The Revolt of 1857 conformed as a jolt or a push to the British government to

establish their supremacy in India. With the widespread resentment against the
various British policies, people started violently blaming the British for such
unfavourable policies that weren’t of any use to the Indian people. Seeking to
maintain an environment of Peace in the country, the Britishers decided to
transfer the permanent hold of the East India Company over the country to the
British Crown. Soon, Queen Victoria came to Delhi and it was decided to
proclaim her as the Queen of India and from then onwards all the chiefs, princes
and the people of India would be working under her authority. The Act of
proclaiming Queen Victoria as the Queen of India is popularly known as the
Government of India Act, 1858.

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858)

The aftermath of the Revolt of 1857 emerged in the transfer of the continual
hold of the East India Company over the country to the British Crown. As a
result, the Government of India Act, 1858 was passed, which made noticeable
changes in the Indian administration. Soon, it was decided to proclaim Queen
Victoria as the Queen of India and from then onwards all the chiefs, princes and
the people of India would be working under her authority.

With the Queen’s proclamation, it was decided to grant the same status to the
Native of India as the other subjects. Further, the declaration objectified various
societal issues like racial discrimination that prevailed in the country and
focused on removing all these evil of underdevelopment. Apart from this, it was
also assured that the British Crown would create equality and all the people
would be equal in the eyes of the law. With the extension of British rights to the
Indians as well, the act was widely accepted and even regarded as the Magna
Carta of India by Gandhi Ji.

Delhi Durbar and the Queen’s Proclamation

It was in 1877 that Queen Victoria claimed the title of Qaisar-i-Hind in the
Delhi Coronation Park. The declaration was the event of prominent talks which
ensued in a massive assemblage popularly known as the Delhi Durbar. The
transfer of powers was the result of the mutiny of 1857, which is also
recognized as India’s First War of Independence.

During the Mughal era, the Darbar was referred to as the place where a massive
audience convened in front of the royalty. Generally, it was realised as the
ceremony that brought the coloniser and the colonised together in one place. At
Queen Victoria’s proclamation, the Delhi Durbar was the place where all the
people stood under the auspices and clenches of British sovereignty.

The view at the Delhi Durbar was the first time that many such prominent
maharajas, nawabs and other dignitaries had gathered to pay homage to Queen
Victoria for her undertaking of the Indian authority. In the commemoration of
the proclamation, each of the rulers of India was delivered a gold memorial
banner and a medal as a personal gift from the Queen herself. However, these
gifts were considered as a present to show that the Indians were subjugated by
the British Crown and were under their control for a long time.

Importance of Queen’s Proclamation

1)The Queen’s proclamation assured that no interference would be made by the

administration in the matters of religious affairs.

2) Even if the British Crown had a hold over the Indian administration, due
respects were reimbursed to the customs, usages and ancient rites of the people
of India.

3) It was decided to grant the same status to the Natives of India as the other
subjects, the British people.
4) The declaration objectified various societal issues like racial discrimination
that prevailed in the country and focused on removing all these evil of
underdevelopment.

5) The proclamation also defined the prosperity of the Indians as the strength of
the Britishers and the contentment of the Indians as the security for the
Monarch’s power in India.

Government of India Act, 1858

The Government of India Act, 1858 was passed in a parallel setting with the
Queen’s proclamation in India. Under this, it was claimed that India would now
be governed directly by the Britishers under their British Crown and all the
authorities lay in their hands. The Government of India Act of 1858 had certain
provisions. Some of them are:

1)Under this Act, the rule of the East India Company was liquidated and passed
on to the British Crown.

2) The surveillance including the Board of Control and the Court of Directors
were discarded by this Act.

3) The Secretary of State would act as the British MP, who would work under
an advisory committee of 15 members.

4) The Secretary of State would also act as the arbitrator and the channel
between the British administration in Britain and the Indian government.

5) The dual government policy, introduced by Pitt’s India Act was removed by
the Government of India Act, 1858.

Conclusion
In conclusion, to conserve a setting of peace and prosperity in the nation, the
Britishers decided to substitute the continual hold of the East India Company to
the British Crown. The proclamation had noticeable impacts on the East India
Company and the treaties with the princes. The declaration was guided by the
guiding principles of religion and justice and that there won’t be any
interference in Indian society, amidst these sensitive topics. Further, the
declaration objectified various societal issues like racial discrimination that
prevailed in the country and focused on removing all these evils of
underdevelopment.

History of Education policies in British India

The History of Education policies in British India can be classified into two –
before 1857 (under the English East India Company) and after 1857 (under the
British Crown).
Education policies in India under the English East India Company

1781: Governor-General of Bengal, Warren Hastings established Calcutta

Madarasa for Islamic law studies. It was the first educational institute set by
East India Company (EIC) governance.

1784: Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by William Jones to understand

and study the history and culture of India. During this period Charles Wilkins
translated Bhagwat Gita to English.

1791: The resident of Benares, Jonathan Duncan founded the Sanskrit college
for the study of Hindu laws and philosophies.

1800: Governor-General Richard Wellesley founded the Fort William College in

Calcutta to train the civil servants of EIC in Indian languages and customs. But
this college was closed in 1802 due to disapproval of the British administration
in England on Indianising the English civil servants.

THE CHARTER ACT OF 1813

This was the first noted step towards modern education in the country by the
British. This act set aside an annual sum of Rs.1 lakh to be used in educating the
Indian subjects.

During all this time the Christian missionaries were active in mass educating the
people but they concentrated more on religious teachings and conversions.

MACAULEY’S MINUTES / THE ENGLISH EDUCATION ACT OF 1835

Governor-General William Bentick’s tenure saw more funds being allocated to
education, and the policies were based on the recommendation of Macauley’s
minute.

We have to remember that Thomas Macauley had no knowledge or value for

Indian and oriental literature and considered western science to be superior to
all. He had famously said that “a single shelf of a good European library was
worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia”.

