  y  z or 150xyz.
b) Since x2 + 3, x + 2, and 7 are not factorable, the
LCM is their product: 7(x2 + 3)(x + 2).
 Chapter 6

Rational
Expressions and
Equations
6.4 ADDING RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

a. Add rational expressions.

 Example
Add. Simplify the result, if possible.
a) 5  6  w b) 4 x  3 x  2
w w x7 x7
   x 3 d) x2  9  3
2 2
c) 3 x 4 x 9 x
 x  36 x 2  36
3x  1 3x  1
Solution
a) 5 6  w 11  w The denominators are alike, so we add
  the numerators
w w w

4 x 3x  2 7 x  2
b)   The denominators are alike, so we add
x7 x7 x7 the numerators
continued
c) 3 x 2
 4 x  9 x 2
 x  3 (3 x 2
 4 x  9)  ( x 2
 x  3)
 
3x  1 3x  1 3x  1
4 x 2  5 x  12 Combining like

3x  1 terms

d) x  9  3  x  6
Combining like terms in
x  36 x  36 x  36
2 2 2
the numerator
x6
 Factoring
( x  6)( x  6)
1  ( x  6) 1
 
( x  6) ( x  6) x6
 4 x2 5x
Example 
9 12

Solution
First, we find the LCD:
9=33
LCD = 2  2  3  3 = 36
12 = 2  2  3
Multiply each expression by the appropriate
number to get the LCD.
4 x2 5x 4 x2 5x
  
9 12 3  3 2  2  3
4x2 4 5 x 3 16 x 2 15 x
     
33 4 2  2  3 3 36 36
continued
3. Next we add the numerators:
16 x 2 15 x 16 x 2  15 x
  
36 36 36
4. Since 16x2 + 15x and 36 have no common factor,
16 x 2  15 x cannot be simplified any further.
36
 3a 2
Example  2
a  4 a  2a
2

Solution First, we find the LCD:

a2  4 = (a  2)(a + 2)
LCD = a(a  2)(a + 2)
a  2a = a(a  2)
2

We multiply by a form of 1 to get the LCD in each

expression:
3a 2 3a a 2 a2
 2    
a  4 a  2a (a  2)(a  2) a a(a  2) a  2
2
continued
3a 2 3a a 2 a2
 2    
a  4 a  2a (a  2)(a  2) a a(a  2) a  2
2

3a 2 2a  4
 
a(a  2)(a  2) a(a  2)(a  2)
3a 2  2a  4

a(a  2)(a  2)

3a2 + 2a + 4 will not factor so we are done.

 x 1 4
 2
Example x  4 x  4 x  3x  10
2

x 1 4 x 1 4
 2  
x  4 x  4 x  3x  10 ( x  2)( x  2) ( x  2)( x  5)
2

x 1 x5 4 x2
   
( x  2)( x  2) x  5 ( x  2)( x  5) x  2
x2  6 x  5 4x  8
 
( x  2)( x  2)( x  5) ( x  2)( x  2)( x  5)

x2  6 x  5  4 x  8
 Adding numerators
( x  2)( x  2)( x  5)
x 2  10 x  3

( x  2)( x  2)( x  5)
 Example y 4

Add: 3 3
Solution
y 4 y 4 1
    Multiplying by 1 using 1/1
3 3 3 3 1
y 4
  The denominators are now the
3 3 same.

y  (4)

3
y4

3
 Example 5x 2

Add: x 3 3 x

Solution
5x 2 5x 2 1
   
x  3 3  x x  3 3  x 1
5x 2
 
x  3 3  x
5x 2  3 + x = x + (3) = x  3
 
x 3 x 3
5x  2

x 3
 x 5
Example 
Add: x  36 6  x
2

Solution
x 5 x 5
  
x  36 6  x ( x  6)( x  6) 6  x
2

x 5 1
  
( x  6)( x  6) 6  x 1
x 5
 
( x  6)( x  6) x  6
x 5 x  6
  
( x  6)( x  6) x  6 x  6
continued
x 5 x  6
  
( x  6)( x  6) x  6 x  6

x 5 x  30
 
( x  6)( x  6) ( x  6)( x  6)

x  5 x  30

( x  6)( x  6)

4 x  30

( x  6)( x  6)
 SUBTRACTING RATIONAL
6.5 EXPRESSIONS

a. Subtract rational expressions.

b. Simplify combined additions and
subtractions of rational expressions.
 Example

Subtract and, if possible, simplify:

5x x4

x3 x3
Solution
5x x  4 5 x  ( x  4) The parentheses are needed to make
  sure that we subtract both terms.
x3 x3 x3
5x  x  4 Removing the parentheses and
 changing the signs (using the
x3 distributive law)

4x  4
 Combining like terms
x3
 Example x  2 x 1

Subtract: x  4 x  6

Solution LCD = (x + 4)(x + 6).

We multiply by a form of 1 to get the LCD in each expression.

Then we subtract and try to simplify.

x  2 x 1 x  2 x  6 x 1 x  4
    
x4 x6 x4 x6 x6 x4

x 2  8x  12 x 2  3x  4
  Multiplying out
( x  4)( x  6) ( x  4)( x  6) numerators.
continued
x 2  8x  12 x 2  3x  4
 
( x  4)( x  6) ( x  4)( x  6)
When subtracting a numerator
with more than one term,
x 2  8x  12  ( x 2  3x  4)
 parentheses are important.
( x  4)( x  6)

x 2  8x  12  x 2  3x  4 Removing parentheses and


( x  4)( x  6) subtracting every term.

5 x  16

( x  4)( x  6)
 5x 2
Example 
Subtract: x 3 3 x

Solution
5x 2 5x 2 1
   
x  3 3  x x  3 3  x 1
5x 2
 
x  3 3  x
5x 2
 
x 3 x 3
5x  2

x 3
 x 5
Example Subtract: 
x  36 6  x
2

Solution
x 5 x 5
  
x  36 6  x ( x  6)( x  6) 6  x
2

x 5 1
  
( x  6)( x  6) 6  x 1
x 5
 
( x  6)( x  6) x  6
x 5 x  6
  
( x  6)( x  6) x  6 x  6
continued
x 5 x  6
  
( x  6)( x  6) x  6 x  6

x 5 x  30
 
( x  6)( x  6) ( x  6)( x  6)

x  5 x  30

( x  6)( x  6)

6 x  30

( x  6)( x  6)
 Example
Perform the indicated operations and simplify:
x  2 y 3x  3 y 2 x  y
 
yx x y x y
Solution LCD = x – y
x  2 y 1 3x  3 y 2 x  y
   
y  x 1 x  y x y
 x  2 y 3x  3 y 2 x  y  x  2 y  3x  3 y  2 x  y
   
x y x y x y x y
 x  2 y  (3x  3 y)  2 x  y 2 x  4 y
 
x y x y
6.7 SOLVING RATIONAL EQUATIONS

a. Solve rational equations.

A rational, or fraction, equation is an equation
containing one or more rational expressions, often with
the variable in the denominator. Here are some
examples:

3 5 x 3 x2 2
  y   8 
4 7 4 y x4 x4
 x x 1
Example Solve:  
5 2 4

Solution
The LCM of 5, 2, and 4 is 20, so we multiply both sides by 20:
x  x 1 Using the multiplication principle to
20     20     multiply both sides by the LCM.
5 2 4 Parentheses are important!

x x 1
20   20   20  Using the distributive law. Be sure
to multiply EACH term by the
5 2 4 LCM.
4x  10x  5
6 x  5 Simplifying and solving for x. If
fractions remain, we have either
5 made a mistake or have not used
x the LCM of the denominators.
6
 1 1 4
Example Solve:  
3 x x 15

Solution
The LCM is 15x.
 1 1 4
15 x     15 x 
 3x x  15
1 1 4
5
15x   15 x   15 x 
3x x 15
5 15  4x
20  4x
5 x
 12
Example Solve: x 7
x

The LCM is x.
 12 
x  x    x(7)
 x
12
x  x  x   7x
x
x 2  12  7 x
x  7 x  12  0
2

( x  3)( x  4)  0
( x  3)  0 or ( x  4)  0
x = 3 or x=4
 5 3 2
Example Solve:  
y 9 y 3 y 3
2

Note that y cannot equal 3 or 3. We multiply both

sides of the equation by the LCM.
 5   3 2 
( y  3)( y  3)    ( y  3)( y  3)   
 ( y  3)( y  3)   y 3 y 3
( y  3 )( y  3 )5 ( y  3 )( y  3)3 ( y  3)( y  3 )2
 
( y  3 )( y  3 ) y3 y 3
5  3( y  3)  2( y  3)
5  3y  9  2 y  6
5  y  15
20  y
 2 5 4
Example Solve:   2
x 1 x 1 x 1

Note that x cannot equal 1 or 1. Multiply both sides

of the equation by the LCD.
 2 5  4
( x  1)( x  1)    ( x  1)( x  1)
 x  1 x  1  ( x  1)( x  1)
2( x  1)  5( x  1)  4
2 x  2  5x  5  4
3x  7  4 Because of the restriction
3x  3 above, 1 must be rejected as
a solution. This equation has
x 1 no solution.
 APPLICATIONS USING RATIONAL
6.8 EQUATIONS AND PROPORTIONS

a. Solve applied problems using

rational equations.
b. Solve proportion problems.
 Example
Rayanne drives 20 mph faster than her mother,
Catherine. In the same time that Rayanne travels 360
mi, her mother travels 240 mi. Find their speeds.