The gist of the minute is:

1. Government should spend resources for teaching western sciences

and literature in English alone.
2. English should be made the medium of education in schools and
colleges.
3. Elementary schools were not given importance, rather more schools
at district levels and colleges were suggested to be opened. Hence,
mass education was neglected.
4. Downward filtration theory: The British decided to educate a small
section of upper and middle-class Indians who would be the bridge
between the masses and the government. And this educated would
spread western education to the masses gradually.

Adam’s report on vernacular education in Bengal and Bihar was published in

1835, 1836, and 1838 which pointed out the defects in the system of vernacular
education.

1843-53: James Jonathan experiment in North West province where he

introduced one model school in each tehsil where the vernacular language was
used for teaching. There was also another school for training the teachers for
these vernacular schools.

WOOD’S DESPATCH OF 1854

It is also known as the ‘Magna Carta of English education in India’ was the first
comprehensive plan to envisage mass education in India.

It prompted the government to take responsibility for education and suggested

grants in aid to encourage private enterprises to invest in education.

1. Vernacular languages should be used in primary schools in villages.

2. Anglo-vernacular high schools
3. Affiliated college at the district level
4. Universities in presidency towns
5. Gave impetus to female education and vocational training.
6. Laid down that there should be secular education in government
schools.

Viceroy Mayo’s term saw the establishment of Rajkot college in Kathiawar in

1868 and Mayo college of Ajmer in 1875 for the political training of the Indian
princes and elites.

Education policies in India under the Royal Crown of British

Under the British Crown, various commissions like Hunter, Raleigh, Saddler etc
submitted recommendations for the reforms in the Indian Education system.

1882: HUNTER COMMISSION ON INDIAN EDUCATION

It recommended more government efforts for the improvement of mass

education through vernacular languages.
 1. Transfer of control of primary education to the new district and
municipal boards.
2. Encourage female education outside presidency towns also.
3. Secondary education should be divided into 2 categories-
4. Literary ( leads to university through entrance exam)
5. Vocational (for commercial jobs)

1902: RALEIGH COMMISSION

Viceroy Curzon believed that universities were the factories producing students
with revolutionary ideologies; hence he constituted the commission to review
the entire university education system in India.

The recommendation of the commission led to the universities act of 1904.

1904: INDIAN UNIVERSITIES ACT

The Act brought all Indian universities under the control of the government.
The key provisions of the act were-

1. More attention to study and research in universities rather than

revolutionary activities
2. The number of fellows were reduced and were to be nominated by
the government
3. The government acquired veto power against university senate
decisions.
4. Stricter affiliation rules.

1906: The princely state of Baroda introduced compulsory primary education in

its territories.
History of Press in India during British rule

Here is a brief history of the development of the press before independence.

1780: James Augustus Hickey started ‘The Bengal Gazette’ also known
as ‘Calcutta General advertiser’. This was the first newspaper published in
India which was later stopped because it carried critical articles against the
company.

1799: Governor-General Richard Wellesley enacted the Censorship of Press

Act, 1799 to stop the French from publishing anything against the British. This
act brought all the newspapers under Government scrutiny before their
publication. This act was later extended in 1807 and covered all kinds of Press
Publications newspapers, magazines, books, and Pamphlets. The rules were
relaxed in 1818 when Francis Hastings (1813-1823) assumed office.

1823: Licensing Regulation ordinance was brought out by acting Governor-

General John Adams. This regulation made press without a license a penal
offence. The restriction was directed mainly at Indian-language newspapers or
those edited by the Indians. This caused Raja Ram Mohun Roy to repeal his
Persian journal ‘Mirat-ul-akhbar’ started in 1822.

1824: Raja Ram Mohun Roy protested against the restriction on freedom of the
press.

1835: Press act or Metcalfe act, repealed the Licensing regulations of 1823.
Gov.Gen. Metcalfe came to be known as the ‘liberator of the press’ in India.
The act required a printer/publisher to give a precise account of the premises of
a publication and cease functioning if required by a similar declaration. The
result of a liberal press policy was the rapid growth of newspapers.
1857: Licensing act was enacted by Gov. Gen Canning (later Viceroy in
1858) after the Revolt of 1857 to impose stricter restrictions on the press. The
right to stop the publication and circulation of any book, newspaper or printed
matter was reserved with the Government.

1867: The registration act replaced the Metcalfe act of 1835. The act was said
to introduce regulations and no restrictions on the press. The print media now
was made to contain the name of the printer, publisher, and place of publication
and a copy had to be submitted to the government.

1878: Vernacular Press act by Viceroy Lytton was enacted to curtail the
freedom of Indian language newspapers (this law did not apply to English
language papers). This was the result of the racial bitterness that has grown
between then Indians and Europeans after the incidents of 1857.

1. The district magistrate was given powers to make the printer and
publisher of any vernacular newspaper enter into a bond with the
Government stating not to cause disaffection against the government
or antipathy between persons of different religions, caste, and races
through published material.
2. The printer and publisher could also be required to deposit security
which could be seized if the above offences reoccurred.
3. The magistrate’s action was final and no appeal could be made in a
court of law.
4. A vernacular newspaper could get an exemption from the operation
of the Act by submitting proof to a government censor.

1882: The pre-censorship of the Vernacular press act was repealed by

Viceroy Ripon.
1908: Newspaper (incitement to offence) Act gave the magistrates power to
confiscate press property that published objectionable material likely to cause
incitement to murder or acts of violence. This act was triggered by the Extremist
nationalist activity during and after the Swadeshi movement of 1906.

1910: Indian press act was a revision of the Vernacular Press Act that
empowered the local government to demand a large amount of security at
registration from the printer/publisher and forfeit/deregister of newspapers that
considered anti-government, and the printer of a newspaper was required to
submit two copies of each issue to local government.

1921: The acts of 1908 and 1910 were repealed on the recommendation of
the Press committee chaired by Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru.

1931: Indian Press (emergency powers) Act was enacted in the wake of
the Civil disobedience movement. It gave powers to the provincial government
to suppress propaganda writings in the support of Civil Disobedience
movement.

Important journals or newspapers vs their authors:

 Bengal gazette – J.A Hickey

 Maharatta (English), Kesari (Marathi) – Bal Gangadhar Tilak
 Hitavada – Gopal Krishna Gokhale
 Sudharak – Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
 Voice of India, Rast Goftar – Dadabai Naororji
 Vande Mataram, Paridasak – Bipin Chandra Pal
 Mook Nayak, Janata, Bahishkrut bharat – Dr. B.R amberdkar
  Prabuddha Bharata – Aiyasami, B. R. Rajam Iyer, G.
G.Narasimhacharya, and B. V. Kamesvara Iyer (on behest of Swami
Vivekananda)
 Independent – Motilal Nehru
 Punjabi – Lala Lajpat Rai
 The leader, Hindostan, Abyudyaya, Maryada – Madan Mohan
Malviya
 New India, Commonweal – Annie Besant
 Mirat-ul-Akhbar, Sambad kaumudi – Raja Ram Mohun Roy
 Navajeevan, Young India, Harijan, Indian opinion (South Africa) –
M.K Gandhi
 Indian mirror – Devendra Nath Tagore
 Som Prakash – Eshwar Chand Vidyasagar
 The Hindu, Swadesamitram – G. Subramaniya Aiyar
 The Bengalee – Surendra Nath Banerjee
 Amrita Bazaar Patrika – Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh
 Madras courier – Richard Johnson

History of Civil Services in India

Its beginnings can be traced back to ancient India’s Mauryan era.

  For effective administration in the growing Mauryan Empire,
meritorious public personnel were needed.
 Adhyakshas and Rajukas were the titles given to government
servants by the Mauryan government.
 The rules for hiring and promoting government workers, the
requirements for loyalty throughout the hiring process, the
procedures for evaluating their performance, as well as their code of
conduct, are all laid out in Kautilya’s Arthashastra.
 The Arthashastra mentions some checks and balances on their
appointments and caution. It also suggests a continuous watch on
the operation of the civil service, including regularly updating the
monarch on their performance.

During Medieval India, Akbar started land reforms and created the Land
Revenue System, which ultimately became a crucial part of the Indian Taxation
System. His view of service was regulated and welfare-oriented.

Civil Service Reforms during British Period

By means of a royal charter from Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth I, the East India
Company was established in the year 1600 CE with the purpose of trading
valuable Indian goods like silk and spices.

 The Company built outposts or factories throughout the Indian

coasts, particularly at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, to support its
trade. The business needed staff to protect its property, which
gradually led to the hiring of soldiers for their factories, which
quickly transformed into their forts.
  However, because the East India Company’s mandate was restricted
to commerce, it never established any specific services for the
government.
 Officers of the East India Company used to be chosen by the
company’s directors, trained at London’s Haileybury College and
then dispatched to India.

The Regulating Act of 1773 gave the British government power over the
Company’s management.

After being appointed Governor General of India in February 1786, Lord

Cornwallis implemented a number of legislative and administrative changes.

 In order to enhance the general governance of the East India

Company in India, he passed the Cornwallis Code in 1793. This
law established the separation of the judicial and tax
administrations.
 Due to his reforms and reorganizations of the Company’s
administration, he is also known as the Father of Civil Service in
India.
 Lord Cornwallis forbade civil officers from accepting gifts or bribes
in order to curb widespread corruption among corporate employees.
Even worse, he increased their pay and forbade the recruits from
engaging in private trade for such employees.

Civil Service Reforms under Lord Macaulay

The Charter Act of 1833 granted native Indians the right to participate in
administration in British India.
Under Lord Macaulay’s leadership, the First Law Commission of India was
established under the Constitution, and it made recommendations for the
codification of the Criminal Procedure Code, Penal Code, and other laws.

 After the Select Committee of the British Parliament’s submission

of Lord Macaulay’s Report, the idea of a merit-based modern civil
service in India was first floated in 1854.
 The report made the recommendation that the patronage-based
system of the East India Company be replaced by a merit-based
permanent civil service with entrance through competitive exams.
 A Civil Service Commission was established in London in 1854 as a
result of the suggestions, and competitive examinations began in
1855.

The Indian Civil Services Act of 1861 was passed as a result of Lord
Macaulay’s recommendations, allowing Indians to compete on an equal footing
with British citizens in an open merit-based recruiting process.

 The age range for the Indian Civil Service examinations was
initially established at 18 to 23 years old, and they were exclusively
held in London.
 Indians have a more challenging time succeeding since the
curriculum was structured to benefit British citizens.
 The first Indian to pass the test was Shri Satyendranath Tagore,
the brother of Shri Rabindranath Tagore, in 1864.

Aitchison Committee on Public Services, 1886

Indians petitioned for simultaneous tests to be held in India over the course of
the following 50 years, but they did not have much success since Britishers
were wary of hiring many Indians because they believed the service would
become too Indianized.

 However, in the years after the Indian National Congress was

founded in 1885, there was a rising desire for simultaneous
examination in India and London, along with a call to increase the
upper age restriction. This led to more major civil service reforms in
the country.

Aitchison Committee on Public Services was established by Lord Dufferin in

1886 to look at the issues with the Indian public service in response to these
growing demands, particularly those made by the Moderate faction of the Indian
National Congress, who supported the notion of representation.

 Additionally, the Commission proposed that the

phrases “covenanted” and “uncovenanted” be changed to “imperial”
and “provincial,” which was approved.
 It recommended that Indians take open civil service tests between
the ages of 19 and 23, respectively.
 The covenanted civil service became known as the Civil Service of
India when Aitchison’s recommendations were accepted.
 The provincial service was given that province’s name.

Montague-Chelmsford Reforms

In terms of Indian history, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, which were

implemented by the Government of India Act, of 1919, are best known for
bringing dyarchy, or executive councilor and popular minister control, to the
subcontinent.
  However, it also acceded to the long-standing demand for India to
host civil service exams.
 In accordance with the pledges, the Indian Civil Service
Examination started to be held in India starting in 1922 in addition
to London.
 The Government of India Act of 1919 also allowed for the creation
of the Public Service Commission of India, which was finally
constituted in October of 1926 and had previously been suggested
by the Islington Commission.
 In its 1917 report, the Islington Commission (1917) suggested that
25 percent of the top government positions go to Indians.
 The Islington Commission’s suggestion was rejected because of the
Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, which suggested that one-third of all
appointments to senior positions in the services should be made to
Indians.