1. Familiarize.
Make a drawing. Let r + 20 = speed of Rayanne.
Then r = speed of Catherine

240 miles 360 miles

r r + 20
continued
Distance = Rate  Time
Distance (in Speed (in miles Time
miles) per hour) (in hours)
Rayanne 360 r + 20
mother 240 r

2. Translate. Fill in the blank column in the table.

time = distance/rate.
Distance (in Speed (in miles Time
miles) per hour) (in hours)
Rayanne 360 r + 20 360 = (r + 20)t
mother 240 r 240 = rt
continued t
360
r  20 240 360
360 = (r + 20)t t 
240 r r  20
240 = rt t
r
3. Solve. To solve the equation, we first multiply both
sides by the LCM of the denominators
r(r + 20).
240 360
r (r  20)   r (r  20) 
r r  20
240(r  20)  360r Simplifying
240r  4800  360r Using the distributive law

4800  120r Subtracting 24r from both sides

40  r Dividing both sides by 120
continued
Now we have a possible solution.
Catherine, her mother travels at 40 mph
Rayanne, r + 20 or 60 mph

240 240 360 360

4. Check. t   6 t  6
r 40 r  20 60
5. State. Rayanne is traveling at 60 mph and her mother is
traveling at 40 mph.
 Example

A sample of 186 hard drives contained 4 defective drives.

How many defective hard drives would you expect in a
sample of 1302?
Solution
Form a proportion in which the ratio of defective hard
drives is expressed in two ways.
defective drives 4 x defective drives

total drives 186 1302 total drives

186x  5208
x  28
You would expect to find 28 defective hard drives.
 Example

Triangles ABC and XYZ are similar. Solve for b if

x = 8, y = 12 and a = 7.
Solution
We make a drawing, write a proportion, and then
solve. Note that side a is always opposite angle A, side
x is always opposite angle X, and so on.
Y

B x=8
a=7

A b C X Z
y = 12
continued
We set up our proportion:
b 7

12 8
7
b  12
8
84
b or 10.5
8 Y

B x=8
a=7

A b C X Z
y = 12
 Chapter 7

Graphs, Functions,
and Applications
7.1 FUNCTIONS and GRAPHS
a. Determine whether a correspondence is a
function.
b. Given a function described by an
equation, find function values (outputs) for
specified values (inputs).
c. Draw the graph of a function.
d. Determine whether a graph is that of a
function using the vertical-line test.
e. Solve applied problems involving functions
and their graphs.
 Function
A function is a special kind of correspondence
between two sets. The first set is called the
domain. The second set is called the range.
For any member of the domain, there is
exactly one member of the range to which it
corresponds. This kind of correspondence is
called a function.

Correspondence
Domain Range
 Example

Determine whether the correspondence is

a function.
Domain Range
8 2
0
–5 17
Solution
The correspondence is a function because
each member of the domain corresponds to
exactly one member of the range.
 Example
Determine if the correspondence is a
function.
Jackson Football
Max Wrestling
Cade Soccer
Solution
The correspondence is not a function because a
member of the domain (Jackson) corresponds to
more than one member of the range.
Function; Domain; Range
A function is a correspondence between a first
set, called the domain, and a second set, called
the range, such that each member of the domain
corresponds to exactly one member of the
range.
Relation
A relation is a correspondence between a first
set, called the domain, and a second set, called
the range, such that each member of the domain
corresponds to at least one member of the range.
The function pictured has been named f. Here x
represents an arbitrary input, and f (x) – read “f of
x,” “f at x,” or “the value of f at x” represents the
corresponding output.
 Example
Find each indicated function value.
a) f (–2), for f (x) = 3x 2 + 2x
b) g(4), for g(t) = 6t + 9
c) h(m +2), for h(x) = 8x + 1
Solution
a) f (–2) = 3(–2)2 + 2(–2) = 12 – 4 = 8
b) g(4) = 6(4) + 9 = 24 + 9 = 33
c) h(m +2) = 8(m+ 2) + 1 = 8m + 16 + 1
= 8m + 17
 Example

Graph: f ( x)  x  1.
2

Solution
x y (x, y)
0 –1 (0, –1) (-2,3) (2,3)
1 0 (1, 0)
–1 0 (–1, 0) (1,0)
2 3 (2, 3) (-1,0 )
(0,-1)
–2 3 (–2, 3)
 Example

Graph: f ( x)  x  3.

Solution
x y (x, y)
(2, 5) (2, 5)
0 3 (0, 3) (1, 4) (1, 4)
1 4 (1, 4) (0, 3)
–1 4 (–1, 4)
2 5 (2, 5)
–2 5 (–2, 5)
The Vertical-Line Test
If it is possible for a vertical line to cross a
graph more than once, then the graph is not the
graph of a function.
 Example
Determine whether each of the following is the graph
of a function.

Not a function. Three A function Not a function. Two

y-values correspond y-values correspond to
to one x-value one x-value

Graphs that do not represent functions still do

represent relations.
7.2 FINDING DOMAIN and RANGE
a. Find the domain and the range of a
function.
The solutions of an equation in two variables
consist of a set of ordered pairs. A set of
ordered pairs is called a relation. When a set of
ordered pairs is such that no two different pairs
share a common first coordinate, we have a
function. The domain is the set of all first
coordinates and the range is the set of all
second coordinates.
 Example
Find the domain and range of the function f whose
graph is shown below. 6
5
Solution f 4
3
The function contains four
2
ordered pairs and it can be 1
written as
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1-1 1 2 3 4 5
{(–5, 1), (1, 0), (3, –5), (4, 3)}. -2
-3
Domain is the set of all -4

first coordinates {–5, 1, 3, 4}. -5

Range is the set of all second coordinates,

{1, 0, –5, 3}.
 Example

For the function f represented below, determine each

of the following. y

a) What member of the 7

range is paired with 2

6
5
4
b) The domain of f 3
f
2
1
c) What member of the
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
domain is paired with 6 -1 x
-2
-3
d) The range of f -4
 Example
2
Find the domain of f ( x)  .
x 8
Solution
We ask, “Is there any number x for which
2 2
cannot be computed?” Since x  8 cannot
x 8
be computed when x – 8 = 0 the answer is yes.
To determine what x-value would cause x – 8 to be 0,
we solve an equation: x – 8 = 0,
x=8
Thus 8 is not in the domain of f, whereas all other real
numbers are. The domain of f is{x | x is a real number and x  8}.
 LINEAR FUNCTIONS: GRAPHS and
7.3 SLOPES

a. Find the y-intercept of a line from the

equations y = mx + b or f(x) = mx + b.
b. Given two points on a line, find the slope
Given a linear equation, derive the
equivalent slope-intercept equation and
determine the slope and the y-intercept.
c. Solve applied problems involving slope.
Linear Function
A linear function f is any function that can be
described by f(x) = mx + b.
 Graph f (x) = 3x and g(x) = 3x + 2
Example
using the same set of axes.

Solution
y
y = 3x + 2
y y
x
y = 3x y = 3x + 2
6 2 units up
5
4
0 0 2 3
y = 3x
1 3 5 2
–1 –3 –1 1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
Notice that the graph of -2
y = 3x + 2 is the graph of -3
y = 3x shifted, or translated,
2 units up.
y-Intercept of f(x) = mx + b
The y-intercept of the graph of
f(x) = mx + b is the point (0, b)
or, simply, b.

f(x) = mx + b

(0, b)
 Example

For each equation, find the y-intercept.

4
a) y  3.1x  7 b) f ( x)  x  9
3
Solution
a) y = 3.1x + 7 (0, 7) is the y-intercept.

4
b) f ( x)  x  9 (0, –9) is the y-intercept.
3
Slope
The slope of the line containing points
(x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by
rise vertical change
m 
run horizontal change
(x2, y2) change in y
(x1, y1) y2 – y 1

x2 – x 1
change in x
y2  y1 y1  y2
  .
x2  x1 x1  x2
 Example

Graph the line containing the points (3, –2)

and (7, 5) and find the slope.