Royal Commission on the Superior Civil Services in India- Lee

Commission, 1923

The appointment of the Royal Commission on the Superior Public Services in

India, generally known as the Lee Commission, might be considered the next
significant move in the permeation of civil services with Indian roots.

 The Commission, which had an equal number of Indian and British

members, was established by the British administration in 1923 to
examine the racial makeup of the superior Indian public services of
the Government of India.
 Earlier, the Islington Commission (1917) had suggested that Indians
should hold 25% of the senior government positions in its 1917
report.
  The All-India Services and the Central Services were two service
categories whose current positions were assessed by the Lee
Commission together with the recommendations made in the
Islington Commission report.
 The Provincial Services were not taken into consideration because
the Provincial Governments already had jurisdiction over them.
 Based on the Islington Commission’s recommendations, the Lee
Commission recommended in 1924 that 40 percent of future
entrants should be British and 40 percent should be Indians
directly recruited, with the other 80 percent of superior posts to
be filled by promotions from provincial civil services.
 The Lee Commission advised that the statutory Public Service
Commission envisioned by the Government of India Act, 1919, be
constituted as soon as possible in its report from the year 1924.
 The Public Service Commission was thus established in India
for the first time on October 1, 1926. In addition to the Chairman,
there were four other members. The first Chairman of the
Commission was Sir Ross Barker, a British Home Civil Service
employee.
 The Public Service Commission (Functions) Rules, 1926, were in
place to regulate its operations rather than having them outlined in
the Government of India Act, 1919.

Civil Service Reforms during British- 1940s

The Government of India Act, of 1935, which was adopted in response to the
Simon Commission’s recommendations, included Services of the Crown in
India among other legislative, executive, and judicial measures (Part X).
  For the Federation and the Province, respectively, this part provides
for the Defence Services, Civil Services, Special Provisions for
Judicial Officers, and Public Service Commissions.
 In the event of a Federal Commission, the Governor-General may
appoint the chairman and other members; in the case of a Provincial
Commission, the Governor of the Province may appoint the
chairman and other members.
 The Federal and Provincial Service Commission was tasked with
holding tests for appointments to the Federation’s and the Province’s
services.
 Thus, the Federal and Provincial Commission provision persisted
until the 1950 adoption of the Constitution of India, which
superseded the Government of India Act, of 1935, following
extensive discussion and deliberation in the Constituent Assembly.

Conclusion

After lengthy discussions and deliberations, the Indian Constituent Assembly

chose to keep using the Indian Civil Service to run the country, much to the
chagrin of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.

He wasn’t opposed to the Administrative Service’s current recruitment process,

but he did want new civil service hires to be familiar with progressive
socialization as a guiding principle of state policy in addition to their early
selection and specialized training.

The opinion of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, who had collaborated with these civil
servants and held them in high regard, ultimately prevailed. Thus, the articles
relating to Services under the Union and States were incorporated into the
Indian Constitution by the Constituent Assembly.
What are Social Religious Reform Movements?

 The Indian society in the first half of the 19th century was caste
ridden, decadent and rigid.
 o It followed certain practices which are not in keeping
with humanitarian feelings or values but were still being
followed in the name of religion.

 Some enlightened Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar

Chand Vidyasagar, Dayanand Saraswati and many others started
to bring in reforms in society so that it could face the challenges of
the West.

 The reform movements could broadly be classified into two

categories:

o Reformist movements like the Brahmo Samaj, the

Prarthana Samaj, the Aligarh Movement.

o Revivalist movements like Arya Samaj and the Deoband

movement.

 The reformist as well as the revivalist movement depended, to

varying degrees, on an appeal to the lost purity of the religion they
sought to reform.

 The only difference between one reform movement and the other lay
in the degree to which it relied on tradition or on reason and
conscience.

What are the Factors which gave Rise to Reform Movements?

 Presence of colonial government on Indian soil: When the British

came to India they introduced the English language as well as certain
modern ideas.
 o These ideas were those of liberty, social and economic
equality, fraternity, democracy and justice which had a
tremendous impact on Indian society.

 Religious and Social Ills: Indian society in the nineteenth century

was caught in a vicious web created by religious superstitions and
social obscurantism.

 Depressing Position of Women: The most distressing was the

position of women.

o The killing of female infants at birth was prevalent.

o Child marriage was practiced in society.

o The practice of polygamy prevailed in many parts of

country.

o The widow remarriage was not allowed and the sati

pratha was prevalent on a large scale.

 Spread of Education and Increased Awareness of the

World: From the late 19th century a number of European and Indian
scholars started the study of ancient India’s history, philosophy,
science, religions and literature.

o This growing knowledge of India’s past glory provided to

the Indian people a sense of pride in their civilization.

o It also helped the reformers in their work of religious and

social reform for their struggle against all types of
inhuman practices, superstitions etc.
  Awareness of the Outside World: During the last decades of the
nineteenth century, the rising tide of nationalism and democracy also
found expression in movements to reform and democratise the social
institutions and religious outlook of the Indian people.

o Factors such as growth of nationalist sentiments,

emergence of new economic forces, spread of education,
impact of modern Western ideas and culture and
increased awareness of the world strengthened the resolve
to reform.

What was the Brahmo Samaj Movement?

 Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded Brahmo Sabha in 1828, which was
later renamed as Brahmo Samaj.

 Its chief aim was the worship of the eternal God. It was against
priesthood, rituals and sacrifices.

 It focused on prayers, meditation and reading of the scriptures. It

believed in the unity of all religions.

 It was the first intellectual reform movement in modern India. It

led to the emergence of rationalism and enlightenment in India
which indirectly contributed to the nationalist movement.

 It was the forerunner of all social, religious and political movements

of modern India. It split into two in 1866, namely Brahmo Samaj of
India led by Keshub Chandra Sen and Adi Brahmo Samaj led
by Debendranath Tagore.

 Prominent Leaders: Debendranath Tagore, Keshub Chandra Sen,

Pt. Sivnath Shastri, and Rabindranath Tagore.
 o Debendra Nath Tagor headed the Tattvabodhini Sabha
(founded in 1839) which, along with its
organ Tattvabodhini Patrika in Bengali, was devoted to
the systematic study of India’s past with a rational
outlook and to the propagation of Rammohan’s ideas.

 Rammohan Roy progressive ideas met with strong opposition from

orthodox elements like Raja Radhakant Deb who organised
the Dharma Sabha to counter Brahmo Samaj propaganda.

What was the Prarthana Samaj?

 The Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram

Pandurang in 1876 with the objective of rational worship and
social reform.

 The two great members of this Samaj were R.C.

Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade.

o They devoted themselves to the work of social reform

such as inter-caste dining, inter-caste marriage, widow
remarriage and improvement of the lot of women and
depressed classes.

 The four point social agenda of Prarthana Samaj were

o Disapproval of caste system

o Women education

o Widow remarriage
 o Raising the age of marriage for both males and females

 Mahavdev Govind Ranade was the founder of the Widow

Remarriage Association (1861) and the Deccan Education
Society.

o He established the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha as well.

o To Ranade, religious reform was inseparable from social

reform.

o He also believed that if religious ideas were rigid there

would be no success in social, economic and political
spheres.

o Although Prarthana Samaj was powerfully influenced by

the ideas of Brahmo Samaj, it did not insist upon a rigid
exclusion of idol worship and a definite break from the
caste system.

What was the Satyashodhak Samaj?

 Jyotiba Phule organized a powerful movement against upper caste

domination and brahminical supremacy.

 He founded the SatyashodhakSamaj (Truth Seekers’ Society) in

1873.

 The main aims of the movement were:

o Social service

o Spread of education among women and lower caste

people
  Phule’s works, Sarvajanik Satyadharma and Gulamgiri, became a
source of inspiration for the common masses.

 Phule used the symbol of Rajah Bali as opposed to the brahmins’

symbol of Rama.

 Phule aimed at the complete abolition of the caste system and

socio-economic inequalities.

 This movement gave a sense of identity to the depressed

communities as a class against the Brahmins, who were seen as the
exploiters.

What was the Arya Samaj Movement?

 The Arya Samaj Movement was revivalist in form though not in

content, as the result of a reaction to Western influences.

 The first Arya Samaj unit was formally set up by Dayananda

Saraswati at Bombay in 1875 and later the headquarters of the
Samaj were established at Lahore.

 Guiding principles of the Arya Samaj are:

o God is the primary source of all true knowledge;

o God, as all-truth, all-knowledge, almighty, immortal,

creator of Universe, is alone worthy of worship;

o The Vedas are the books of true knowledge;

o An Arya should always be ready to accept truth and

abandon untruth;

o Dharma, that is, due consideration of right and wrong,

should be the guiding principle of all actions;
 o The principal aim of the Samaj is to promote world’s
well-being in the material, spiritual and social sense;

o Everybody should be treated with love and justice;

o Ignorance is to be dispelled and knowledge increased;

o One’s own progress should depend on the uplift of all

others;

o Social well-being of mankind is to be placed above an

individual’s well-being.

 The nucleus for this movement was provided by the Dayanand

Anglo-Vedic (D.A.V.) schools, established first at Lahore in 1886,
which sought to emphasise the importance of Western education.

 The Arya Samaj was able to give self-respect and self confidence to
the Hindus which helped to undermine the myth of superiority of
whites and the Western culture.

 The Arya Samaj started the shuddhi (purification) movement to

reconvert to the Hindu fold the converts to Christianity and Islam.

o This led to increasing communalisation of social life

during the 1920s and later snowballed into communal
political consciousness.

 The work of the Swami after his death was carried forward by Lala
Hansraj, Pandit Gurudutt, Lala Lajpat Rai and Swami Shraddhanand,
among others.

 Dayananda’s views were published in his famous work, Satyarth

Prakash (The True Exposition).
What was the Young Bengal Movement?

 The young Bengal movement was a movement led by thinkers of

the Hindu College of Calcutta. These thinkers were also known by
the name Derozians.

o This name was given to them after one teacher of the

same college, Henry Louis Vivian Derozio.

 Derozio promoted radical ideas through his teaching and by

organizing an association for debate and discussions on literature,
philosophy, history and science.

o They cherished the ideals of the French Revolution

(1789 A.D.) and the liberal thinking of Britain.

o The Derozians also supported women’s rights and

education.

 The main reason for their limited success was the prevailing social
condition at that time, which was not ripe for the adoption of radical
ideas.

o Further, support from any other social group or class

was absent.

o The Derozians lacked any real link with the masses, for
instance, they failed to take up the peasants’ cause.

o In fact their radicalism was bookish in character. But,

despite their limitations, the Derozians carried forward
 Roy’s tradition of public education on social, economic,
and political questions.

What was the Ramakrishna Movement?

 Ramakrishna Paramhansa was a mystic who sought religious

salvation in the traditional ways of renunciation, meditation and
devotion.

 He was a saintly person who recognized the fundamental oneness of

all religions and emphasized that there were many roads to God and
salvation and the service of man is the service of God.

 The teaching of Ramakrishna Paramhansa formed the basis of

the Ramakrishna Movement.

 The two objectives of the movements were:

o To bring into existence a band of monks dedicated to a

life of renunciation and practical spirituality, from among
whom teachers and workers would be sent out to spread
the Universal message of Vedanta as illustrated in the life
of Ramakrishna.

o In conjunction with lay disciples to carry on preaching,

philanthropic and charitable works, looking upon all men,
women and children, irrespective of caste, creed or color,
as veritable manifestations of the Divine.

 Swami Vivekananda established Ramakrishna Mission in 1897,

named after his Guru Swami Ramakrishna Paramhansa. The
institution did extensive educational and philanthropic work in India.
 o He also represented India in the first Parliament of
Religion held in Chicago (U.S.) in 1893.