Solution
rise

rise difference in y
m  run
run difference in x
y2  y1 5  (2) 7
  
x2  x1 73 4
Slope of y = mx + b
The slope of the line y = mx + b is m.

Slope-Intercept Equation
The equation y = mx + b is called the slope-
intercept equation. The slope is m and the
y-intercept is (0, b).
 Example

Determine the slope and y-intercept of the

3
line given by y  x  4.
5
Solution
The equation is written in the form y = mx + b,
simply read the slope and y-intercept from the
equation. 3
y x4
5
The slope is 3/5. The y-intercept is (0, 4).
 Example
Determine the slope and y-intercept of the
line given by 4 x  7 y  2.

Solution
First solve for y so we can easily read the
slope and y-intercept. 4 x  7 y  2
7 y  4 x  2
4 2
y x
7 7
The slope is 4/7 and the y-intercept is (0, –2/7).
 Example

Find the slope (or grade) of the treadmill.

Solution
0.42
m
5.5
42

550 0.42 ft
21
  7.6% 5.5 ft
275
The grade of the treadmill is 7.6%.
** Reminder: Grade is slope expressed as a percent.
 MORE on GRAPHING LINEAR
7.4 EQUATIONS

a. Graph linear equations using intercepts

b. Given a linear equation in slope-intercept
form, use the slope and the y-intercept to
graph the line.
c. Graph linear equations of the form x = a or
y = b.
d. Given the equations of two lines,
determine whether their graphs are
parallel or whether they are perpendicular.
x- and y-Intercepts
A y-intercept is a point (0, b). To find b, let x = 0
and solve for y.
An x-intercept is (a, 0). To find a, let y = 0 and
solve for x.
 Example
Find the intercepts of 5x + 2y = 10 and then graph the line.
Solution
y-intercept: Let x = 0 and solve for y:
5 • 0 + 2y = 10 Substituting 0 for x
2y = 10
y=5
The y-intercept is (0, 5).
x-intercept: Let y = 0 and solve for x.
5x + 2• 0 = 10 Substituting 0 for y
5x = 10
x=2
The x-intercept is (2, 0).
 continued
We plot these points and draw
the line, or graph. A third point
should be used as a check. We y-intercept (0, 5)
substitute any convenient
value for x and solve for y. x-intercept (2, 0)
If we let x = 4, then
5 • 4 + 2y = 10
20 + 2y = 10 5x + 2y = 10
2y = 10
y = 5
x y
0 5
2 0
4 5
 3
Example Graph: y  x4
4

Solution
We plot (0, 4).
Move down 3 units (since the Down 3

numerator is negative.) Right 4

Move to the right 4 units

(since the denominator is
positive).
This locates the point (4, 1).
We plot (4, 1) and draw a line passing through both
points.
 Example Graph y = 2.

Solution
Since x is missing, any number for x will do.
Thus all ordered pairs (x, 2) are solutions.
The graph is a horizontal line parallel to the x-axis.

Choose any number for x. x y (x, y)

0 2 (0, 2)
4 2 (4, 2)
4 2 (4 , 2)
y must be 2.
continued y=2

The slope of the line is 0.

y=2
(0, 2)
(4, 2) (4, 2)
 Example Graph x = 2.

Solution
Since y is missing, any number for y will do.
Thus all ordered pairs (2, y) are solutions.
The graph is a vertical line parallel to the y-axis.
x=2
x must be 2. x y (x, y)
2 4 (2, 4)
2 1 (2, 1)
2 4 (2, 4)

Any number can be used for y.

continued x=2

The slope of a vertical line

is undefined. x=2

(2, 4)

(2, 1)

(2, 4)
Horizontal Line; Vertical Line
The graph of y = b, or f(x) = b, is a horizontal
line with y-intercept (0, b). It is the graph of a
constant function with slope 0.
The graph of x = a is a vertical line through the
point (a, 0). The slope is not defined. It is not
the graph of a function.
Parallel Lines
Two nonvertical lines are parallel if
they have the same slope and different
y-intercepts.
 Example
Determine whether the graphs of the
lines y = –2x – 3 and 8x + 4y = –6
are parallel.
Solution
Solve each equation for y. 8 x  4 y  6
y = –2x – 3 and 4 y  8 x  6
1
y   8 x  6 
4 3
y  2 x 
The slope of each line is –2 and 2
the y-intercepts are different.
The lines are parallel.
continued

Perpendicular lines in a plane are lines that

intersect at a right angle. The measure of a right
angle is 90 degrees.
The slopes of the lines are 2 and –1/2. Note that
2(– 1/2) = –1. That is, the product of the slopes is
–1.
y = 2x – 3

1 1
y  x
2 2
Perpendicular Lines
Two lines are perpendicular if the product of their
slopes is –1. (If one line has slope m, the slope of
the line perpendicular to it is –1/m. That is, to find
the slope of a line perpendicular to a given line, we
take the reciprocal of the given slope and change the
sign.)
Lines are also perpendicular if one of then is vertical
(x = a) and one of them is horizontal (y = b).
 Example
Determine whether the graphs of the
lines y = 4x + 1 and x + 4y = 4
are perpendicular.
Solution
To determine whether the lines are perpendicular, we
determine whether the product of their slopes is 1.
Solve each equation for y. x  4y  4
4 y  x  4
1
The slopes are 4 and –1/4. The y    x  4
product of the slopes is –1. The lines 41
are perpendicular. y   x 1
4
 Chapter 7

Graphs, Functions,
and Applications
 FINDING EQUATIONS of LINES;
7.5 APPLICATIONS
a. Find an equations of a line when the slope
and the y-intercept are given.
b. Find an equation of a line when the slope and
a point are given.
c. Find an equation of a line when two points are
given.
d. Given a line and a point not on the given line,
find an equation of the line parallel to the line
and containing the point, and find an equation
of the line perpendicular to the line and
containing the point.
e. Solve applied problems involving linear
functions.
Example

A line has slope –3.2 and y-intercept (0, 5). Find an

equation of the line.
Solution
We use the slope-intercept equation.
Substitute –3.2 for m and 5 for b:
y = mx + b
y = –3.2x + 5. Substituting
Point-Slope Equation
The point-slope equation of a line
with slope m, passing through (x1, y1),
is
y – y1 = m(x – x1).
 Example
Find an equation of the line with slope 3 that
contains the point (2, 7).
Solution
Using the Point-Slope Equation
The point (2, 7) is considered to be (x1, y1), and 3 to be
the slope m.
y – y1 = m(x – x1) Point-slope equation
y – 7 = 3(x – 2) Substituting
y – 7 = 3x – 6 Simplifying
y = 3x + 1
The equation is y = 3x + 1.
continued
Using the Slope-Intercept Equation:
The point (2, 7) is on the line, so it is a solution.
We can substitute 2 for x and 7 for y and solve for b.
y = 3x + b Substituting 3 for m.
7 = 3(2) + b Substituting 2 for x and 7 for y
7=6+b
1=b Solving for b
The equation is y = 3x + 1.
 Example

Find an equation of the line containing the points (2, 2) and

(6, 4).

Solution First, we find the slope:

4  2 6 3
m  , or
6  2 8 4
 continued
Point-Slope Equation: Choose either point, we choose (2,
2) and substitute.
3 2
y  x
y  y1  m( x  x1 ) 4 4
3
y  2  ( x  2) The equation of the line.
4
3 1
3 6 y  x
y2 x 4 2
4 4
3 6
y  x 2
4 4
3 6 8
y  x 
4 4 4
continued
Slope-Intercept Equation: Use either point to find b, we
choose (2, 2).
3
The slope is .
4
y  mx  b
3
y  xb
4
3
2  2b Substituting 2 for x and 2 for y
4
6
2  b
1 4
b Solving for b The equation of the line.
2 3 1
y  x
4 2
 Example
Find an equation of a line containing the point (1, –5)
and parallel to the line y = –3x + 4.
Solution
In y = –3x + 4, the slope is –3, so the slope of the
line parallel will also be –3.
Use point-slope form.
y1 = 5, x1 = 1 and m = –3 y – y1 = m(x – x1)
Simplify.
y – (5) = –3(x – 1)
y + 5 = –3x + 3
Subtract 5 from both sides to
isolate y.
y = –3x – 2
 Example

Find the equation of the line containing the point (7, 1)

and perpendicular to 7x – 2y = –2.
Solution
Determine the slope of the line 7x – 2y = –2.