 He used the Ramakrishna Mission for humanitarian relief and social

work.

 The mission stands for religious and social reform. Vivekananda

advocated the doctrine of service- the service of all beings.

o The service of jiva( living objects) is the worship of

Shiva. Life itself is religion.

o By service, the Divine exists within man. Vivekananda

was for using technology and modern science in the
service of mankind.

The Moderate Congress (1885-1905)

The moderates contributed significantly in Indian freedom struggle. The main

objective of the Moderates was to achieve self-government within the British
Empire. They followed a middle path and not an extreme path against British
Empire.

Methods employed by the Moderates:

1. In order to achieve their aim, they made several demands for reform
and indulged in criticising the Government policies.
2. They believed in patience and reconciliation rather than in violence
and confrontation.
 3. They relied on constitutional and peaceful methods in order to
achieve their aim.
4. They focus on educating people, arousing their political
consciousness and creating a public opinion, which.
5. In order to create public opinion in England, the Moderates arranged
lectures in different parts of England. A weekly journal called India
was published in England for circulation among the British
population.
6. Moderates used different types of newspaper and chronicles to
criticise the government policies through newspaper like Bengali
newspaper, Bombay chronicle, Hindustan Times, Induprakash, Rast
Goftar and a weekly journal India.
7. They also asked the Government to conduct an enquiry and find
ways and means to solve the problems faced by people.
8. They held meeting and held discussions concerning social, economic
and cultural matters. The moderates organized meetings at various
places like England, Mumbai, Allahabad, Pune, and Calcutta.

The major demands of the Moderates were:

 Expansion and reform of legislative councils.

 Greater opportunities for Indians in higher posts by holding the ICS
examination simultaneously in England and in India.
 Separation of the judiciary from the executive.
 More powers for the local bodies.
 Reduction of land revenue and protection of peasants from unjust
landlords.
 Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty Freedom of speech and
expression and freedom to form associations
 The repeal of the Arms Act
  Reduction of spending on army.
 The introduction of Permanent Settlement to other parts of India

Contributions of Moderate Nationalists:

1. The moderates led by Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, Dinshaw Wacha

and others, analysed the political economy of British rule in India,
and put forward the “drain theory” to explain British exploitation of
India.
2. Moderates were able to create an all-India public opinion that British
rule in India was the major cause of India’s poverty and economic
backwardness. The moderates demanded reduction in land revenue,
abolition of salt tax, improvement in working conditions of
plantation labour, etc.
3. They helped in expansion of council’s i.e. greater participation of
Indians in councils and helped in reform of councils i.e. more
powers to councils, especially greater control over finances.
4. The early nationalists worked with the long-term objective of a
democratic self-government.
5. They campaigned for General Administrative Reforms. They
demanded and put pressure on British Empire on Indianisation of
government service on the economic grounds.
6. They asked and contributed in Separation of judicial from executive
functions.
7. They criticised:

 Oppressive and tyrannical bureaucracy and an expensive and time-

consuming judicial system.
 Aggressive foreign policy which resulted in annexation of Burma,
attack on Afghanistan and suppression of tribals in the North-West.
  Increase in expenditure on welfare, education, especially elementary
and technical, irrigation works and improvement of agriculture,
agricultural banks for cultivators etc.

1. They fought for civil rights including the right to speech, thought,
association and a free press. Through campaigns, the nationalists
were able to spread modern democratic ideas, and soon the defence
of civil rights became an integral part of the freedom struggle.

The nationalists were, thus, able to build a national movement while

undermining the political and moral influence of imperialist rule. This helped in
generating anti-imperialist sentiments among the public. But, at the same time,
the nationalists failed to widen the democratic base of the movement by not
including the masses, especially women, and not demanding the right to vote for
all.

Important Indian National Congress Sessions

Introduction

 The Indian National Congress was founded at Bombay in December

1885.

 The early leadership – Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta,

Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji, Romesh
Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer, among others – was largely from
Bombay and Calcutta.

 A retired British official, A.O. Hume, also played a part in bringing

Indians from the various regions together.
  Formation of Indian National Congress was an effort in the direction
of promoting the process of nation building.

 In an effort to reach all regions, it was decided to rotate the Congress

session among different parts of the country.

 The President belonged to a region other than where the Congress

session was being held.

Sessions

 First Session: held at Bombay in 1885. President: W.C. Bannerjee

o Formation of Indian National Congress.

 Second Session: held at Calcutta in 1886. President: Dadabhai

Naoroji

 Third Session: held at Madras in 1887. President: Syed Badruddin

Tyabji, first muslim President.

 Fourth Session: held at Allahabad in 1888. President: George Yule,

first English President.

 1896: Calcutta. President: Rahimtullah Sayani

o National Song ‘Vande Mataram’ sung for the first time by

Rabindranath Tagore.

 1899: Lucknow. President: Romesh Chandra Dutt.