2 y  7 x  2
7
y  x 1
2
2
Slope of perpendicular line:  7
continued
2
slope =  ; point (7, 1)
7

y – y1 = m(x – x1)
2
( y  1)   ( x  7)
7
2
y 1   x  2 Simplify.
7
2
y   x3 Add 1 to both sides to isolate y.
7
Chapter 8

Systems of
Equations
 SYSTEMS of EQUATIONS in TWO
8.1 VARIABLES
a. Solve a system of two linear
equations or two functions by
graphing and determine whether a
system is consistent or inconsistent
and whether the equations in a
system are dependent or
independent.
Solution of a System of
Equations
A solution of a system of two equations is an
ordered pair that makes both equations true.
 Example

Solve this system of equations by graphing:

y = 3x + 1
x  2y = 3
Solution
Graph each equation: y = 3x + 1
Graph (0, 1) and “count” off
a slope of 3.
x  2y = 3
Graph using the intercepts.
(1, 2) The common
(0, 3/2) (3, 0) point gives the common
solution.
 Solve this system of 3
Example equations by graphing: y x2
4
3
Solution y  x 3
4
Graph each equation.
Both equations are in slope-
intercept form so it is easy to
see that both lines have the y = 3x/4 + 2

same slope. The y-intercepts

differ so the lines are parallel.
Because the lines are parallel,
there is no point of y = 3x/4  3
intersection. Thus the system
is inconsistent and has no
solution.
Consistent and Inconsistent
Systems
If a system of equations has at least one
solution, then it is consistent.
If a system of equations has no solution, then it
is inconsistent.
 Solve this system of 4 x  8 y  16
Example
equations by graphing: 2 x  4 y  8

Solution
Graph the equations. 2x + 4y = 8
Both equations represent
(0, 2)
the same line.
(2, 1)
Because the equations are
equivalent, any solution of 4x + 8y = 16
one equation is a solution
of the other equation as
well.
Dependent and Independent
Equations
If for a system of two equations in two variables:

the graph of the equations are the some lines, then

the equations dependent.

the graphs of the equations are different lines, then

the equations are independent.
Solutions of Equations

One solution. No solution. Infinitely many solutions.

Graphs intersect. Graphs are parallel. Equations have the same
graph.
The system is The system is
consistent and the inconsistent and the The system is consistent
equations are equations are and the equations are
independent. independent. dependent.
8.2 SOLVING by SUBSTITUTION
a. Solve systems of equations in two
variables by the substitution method.
b. Solve applied problems by solving
systems of two equations using
substitution.
The Substitution Method
Graphing can be an imprecise method for solving
systems of equations.

We are now going to look at ways of finding exact

solutions using algebra.

One method for solving systems is known as the

substitution method. It uses algebra instead of
graphing and is thus considered an algebraic
method.
 Example Solve: x = 3  y (1)
5x + 3y = 5 (2)

Solution
We substitute x = 3  y for x in the second equation:
5x + 3y = 5 Equation (2)
5(3  y) + 3y = 5 Substituting
15  5y + 3y = 5 Using the distributive law
15  2y = 5
2y = 10 Solving for y
y=5
Next, we substitute 5 for y in equation (1) of the
original system:
 continued find x, y = 5

x=3y 5x + 3y = 5
x=35
x = 2 (2, 5)
We check the ordered pair
(2, 5). x=3y
x=3y 5x + 3y = 5
2 = 3  5 5(2)+3(5) = 5
2 = 2 10 + 15 = 5

The pair (2, 5) is the solution.

The graph is shown at the right as another check.
8.3 SOLVING by ELIMINATION
a. Solve systems of equations in two
variables by the elimination method.
b. Solve applied problems by solving
systems of two equations using
elimination.
Solving by the Elimination Method
The elimination method for solving systems of
equations makes use of the addition principle.

Example Solve the system 4 x  3 y  8, (1)

x  3 y  7. (2)
According to equation (2), x  3y and 7 are the same
answer. Thus we can add 4x + 3y to the left side of
the equation(1) and 7 to the right side:
continued
Add 4 x  3 y  8 (1)
x  3 y  7 (2)
5 x  0 y  15
The resulting equation has just one variable: 5x = 15
Dividing both sides by 5, we find that x = 3.
Next, we substitute 3 for x in either of the original
equations: 4x + 3y = 8
4(3) + 3y = 8
12 + 3y = 8
3y = 4
y = 4/3 Next, we check the
ordered pair (3, 4/3).
continued
Check: 4x + 3y = 8 x  3y = 7
4(3) + 3(4/3) 8 3  3(4/3) 7
12  4 3+4
8=8 7=7
True True

The graph shown to

the right also serves
as a check.

Since (3, 4/3) checks

in both equations, it is
the solution.
 When deciding which variable to eliminate, we
inspect the coefficients in both equations. If one
coefficient is a multiple of the coefficient of the
same variable in the other equation, that is the
easiest variable to eliminate.

Example Solve: 2 x  5 y  1, (1)

3x  10 y  16. (2)

Solution: No terms are opposites, but if both sides of

equation (1) are multiplied by 2, the coefficients of y
will be opposites.
 2 x  5 y  1, (1)
continued
3x  10 y  16. (2)
4 x  10 y  2 Multiplying both sides of equation (1) by 2
3x  10 y  16 (2)
7x  14 Adding
x2 Solving for x

We then substitute 2 for x in either equation (1) or (2):

2 x  5 y  1 Equation (2)
2(2)  5 y  1 Substituting and solving for y
4  5 y  1
5 y  5 We leave it to you to confirm that
y  1 (2, 1) checks and is the
solution.
 Example
Solve: 2 x  3 y  2, (1)
3x  5 y  4. (2)

Solution: It is often helpful to write both equations in

Standard form before attempting to eliminate a variable:
2 x  3 y  2, (3)
3x  5 y  4. (4)

Since neither coefficient of x is a multiple of the other and

neither coefficient of y is a multiple of the other, we use the
multiplication principle with both equations.
We can eliminate the x term by multiplying both sides of
equation (3) by 3 and both sides of equation (4) by 2.
continued 2 x  3 y  2, (3)
3x  5 y  4. (4)

6x  9 y  6 Multiplying both sides of equation (3) by 3

6 x  10 y  8 Multiplying both sides of equation (4) by 2

y  2
We substitute 2 for y in equation (3):
2 x  3(2)  2 Substituting in equation (3)

2x  6  2
2 x  4
x  2
The solution (2, 2) checks.
 Example
Solve: 2 x  y  1, (1)
2 x  y  3. (2)

Solution: To eliminate y we multiply equation (2)

by 1. Then we add: 2 x  y  1
2 x  y  3
04
Note that in eliminating y, we eliminated x as well. The
resulting equation 0 = 4, is false for any pair (x, y),
so there is no solution.
 Example
Solve: 3 x  4 y  5, (1)
9 x  12 y  15. (2)

Solution: To eliminate x, we multiply both sides of

equation (1) by 3 and then add the two equations:
9 x  12 y  15
9 x  12 y  15
00
Again, we have eliminated both variables. The
resulting equation, 0 = 0, is always true, indicating
that the equations are dependent.
Chapter 8

Systems of
Equations
 SOLVING APPLIED PROBLEMS:
8.4 TWO EQUATIONS

a. Solve applied problems involving total

value and mixture using systems of two
equations.
b. Solved applied problems involving motion
using systems of two equations.
 Example
A cookware consultant sells two sizes of pizza stones. The
circular stone sells for $26 and the rectangular one sells for
$34. In one month she sold 37 stones. If she made a total of
$1138 from the sale of the pizza stones, how many of each size
did she sell?

1. Familiarize. When faced with a new problem, it is often

useful to compare it to a similar problem that you have already
solved. Here instead of $2 and $3 drinks, we are counting
pizza stones. We let c = the circular stone and r = the
rectangular stone.
2. Translate. Since a total of 37 stones were sold, we
have c + r = 37.
continued
Presenting the information in a table can be helpful.

Circular Rectangular Total

Cost per pan $26 $34
Number of c r 37 c + r = 37
pans
Money Paid 26c 34r $1138 26c + 34r = 1138

We have translated to a system of equations:

c + r = 37
26c + 34r = 1138
 continued c + r = 37
26c + 34r = 1138

3. Solve. The system can be solved using elimination:

26c  26r = 962 Multiply equation (1) by 26

26c + 34r = 1138 Equation (2)

8r = 176 Adding
Dividing both sides by 8
r = 22
To solve for c, we substitute 22 for r:
c + r = 37
c + 22 = 37
c = 15
continued
4. Check. If r = 22 and c = 15, a total of 37 stones
were sold. The amount paid was
22($34) + 15($26) = $1138. The numbers check.

5. State. The consultant sold 22 rectangular pizza

stones and 15 circular pizza stones.
 Example

An employee at a small cleaning company wishes to mix a

cleaner that is 30% acid and another cleaner that is 50%
acid. How many liters of each should be mixed to get 20 L
of a solution that is 35% acid?
Solution
1. Familiarize. We make a drawing and then make a guess
to gain familiarity with the problem.

t f 20
liters
+ =
liters liters
30% acid 50% acid 35% acid
continued
To familiarize ourselves with this problem, guess
that 10 liters of each are mixed. The resulting
mixture will be the right size but we need to check
the strength:
0.30(10)  0.50(10)  8 L.

That is 8 L of acid for our guess but we want

0.35(20) = 7 L.

The guess is incorrect, now turn to algebra.

continued
2. Translate. Let t = the number of liters of the
30% solution and f = the number of liters of the
50% solution.
First Second Mixture
Solution Solution
Number of t f 20 t + f = 20
Liters
Percentage 30% 50% 35%
of Acid
Amount of 0.30t 0.50f 7
Acid
0.30t + 0.50f = 7

We have the following system of equations:

t  f  20,
0.30t  0.50 f  7.
continued
3. Carry out. We are to solve the system of
equations: t  f  20, (1)
0.30 x  0.50 y  7. (2)

We can eliminate f by multiplying both sides of

equation (1) by –0.5 and adding them to the
corresponding sides of equation (2):
–0.50t – 0.50f = –10
0.30t + 0.50f = 7
–0.20t = –3
t = 15.
continued
To find x, we substitute 15 for t in equation (1)
and then solve for f:
15 + f = 20
f=5
We obtain (15, 5), or t = 15 and f = 5.
4. Check. Recall t is the number of liters of 30%
solution and f is the number of liters of 50% solution.
Number of liters: t + f = 15 + 5 = 20
Amount of Acid: 0.30t + 0.50f
= 0.30(15) + 0.50(5) = 7
The numbers check.
continued

5. State. The employee should mix 15 L of the

30% solution with 5 L of the 50% solution to get
20 L of a 35% solution.
The Motion Formula
Distance = Rate (or speed)  Time
d = rt

Tips for Solving Motion Problems

1. Draw a diagram using an arrow or arrows to
represent distance and the direction of each object
in motion.
2. Organize the information in a table or chart.
3. Look for as many things as you can that are the
same, so you can write equations.
 Example
Alex’s motorboat took 4 hr to make a trip
downstream with a 5-mph current. The return trip
against the same current took 6 hr. Find the speed
of the boat in still water.
Solution
1. Familiarize. Note that the current speeds up
the boat when going downstream, but slows down
the boat when going upstream. For our guess,
suppose that the speed of the boat with no current
is 20 mph. The boat would then travel 20 + 5 = 25
mph downstream and 20 – 5 = 15 mph upstream.
continued

In 4 hr downstream the boat would travel

4(25) = 100 mi. In 6 hr upstream the boat would
travel 6(15) = 90 mi. So our guess of 20 mph is
incorrect.
2. Translate.

Let r = the rate of the boat in still water. Then

r + 5 = the boat’s speed downstream, and
r – 5 = the boat’s speed upstream.
continued
Use Distance = (Rate)(Time).

Distance Rate Time

Downstream d r+5 4 d = (r + 5)4
Upstream d r–5 6 d = (r – 5)6

We have the following system of equations:

d  (r  5)4,
d  (r  5)6.
continued
3. Solve. We solve the system by substitution:
(r + 5)4 = (r – 5)6
4r + 20 = 6r – 30
50 = 2r
25 = r
4. Check. When r = 25 mph, the speed downstream
is 30 mph and the speed upstream is 20 mph. The
distance downstream is 30(4) = 120 mi and the
distance upstream is 20(6) = 120 mi, so we have a
check.
5. State. The speed of the boat in still water is
25 mph.
 SYSTEMS of EQUATIONS in THREE
8.5 VARAIBLES

a. Solve systems of three equations in three

variables.
A linear equation in three variables is an
equation equivalent to one in the form
Ax + By + Cz = D, where A, B, C, and D
are real numbers. We refer to the form
Ax + By + Cz = D as standard form for a
linear equation in three variables.
A solution of a system of three equations in
three variables is an ordered triple (x, y, z)
that makes all three equations true.
 Example
Solve the following system of equations:
x  y  z  6, (1)
x  2 y  z  2, (2)
x  y  3z  8. (3)
Solution
We select any two of the three equations and
work to get one equation in two variables. Let’s
add equations (1) and (2):
x yz6 (1)
x  2y  z  2 (2)
(4) Adding to
2x + 3y =8 eliminate z
continued
Next, we select a different pair of equations and
eliminate the same variable. Let’s use (2) and (3) to
again eliminate z.
x  2y  z  2 Multiplying
3x + 6y – 3z = 6
equation (2)
x  y  3z  8 by 3 x – y + 3z = 8
(5)
4x + 5y = 14.
Now we solve the resulting system of equations
(4) and (5). That will give us two of the numbers
in the solution of the original system,
2x + 3y = 8 (4)
4x + 5y = 14 (5)
continued

We multiply both sides of equation (4) by –2 and

then add to equation (5):
–4x – 6y = –16,
4x + 5y = 14
–y = –2
y=2
Substituting into either equation (4) or (5) we find
that x = 1.

Now we have x = 1 and y = 2. To find the value

for z, we use any of the three original equations
and substitute to find the third number z.
continued

Let’s use equation (1) and substitute our two

numbers in it:
x+y+z=6
1+2+z=6
z = 3.

We have obtained the ordered triple (1, 2, 3). It

should check in all three equations.

The solution is (1, 2, 3).

 Example
Solve the following system of equations:
3 x  9 y  6 z  3 (1)
2 x  y  z  2 (2)
Solution x  y  z  2 (3)
The equations are in standard form and do
not contain decimals or fractions.
Eliminate z from equations (2) and (3).
2 x  y  z  2 (2)
x  y  z  2 (3)
(4)
3x + 2y = 4 Adding
 3 x  9 y  6 z  3 (1)
continued 2 x  y  z  2 (2)
x  y  z  2 (3)
Eliminate z from equations (1) and (2).
3x  9 y  6 z  3 Multiplying 3x  9 y  6 z  3
equation (2) by 6
2x  y  z  2 12 x  6 y  6 z  12
15x + 15y = 15 Adding

Eliminate x from equations (4) and (5).

3x + 2y = 4 Multiplying top 15x – 10y = 20
by 5
15x + 15y = 15 15x + 15y = 15
5y = 5 Adding
y = 1
 3 x  9 y  6 z  3 (1)
2 x  y  z  2 (2)
continued x  y  z  2 (3)

Using y = 1, find x from equation 4 by substituting.

3x + 2y = 4
3x + 2(1) = 4
x=2
Substitute x = 2 and y = 1 to find z.
x+y+z=2
2–1+z=2
1+z=2
z=1
The solution is the ordered triple (2, 1, 1).
 SOLVING APPLIED PROBLEMS:
8.6 THREE EQUATIONS

a. Solve applied problems using systems of

three equations.
 Example
In triangle ABC, the measure of angle B is three
times the measure of angle A. The measure of angle
C is 60o greater than twice the measure of angle A.
Find the measure of each angle.

Solution
1. Familiarize. We can make a sketch and
label the angles A, B, and C. Recall that the
measures of the angles in any triangle add to
180o. C
B A
continued

2. Translate. This geometric fact about triangles

gives us one equation:

A + B + C = 180.

Angle B is three times the measure of angle A.

B = 3A

Angle C is 60o greater than twice the measure of A.

C = 60 + 2A
continued

We now have the system of three equations:

A  B  C  180
B  3A
C  60  2 A

3. Solve. Substitute into the first equation.

A  3A  60  2 A  180
60  6 A  180
6 A  120
A  20
B  3A C  60  2 A
 3(20)  60  2(20)
 60  100
 A  B  C  180
continued B  3A
C  60  2 A
4. Check. The check is left to the student.

5. State. The angles in the triangle measure 20o,

60o, and 100o.
 Chapter 9

More on Inequalities
 SETS, INEQUALITIES, and
9.1 INTERVAL NOTATION

a. Determine whether a given number is a

solution of an inequality.
b. Write interval notation for the solution set
or the graph of an inequality.
c. Solve an inequality using the addition
principle and the multiplication principle
and then graph the inequality.
d. Solve applied problems by translating to
inequalities.
Inequality
An inequality is a sentence containing
, , ,  , or  .

Examples of Inequalities
3x  2  7, c  7, and 4x  6  3.
 Example
Determine whether 5 is a solution to
3x  2  7.
Solution
We substitute 5 for x and get 3(5) + 2 > 7, or
17 > 7, a true statement. Thus, 5 is a solution.
The graph of an inequality is a visual representation
of the inequality’s solution set. An inequality in one
variable can be graphed on a number line.

Example Graph x < 2 on a number line.

Solution

)
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Note that in set-builder notation the solution is

 x | x  2.
 Interval Notation
Another way to write solutions of an inequality in
one variable is to use interval notation. Interval
notation uses parentheses, ( ), and brackets, [ ].