o Demand for permanent fixation of Land revenue

 1901: Calcutta. President: Dinshaw E.Wacha

 o First time Gandhiji appeared on the Congress platform

 1905: Benaras. President: Gopal Krishan Gokhale

o Formal proclamation of Swadeshi movement against

government

 1906: Calcutta. President: Dadabhai Naoroji

o Adopted four resolutions on: Swaraj (Self Government),

Boycott Movement, Swadeshi & National Education

 1907: Surat. President: Rash Bihari Ghosh

o Split in Congress- Moderates & Extremist

o Adjournment of Session

 1910: Allahabad. President: Sir William Wedderburn

o M.A Jinnah decried the separate electorate system

introduced by act of 1909

 1911: Calcutta. President: B.N. Dhar

o First time recital of Jan-Gan-Man in Congress session

 1915: Bombay. President: Sir S.P. Sinha

o Constitution of the Congress was altered to admit the

delegates from the extremist section

 1916: Lucknow. President: A.C. Majumdar

 o Unity between two factions-Moderates and Extremists of
Congress

o Lucknow Pact signed between Congress and Muslim

League to build political consensus

 1917: Calcutta. President: Annie Besant, First Woman President of

Congress

 1918 (Special session): Bombay. President: Syed Hasan Imam

o The session was convened to deliberate the

contentious Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms Scheme

 1919: Amritsar. President: Motilal Nehru

o Congress extended support to Khilafat Movement

 1920 (Special Session): Calcutta. President: Lala Lajpat Rai

o Mahatma Gandhi moved the Non cooperation resolution

 1920: Nagpur. President: C. Vijayaraghavachariar

o Reconstitution of Working committees of Congress on

Linguistic basis

o MA Jinnah left the Indian National Congress

 1922: Gaya. President: C.R. Das

 o CR Das and other leaders broke away from INC

o Formation of Swaraj Party

 1924: Belgaum. President: M.K. Gandhi

o Only Session presided over by Mahatma Gandhi

 1925: Kanpur. President: Sarojini Naidu, First Indian Woman

President

 1927: Madras. President: Dr. M.A. Ansari

o Passed a resolution against the use of Indian troops in

China, Iran and Mesopotamia.

o Passed a resolution against boycott of Simon Commission

o Adoption of resolution on Purna Swaraj

 1928: Calcutta. President: Motilal Nehru

o Formation of All India Youth Congress

 1929: Lahore. President: Jawahar Lal Nehru

o Passed the resolution on ‘Poorna Swaraj.’

o Civil Disobedience movement for complete

independence to be launched

o 26 January to be observed as ‘Independence Day’.

 1931: Karachi. President: Vallabhbhai Patel

 o Resolutions on Fundamental Rights and National
Economic Programme

o Endorsement of Gandhi-Irwin pact

o Gandhi nominated to represent INC in the Second Round

Table Conference to be held in London

 1934: Bombay. President: Rajendra Prasad

o Amendment in the Constitution of Congress

 1936: Lucknow. President: Jawahar Lal Nehru

o Push towards socialist ideas by Jawahar Lal Nehru

 1937: Faizpur. President: Jawahar Lal Nehru

o First Session to be held in a village

 1938: Haripura. President: Subhas Chandra Bose

o National Planning Committee set up under Jawahar Lal

Nehru.

 1939: Tripuri. President: Rajendra Prasad

o Subhas Chandra Bose was re-elected but had to resign

o Rajendra Prasad was appointed in his place

o Subhash Chandra Bose formed Forward Bloc

 1940: Ramgarh. President: Abul Kalam Azad

 o Civil Disobedience movement to be launched at
appropriate time and circumstances.

 1941–45: This Period is marked by events i.e. Quit India

movement, RIN Mutiny & INA trials.

o Phase of constitutional negotiations such as Cripps

Mission, Wavell Plan and Cabinet Mission.

o On account of these events during this phase no congress

session was held.

 1946: Meerut. President: J.B Kripalani

o Last session before independence

o J.B Kriplani was the president of INC at independence.

Indian Councils Act of 1892 was passed with the objective of increasing the
size of legislative councils in India thereby increasing the engagement of
Indians with respect to the administration in British India. Following the
foundation of the Indian National Congress, the Indian Councils Act of 1892
represents a significant milestone in India's constitutional and political history.
The UPSC Indian Polity and Governance Syllabus includes Indian Councils
Act of 1892 which is described in this article.
 Indian Council act 1892
Historical Background
Indian Councils Act 1892 - Historical Background

 Following the Great Revolt of 1857, British realised that it needed to

ensure the help of its Indian subjects in administering India.
 In addition, as nationalism grew in popularity, Indians became more
cognizant of their rights.
 Following the founding of the Indian National Congress, the Indian
Councils Act of 1892 represents a significant milestone in India's
constitutional and political history.
 After the Act of 1861, the growth of the Indian Constitution is essentially
a story of political discontent and agitation interspersed with Council
Reforms.
 The reforms that were reluctantly accepted were always found to be
insufficient, resulting in dissatisfaction and a demand for more reforms.
 During the 1885-1889,as a result of the growing nationalism, the Indiana
National Congress raised several demands through its sessions.
The following were the main demands:

 An ICS test was to be held simultaneously in England and India.

 Expansion of the Legislative Councils, including the adoption of the
election-in-place-of-nomination basis.
 Opposition to Upper Burma's annexation.
 Military spending should be reduced
 Ability to have previously forbidden financial chats.

Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy at the time, convened a commission to investigate

the situation. On the other side, the Secretary of State opposed the idea of a
direct election. However, he agreed to indirect electoral representation.

Objective
The Indian Councils Act 1892 - Objective

Increase in the size of various legislative councils in India thereby increasing

the engagement of Indians with respect to the administration in British India.

Indian Councils Act of 1892 was passed with the objective of increasing the size
of legislative councils in India.

Key Provisions
Indian Council Act 1892 - Key Provisions
  It raised the number of (non-official) members in the Central and
Provincial Legislative Councils while keeping the official majority.
o Bombay - 8
o Madras - 20
o Bengal - 20
o North Western Province -15
o Oudh - 15
o Central Legislative Council minimum - 10, maximum 16
 The Act made it clear that the members appointed to the council were not
there as representatives of any Indian body, but as nominees of the
Governor-General.
 Members could now debate the budget without voting right. They were
also barred from asking follow-up questions.
 The elected members were permitted to discuss official and internal
matters.
 The Governor General in Council was given the authority to set rules for
member nomination, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State for
India.
 To elect members of the councils, an indirect election system was
implemented.
 Members of provincial councils could be recommended by universities,
district boards, municipalities, zamindars, and chambers of commerce.
 Provincial legislative councils were given more powers, including the
ability to propose new laws or repeal old ones with the Governor
General's assent.

Significance
Indian Councils Act 1892 - Significance
  It was the first step toward a representative system of government in
contemporary India.
 The number of Indians increased, which was a good thing.
 Despite the fact that Indians did not have the power to veto the majority,
their opinions were heard.
 The principle of election, which was accepted in 1892, allowed non-
officials to have a free and open discussion on the government's financial
strategy. As a result, the administration had an opportunity to clear up
misconceptions and respond to criticism.
 The statute gave members of the council the authority to issue
interpellations on subjects of public concern.