If a and b are real numbers such that a < b, we define

the open interval (a, b) as the set of all numbers x
for which a < x < b. Thus,
(a, b)   x | a  x  b.
(a, b)
( )
a b
 Interval Notation
The closed interval [a, b] is defined as the set of all
numbers x for which a  x  b.
Thus,
[a, b]   x | a  x  b.

[a, b]
[ ]
a b
 Interval Notation
There are two types of half-open intervals, defined
as follows:
1. (a, b]   x | a  x  b.
(a, b]
( ]
a b
2. [a, b)   x | a  x  b.

[a, b)
[ )
 Interval Notation
We use the symbols  and   to represent positive
and negative infinity, respectively. Thus the notation
(a,  ) represents the set of all real numbers greater
than a, and ( , a) represents the set of all numbers
less than a.
(a, )
(
a
(, a)
)
a
The notations (–  , a] and [a,  ) are used when we
want to include the endpoint a.
 Example

Write interval notation for the given set.

a. {x | 3 < x < 8}
b. {x | x  4}

Solution
a. {x | 3 < x < 8} = (3, 8)

b. {x | x  4} = [4, )
 Example Solve. 3x  3 > x + 7

Solution
3x  3 > x + 7 Adding 3 to both sides

3x  3 + 3 > x + 7 + 3 Simplifying

3x > x + 10 Subtracting x from both sides

3x  x > x  x + 10 Simplifying
2x > 10
Dividing both sides by 2
2 x 10
 Simplifying
2 2
x>5
The solution set is {x | x > 5}.
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
(5 6 7 8
 Example Solve: 5(x  3)  7x  4(x  3) + 9

Solution
5(x  3)  7x  4(x  3) + 9 Using the distributive law to
5x  15  7x  4x  12 + 9 remove parentheses

2x  15  4x  3 Simplifying

2x  15 + 3  4x  3 + 3 Adding 3 to both sides

2x  12  4x Simplifying
2x + 2x  12  4x + 2x Adding 2x to both sides
12  6x
2  x Dividing both sides by 6

The solution set is {x | x  2}.

-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3
]-2 -1 0 1 2
 INTERSECTIONS, UNIONS, and
9.2 COMPOUND INEQUALITIES

a. Find the intersection of two sets. Solve

and graph conjunctions or inequalities.
b. Find the union of two sets. Solve and
graph disjunction of inequalities.
c. Solve applied problems involving
conjunctions and disjunctions of
inequalities.
Two inequalities joined by the word “and”
or the word “or” are called compound
inequalities.
Examples
3x  9  0 and x  5

7 x  1  8 or x  8
Intersection
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of
all members that are common to A and B. We
denote the intersection of sets A and B as A  B.

A B

A B
 Example
Find the intersection:
a, b, c, d , e, f , g a, e, i, o, u.
Solution
The letters a and e are common to both
sets, so the intersection is {a, e}.
“And”; “Intersection”
The word “and” corresponds to “intersection”
and to the symbol “”. In order for a number to
be a solution of a conjunction, it must make each
part of the conjunction true.
 Example
Solve and graph: 2 x  1  3 and 3x  12.

Solution
2 x  1  3 and 3x  12
2 x  4 and 3x  12
x  2 and x  4.
[ )
-2 4
 Example
Solve and graph:
5  x  10 and x  4  3.
Solution
5  x  10 and x  4  3
x  5 and x  1.

Since no number is greater than 5 and less

than 1, the solution set is the empty set .

0
Union
The union of two sets A and B is the collection of
elements belonging to A and/or B. We denote the
union of A and B by A  B.

A B

A B
 Example

Find the union:a, b, c, d , e,  a, e, i, o, u.

Solution
The letters in either or both sets are a, b, c, d,
e, i, o and u, so the union is
a, b, c, d , e, i, o, u.
“Or”; “Union”
The word “or” corresponds to “union” and to the
symbol "  ". In order for a number to be in the
solution set of a disjunction, it must be in at least
one of the solution sets of the individual
sentences.
 Example
Solve and graph: 2 x  1  3 or 3x  3.

Solution
2 x  1  3 or 3x  3
2 x  2 or 3x  3
x  1 or x  1.

) [
1 1
 ABSOLUTE-VALUE EQUATIONS and
9.3 INEQUALITIES

a. Simplify expressions containing absolute-

value symbols.
b. Find the distance between two points on
the number line.
c. Solve equations with absolute-value
expressions.
d. Solve equations with two absolute-value
expressions.
e. Solve inequalities with absolute-value
expressions.
Absolute Value
The absolute value of x denoted |x|, is defined as
follows:

x  0  x  x; x  0  x   x.
Properties of Absolute Value
a) ab  a  b, for any real numbers a and b.
(The absolute value of a product is the product of the
absolute values.
a a
b)  , for any real numbers a and b  0.
b b

(The absolute value of a quotient is the quotient of the

absolute values.)
c) a  a , for any real number a.
(The absolute value of the opposite of a number is the
same as the absolute value of the number.)
 Example

Simplify, leaving as little as possible inside the

absolute-value signs.
2
8x
a. |7x| b. |8y| c. |6x | d.
4 x 2

Solution
a. |7x| = 7  x  7 x b. |8y| = 8  y  8 y

c. |6x2| = 6  x 2
 6 x 2
 6x2

8x 2 2 2
d.    
4 x 2
x x x
Distance and Absolute Value
For any real numbers a and b, the distance
between them is |a – b|.
 Example

Find the distance between 12 and 56 on the number

line.
Solution
| 12 – (56)|
= 44

or | 56 – (12)|
= | 44|
= 44
 Example
Solve: a) |x| = 6; b) |x| = 0; c) |x| = –2
Solution
a) We interpret |x| = 6 to mean that the number x is 6
units from zero on a number line. Thus the
solution set is {–6, 6}.

b) We interpret |x| = 0 to mean that x is 0 units from zero

on a number line. The only number that satisfies this
is zero itself. Thus the solution set is {0}.

c) Since distance is always nonnegative, |x| = –2 has

no solution. Thus the solution set is .
 Example
Solve: a) |2x +1| = 5; b) |3 – 4x| = –10
Solution
a) We use the absolute-value principle, replacing
X with 2x + 1 and p with 5. Then we solve each
equation separately.
|X| = p
|2x +1| = 5 Absolute-value principle

2x +1 = –5 or 2x +1 = 5
2x = –6 or 2x = 4
x = –3 or x=2
The solution set is {–3, 2}.
continued
b) The absolute-value principle reminds us that
absolute value is always nonnegative.
The equation |3 – 4x| = –10 has no solution.
The solution set is .
Sometimes an equation has two absolute-
value expressions. Consider |a| = |b|. This
means that a and b are the same distance from
zero.
If a and b are the same distance from zero,
then either they are the same number or they
are opposites.
 Example
Solve: |3x – 5| = |8 + 4x|.

This assumes these This assumes these

numbers are the same. numbers are opposites.

3x – 5 = 8 + 4x or 3x – 5 = –(8 + 4x)

and solve each equation.

continued

3x – 5 = 8 + 4x or 3x – 5 = (8 + 4x)
–13 + 3x = 4x 3x  5  8  4 x
–13 = x 7 x  5  8
7 x  3
3
x
7
The solutions are 13 and 3/7.
 Example Solve: |x| < 3. Then graph.

Solution
The solutions of |x| < 3 are all numbers
whose distance from zero is less than 3. By
substituting we see that numbers like –2, –1,
–1/2, 0, 1/3, 1, and 2 are all solutions. The
solution set is {x| –3 < x < 3}. In interval
notation, the solution set is (–3, 3). The
graph is as follows:
( )
-3 3
 Example Solve: x  3. Then graph.

Solution
The solutions of x  3 are all numbers
whose distance from zero is at least 3 units.
The solution set is {x | x  3 or x  3}.
In interval notation, the solution set is
(, 3]  [3, ).
The graph is as follows:

] [
-3 3
Solutions of Absolute-Value
Equations and Inequalities
For any positive number p and any
expression X:
a) The solutions of |X| = p are those numbers
that satisfy X = –p or X = p.
–p p
b) The solutions of |X| < p are those numbers
that satisfy –p < X < p.

–p p

c) The solutions of |X| > p are those numbers that

satisfy X < –p or p < X.

–p p
 Example Solve: |3x + 7| < 8. Then graph.

Solution
The number 3x + 7 must be less than 8 units from 0.
|X| < p
Replacing X with 3x + 7
|3x + 7| < 8 and p with 8.
–8 < 3x + 7 < 8
–15 < 3x < 1
–15 < x < 1/3
The solution set is {x|–5 < x < 1/3}. The graph is as follows:
( )
–5 1/3
 SYSTEMS of INEQUALITILES in TWO
9.4 VARIABLES

a. Determine whether an ordered pair

of numbers is a solution of an
inequality in two variables.
b. Graph linear inequalities in two
variables.
c. Graph systems of linear inequalities
and find coordinates of any vertices.
 Example
Determine whether the ordered pair (5, 2) is a
solution of the inequality 3x – 2y > 12.

Solution
We have 3x – 2y > 12
3(5)  2(2)
15  4
11 False

Since 11 > 12 is false, (5, 2) is not a solution.

Graphing Linear Inequalities
To graph inequalities like y > 3x + 2, we will shade
a region of a plane. That region will be either above
or below the graph of a “boundary line.” If the
symbol is ≤ or ≥, we will draw the boundary line
solid, since it is part of the solution set. When the
boundary is excluded—that is, if < or > is used—we
will draw a dashed line.
 1
Example Graph: y  x  1.
2

Solution
We begin by graphing the
boundary line y = x/2  1.
The slope is ½ and the
y-intercept is (0, 1 ). This
line is drawn dashed since
the symbol < is used.
The plane is now split in two. If one point in a region
We need to select a test solves an inequality, then
point to determine which all points in that region
region to shade. are solutions.
continued

Test Point: Check (0, 0)

1
y x 1
2
1
0 (0)  1
2
0 0 1
0  1
False so we shade below the line.
 Example Graph: 2 x  3 y  6.
Solution
We begin by graphing the
boundary line 2x + 3y = 6. (Use
any method)
Intercepts (0, 2), (3, 0).
Use a solid boundary line.
Use a test point (0, 0) to determine
which region to shade.
2x + 3y ≥ 6
2(0) + 3(0) ≥ 6
0 ≥ 6 False Shade above the line
To graph an inequality in two variables:
1. Replace the inequality symbol with an equals sign and graph
this related equation. This separates points that represent
solutions from those that do not.
2. If the inequality symbol is < or >, draw the line dashed. If the
symbol is ≤ or ≥, draw the line solid.
3. The graph consists of a half-plane that is either above or
below or to the left or right of the line and, if the line is solid,
the line as well. To determine which half-plane to shade,
choose a point not on the line as a test point. If the line does
not go through the origin, (0, 0) is an easy point to use.
Substitute to determine whether that point is a solution. If so,
shade the half-plane containing that point. If not, shade the
opposite half-plane.
 Example Graph y ≥ 3 on a plane.

Solution
We graph y = 3 as a
solid line to indicate
that all points on the
line are solutions.
Again, we select (0, 0)
as a test point.
y ≥ 3
0 ≥ 3 True
Shade the region containing
(0, 0) (above the line).
 Example Graph: x < 2.

Solution
We graph x = 2 using a
dashed line.
To determine which region
to shade use the test point
(0, 0).
x<2
0 < 2 True
Since (0, 0) is a solution, we
shade to the left.
 Example

Graph the solutions of the Solution set

system x  2
x  3 y  6.

Solution
We graph x ≥ 2 using red.
We graph x  3y < 6 using
blue.
The solution set is the
overlapping region.
 Graph the solutions of the x  3 y  6
Example system y  2 x  1.

Solution set
Solution
We graph x + 3y > 6 using
red.
We graph y < 2x  1 using
blue.
The solution set is the
overlapping region. Any
points in the solution set will
solve both inequalities.
 Example

Graph the following system of inequalities. Find the

coordinates of any vertices formed.
0 x3
0 y4
2x  3y  9

We graph using solid lines.

The coordinates of any
vertices are: (0, 3),
(0, 4), (3, 1) and (3, 4).
Chapter 10

Radical
Expressions,
Equations, and
Functions
 RADICAL EXPRESSIONS and
10.1 FUNCTIONS
a. Find principal square roots and their
opposites, approximate square roots,
identify radicands, find outputs of square-
root functions and find the domains of
square-roots functions.
b. Simplify radical expressions with perfect-
square radicands.
c. Find cube roots, simplifying certain
expressions, and find outputs of cube-root
functions.
d. Simplify expressions involving odd roots
and even roots.
Principal Square Root
The principal square root of a nonnegative
number is its nonnegative square root. The
symbol a represents the principal square root
of a. To name the negative square root of a,
we can write  a .
 Example
Simplify each of the following.
a) 81
16
b) 
81
Solution
a) 81  9
16 4
b)  
81 9
 Example

Use a calculator to approximate each of the following.

a. 13 b. 527 c.  8423.5

Solution
a. 13  3.605551275  3.606

b. 527  22.95648057  22.956

c.  8423.5  91.77962737  91.780

 Example

For the given function, find the indicated function

values:
f(x) = 4 x  1; f(1), f(6), f(0).
Solution
f(1) = 4 1 1 f(6) = 4  6  1; f(0) = 4  0  1;
 4 1  23  4.796  1
 3  1.732 No real-number
function value
exists; 0 is not in
the domain of f.
 Example

Graph g ( x)  x  3.
Solution Table of Values
x f(x) (x, f(x))
(1, 2)
3 0 (3, 0)
(2, 1)
2 1 (2, 1)
1 1.4 (1, 1.4) (3, 0)
0 1.7 (0, 1.7)
1 2 (1, 2)
2 2.2 (2, 2.2)
 Simplifying nth Roots

Simplifying
For any real number a:
a) k a  a when k is an even natural number.
k

We use absolute value when k is even unless a is

nonnegative.

b) k a k  a when k is an odd natural number

greater than 1. We do not use absolute value
when k is odd.
 Example
Simplify each expression. Assume that the variable can
represent any real number.

a) ( y  3)2
12
b) m

c) x10
Solution
Since y + 3 might be negative,
2
a) ( y  3)  y  3 absolute-value notation is
necessary.
continued
b) Note that (m6)2 = m12 and that m6 is
never negative. Thus,
12 6
m m .

c) Note that (x5)2 = x10 and that x5 might

be negative. Thus,
10 5
x  x .
 Example
Simplify
3 3 3 0.008 27
a. 27 x . b. c. 3
64
Solution
3
a. 27 x3  3x because (–3x)(–3x)(–3x) = –27x3

b. 0.008  0.2
3

27 3
c. 3 
64 4
 Example

Find each of the following. a) 5 243

b) 5 243
11 11
c) m
Solution
a) 5 243  3 Since 35 = 243

b) 5 243  3 Since (–3)5 = –243

11 11
c) m m
 Example

Find each of the following. a) 4 81

b) 4 81
4 4
Solution c) 16m
a) 4 81  3 Since 34 = 81

b) 4 81  can't be simplified. Not a real number

Use absolute-value notation

4 4
c) 16m  2m or 2 m since m could represent a
negative number
 RATIONAL NUMBERS as
10.2 EXPONENTS
a. Write expressions with or without rational
exponent, and simplify, if possible.
b. Write expressions without negative
exponents, and simplify, if possible.
c. Use the laws of exponents with rational
exponents.
d. Using rational exponents to simplify radical
expressions.
Consider a1/2a1/2. If we still want to add
exponents when multiplying, it must follow
that a1/2a1/2 = a1/2 + 1/2, or a1. This suggests
that a1/2 is a square root of a.

a1/n
For any nonnegative real number a and any
natural number index n (n  1), a1/n means n a
(the nonnegative nth root of a).
 Example
Rewrite without rational exponents, and simplify, if
possible.
a. m1/3 b. (9x8)1/2 c. (xy2z)1/5
Solution

a) m1/ 3  3 m

 
b) 9x 8 1/ 2
 91/ 2 x 4  9 x 4  3x 4

c)  xy 2 z   5 xy 2 z
1/ 5
 Example
Write an equivalent expression using exponential notation.
a) 3 4 x
2
5 5y
b)
x
Solution
a) 4 x   4 x 
3 1/ 3

 5y
2 2 1/ 5
5 y
b) 5  
x  x 
 
a m/n

For any natural numbers m and n (n  1) and

any nonnegative real number a,

 
m/ n n m m
a means a , or n a .
 Example
Rewrite without rational exponents, and
simplify, if possible.
2/3
a) 8
b) 93 / 2

Solution
 
2/3 3 2 2
a) 8  8  8  22  4
3

 
3/2 3
b) 9  9  33  27
 Example
Rewrite with rational exponents.
3 5
a) x

 
2
b) 5 3 xy

Solution
3 5
a) x  x5 / 3

 
2
  3xy 
5 3xy 2/5
b)
Laws of Exponents
For any real number a and any rational exponents m
and n.
1. a m  a n  a m n In multiplying, we can add exponents if the
bases are the same.
am
 amn
In dividing, we can subtract exponents if the
2. bases are the same.
an n
 
3. a m  a mn To raise a power to a power, we can multiply the
exponents.

4.  ab m  ambm To raise a product to a power, we can raise each

factor to the power.
n
5.  a  an To raise a quotient to a power, we can raise both
   n the numerator and the denominator to the power.
b b
 Example
Use the laws of exponents to simplify
a. 72 / 5  71/ 5 b.
m1/ 2
m1/ 4
c. x1/ 2 1/ 3 3/ 4
y 
Solution
a. 7 2/5 1/ 5
7 7 2 / 51/ 5 c. x 
1/ 2 1/ 3 3/ 4
y

 73/ 5  x(1/ 2)(3/ 4) y( 1/ 3)(3/ 4)

m1/ 2
b.  m1/ 21/ 4  x3/ 8 y 1/ 4
m1/ 4
2 / 41/ 4 x3 / 8
m 
y1/ 4
 m1/ 4
 Example

Use rational exponents to simplify.

8 4
a. x b. 8 a 4b6
Solution
 
1/8
a. x x
8 4 4/8
b.
8 4 6
a b  a 4 6
b
 x1/ 2  a 4 / 8b 6 / 8
 x  a1/ 2b3/ 4
 a 2 / 4b3/ 4
 a b 
2 3 1/ 4

 ab4 2 3
 Example

Write a single radical expression for x 3/ 4

 y 7 /8
.
x y
5/ 6 1/ 4

Solution
x3/ 4  y 5/8 3/ 41/ 6 5/81/ 4
 x  y
x y
1/ 6 1/ 4

 x9/122/12  y5/82/8
 x7 /12  y 3/8
x 14 / 24
y 9 / 24

 24 x14  y 9
 Example

Use rational exponents to simplify.

9
a. 4 (3x)2 b.  3 xy 2 z  c. 4 y
 
Solution
a. 4 (3 x)2  (3 x)2 / 4 Convert to exponential notation

1/ 2 Converting back to radical

 (3x)  3x notation

9
b.  3 xy 2 z   ( xy 2 z )9 / 3
 
 ( xy 2 z )3  x3 y 6 z3
continued

c. 4 y  4 y1/ 2

 y 
1/ 2 1/ 4

1/ 8
y 8 y
 SIMPLIFYING RADICAL
10.3 EXPRESSIONS
a. Multiply and simplify radical
expressions.
b. Divide and simplify radical
expressions.
Multiplying Radical Expressions

Note that 4  9  2  3  6.
4  9  36  6.

This example suggests the following.

The Product Rule for Radicals
For any nonnegative real numbers a and b and any
index k,
k a  k b  k a  b , or a1/ k  b1/ k  (ab)1/ k .

(To multiply, multiply the radicands.)

 Example
Multiply.
x 5
a. 5 6 b. 7  9
3 3 c. 4  4
3 z
Solution
a. 5  6  5  6  30

b. 7  9  7  9  63
3 3 3 3

x 5 x 5 5 x
c. 4  4  4   4
3 z 3 z 3z
 Example
Simplify by factoring:
3
a. 300 b. 8m n 4 c. 54s 4
Solution
a. 300  100  3
 100  3 100 is the largest perfect-
square factor of 300.
 10 3

b. 8m 4 n  4  2  m 4  n

 4m 4  2n
 2m 2 2n
continued
3 3 27s3 is the largest perfect
c. 54s 4  27  2  s3  s third-power factor.
3 3 3
 27 s  2s

 3s 3 2s
 Example
Simplify by factoring. Assume that all expressions under
radicals represent nonnegative numbers.
a. 7x5 b. 324x7 y5 c. 3 24a8b9
Solution
b. 324x 7 5
y
a. 7x5  7  x5
4
 7 x  x  324  x6  x  y 4  y
4
 x  7 x  324 x6 y 4 xy

 x2 7 x  18x3 y 2 xy
continued

c. 3 24a8b9  3 8  3  a6  a 2  b9
3 3 3
 3 8  a 6  b9  3a 2
2 33
 2a b 3a 2
 Example

Multiply and simplify.

a. 10 6 b. 3 9 x3 y 2 3 9 x 4 y 7

Solution

a) 10 6  60 Multiplying radicands

 4 15 4 is a perfect square

 2 15
continued

3 23 4 7 3 7 9
b) 9 x y 9 x y  81x y
3

 3 27  3  x6  x  y 9
3 6 3 9 3
 27  x  y  3x
3

 3x 2 y3 3 3x
The Quotient Rule for Radicals
For any nonnegative number a, any positive number
b, and any index k,
ka 1/ k 1/ k
a a  a 
 k , or   .
kb b b1/ k  b 

(To divide, divide the radicands. After doing this,

you can sometimes simplify by taking roots.)
 Example
Divide and simplify. Assume that all expressions under
radicals represent positive numbers.
48
a.
3
3 24 x 4 y 5
b.
23 3x
Solution
48 48 Because the indices match, we
a)  can divide the radicands.
3 3
 16  4
continued
3 24 x 4 y5 4 5
1 3 24 x y
b)  
2 3 3x 2 3x
1 3 3 5
  8x y
2
1 3 3 3 3 2
  8x y  y
2
1
  2 xy 3 y 2
2
 xy 3 y 2
 Example

Simplify by taking roots of the numerator and

denominator: 49
a.
x4
4
3 54 m
b.
n3
Solution
49 49 7
a.   Taking the square roots of the
x4 x 4 x2 numerator and denominator
continued
4 3
54 m 54m4
b. 3 
n3 3 3
n
3
27  2  m3  m

3 3
n
3
27m3  3 2m

3 3
n
3m 3 2m

n
 ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, and
10.4 MORE MULTIPLICATION
a. Add or subtract with radical notation and
simplify.
b. Multiply expressions involving radicals in
which some factors contain more than one
term.
 Example
Add or subtract. Simplify by combining like
radical terms, if possible.
3 3
a) 2 18  7 2 b) 10 3m  24m
3
Solution
a) 2 18  7 2  2 9  2  7 2
 2(3) 2  7 2
6 2 7 2  2
3 3
b) 10m 3m  24m  10m 3m  8  3  m3  m
3 4 3

 10m 3m  2m 3m
3 3  12m 3 3m
 Example
Multiply. Simplify if possible.
a) 2( y  7)

b)  
3 x  2  3 x2  3 
 

c)  m n  m n 
Solution
Using the
a) 2( y  7)  2  y  2  7 distributive law
 y 2  14
continued F O I L

b)  
3 x  2  3 x 2  3   3 x 3 x 2  33 x  2 3 x 2  6
 

3 3 3 2
 x 3 x 2 x 6
3

3 2
 x3 x 2 x 6
3

c)  m n  m n 
F O I L

 m  n
2 2
  m n m n
mn
10.6 SOLVING RADICAL EQUATIONS

a. Solve radical equations with one radical

term.
b. Solve radical equations with two radical
terms.
c. Solve applied problems involving radical
equations.
A radical equation is an equation in
which the variable appears in a radicand.
Examples are

4
5 x 1  4  1 and m 2  m  9.
The Principle of Powers
For any natural number n, if an equation a = b is
true, then an = bn is true.
 Example Solve: m  3  9.

Solution
m 39
m 6 Isolate the radical

 m
2
6
2
Using the principle of powers
m  36
Check: m 39
36  3 9
The solution is 36. 639 TRUE
 Example Solve: x  x 5  1.

Solution
x  x 5  1
x  1  x 5
 x 1   x5 
2 2

x  2x  1  x  5
2

x  3x  4  0
2

( x  4)( x  1)  0
continued
x  4  0 or x  1  0
x  4 or x  1
Check: x  x 5  1 x  x 5  1
4 45  1 –1 15  1
9 1 4 1
TRUE 4 3+1 –1 2 + 1 FALSE

The solution is 4.
 Example Solve: 3 3x  4  2  0.

Solution
3 3x  4  2  0

3 3x  4  2

 
3 3 x  4 3  23

3x  4  8
3x  4
x  4/3
Because both sides were raised to an odd power, it is
not essential that we check the answer.
 APPLICATIONS INVOLVING
10.7 POWERS and ROOTS
a. Solve applied problems involving the
Pythagorean theorem and powers and
roots.
There are many kinds of problems that
involve powers and roots. Many also
involve right triangles and the Pythagorean
theorem.
The Pythagorean Theorem
In any right triangle, if a and b are the lengths of the
legs and c is the length of the hypotenuse, then

a2 + b2 = c2.
Hypotenuse
c b Leg

a
Leg
 Example

Find the length of the hypotenuse of this right triangle.

12
a b  c
2 2 2

c
16 122  162  c 2
144  256  c 2
400  c 2
c  400  20
 Example

Find the length b for the right triangle shown. Give an

exact answer and an approximation to three decimal
places.
a 2  b2  c 2
20
20  b  24
2 2 2

b
24 400  b 2  576
b 2  176
Exact answer: b  176
Approximation: b  13.266