Defects
Indian Council Act 1892 - Limitations

 Despite being the first step toward a representative government in modern

India, this act provided no benefits to the common man.
 This act created the stage for the development of numerous revolutionary
forces in India because the British only made a minor concession.
 Many leaders, including Bal Gangadhar Tilak, faulted Congress's
moderate strategy of petitions and persuasions for the lack of significant
progress and called for a more assertive policy against British rule.

Conclusion
Conclusion

The Indian Councils Act, 1892 is a significant milestone in India's constitutional

and political history. The act increased the size of various legislative councils in
India thereby increasing the engagement of Indians with respect to the
administration in British India. The Indian Councils Act, 1892 was the first step
towards the representative government in modern India. The act created the
stage for the development of revolutionary forces in India because the British
only made a minor concession.

The Extremist (1905-1920)

Introduction

 The rise of extremism on the Indian political scene was not sudden.
In fact it had been growing steadily since the uprising of 1857.
o Though the uprising was brutally suppressed by the British,
the ideas of ‘Swadharma’ and ‘Swaraj’, which had kindled
the uprising continued to linger on as an undercurrent among
the Indian people
 The ‘peaceful’ methods used by the moderate leaders were not
effective in making the British Government accept their demands.


o As a result a number of politically conscious people became

frustrated and disillusioned.
o At the end of the 19th century, a strong feeling arose among
the people that more radical political action was needed to
force the British to accept popular demands
  Various international events also gave impetus to the growth of
extremism in India.
o Revolutionary movements in Ireland, Russia, Egypt, Turkey,
China and the Boer War in South Africa made the Indian
leaders aware that the British rule could only be challenged by
putting a united stand against it
o The defeat of the Italian Army by the Ethiopians in 1896,
and the Russian Army by the Japanese in 1905, showed
that the Europeans were not invincible
o All these instilled a sense of self-respect and self-confidence
in the Indian Nationalists
 They became prominent after the Partition of Bengal in 1905
o Their radical ideology and programme became popular during
the movement against Partition of Bengal, also known as
the ‘Swadeshi Movement’

Ideology and Methods

 Unlike moderates, the extremist leaders neither believed in the

goodness of the British rule nor in their sense of justice and fair play
 Since exploitation of India was the chief motive of the British, the
extremists did not expect them to take a sympathetic view of the
popular demands of the Indian people.
o Therefore, it was necessary to use pressure to make them
accept the demands, not by petitioning or praying like the
moderates, but by openly agitating against them
 The Extremist programme involved the following activities:
 o ‘Boycott’ of foreign goods and promotion
of ‘Swadeshi’ goods to give impetus to the growth of
indigenous industry and commerce.
o Non-cooperation with the bureaucracy; this included
‘boycott’ of governmental activities.
o Establishment of schools and colleges that gave education in
the Indian languages and instil in the students pride for the
glorious heritage of India, make the students nationalistic and
public spirited in character and knowledgeable, self-reliant and
independent in spirit
o ‘ Passive Resistance’ to British rule by non-payment of
revenue and taxes and by organising separate ‘indigenous
administrative institutions’ parallel to those of the British at
the level of villages, talukas and districts
o Public meetings and processions emerged as major methods
of mass mobilisation. Simultaneously they were forms of
popular expression
o The swadeshi spirit also found expression in the
establishment of swadeshi textile mills, soap and match
factories, tanneries, banks, insurance companies, shops, etc.
These enterprises were based more on patriotic zeal than on
business acumen
 Further, The Extremist leaders disfavoured the use of
violence against British rule and did not approve the methods of
political murder and assassination used by the Indian
revolutionaries.
o However, they did take a sympathetic view of the activities of
the revolutionaries
Significance of the Extremists

 There was a fundamental change in the nature of Indian

nationalism under extremist leadership due to their forceful
articulation of the demand for ‘Swaraj’ and use of more radical
methods than those of the moderates.
 Their concept of Nationalism was emotionally charged and based
on rich interpretation of Indian religious traditions.
o The Extremist leaders tried to reorient Indian religious
traditions to worldly life and link them with the national
liberation struggle
o Example: Aurobindo Ghose reinterpreted Vedanta philosophy,
which advocated unity of man and God and based his concept
of nationalism on it
 The extremists emphasised the mobilisation of people against
foreign rule by launching political movements.
o If the nation was not ready to undertake political movement,
then it was the duty of the leaders to prepare the people for it
o The extremists were ready to suffer imprisonment, deportation
and other physical suffering for the sake of mobilising the
masses for struggle against foreign rule.
 The demonstrations, processions undertaken by the extremists
brought about an involvement of the common people in agitations
against British rule.
o They also made use of popular symbols like Shivaji, and
religious symbols like God Ganapati and Goddess Kali for
mobilising the people
 Prominent leaders of the Extremist Period

 Lala Lajpat Rai

o Known as the Lion of Punjab
o He found the National School at Lahore under the influence of
Arya Samaj
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak
o He was also known as Lokamanya Tilak
o He found the Deccan Education Society and was the co-
founder of Fergusson College
o He gave the slogan, ”Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have
it”
o Kesari(Hindi) and Mahratta(English) were the newspapers
started by him
o He started the All India Home Rule League in 1916
 Bipin Chandra Pal
o He is known as the father of revolutionary thoughts in India
o Together the above leaders were referred to as the Lal-Bal-Pal
triumvirate of assertive nationalists
 Aurobindo Ghosh

Basis o He started an English newspaper called

Moderates Bande Mataram
Extremists

Phase 1885-1905 1905-1920

Aim 1. Aimed at administrative and 1. Aim of getting Swaraj

 constitutional reforms. 2. Wanted to end the
2. Wanted more Indians in the tyranny rule of British.
administration and not to an end of
British rule.

3. They were secular in their attitudes,

though not always forthright enough
to rise above their sectarian interests.
They knew the exploitative nature of
British rule but wanted its reforms and
not expulsion.

Ideology 1. They believe in the efficacy of 1. They were radical in

peaceful and constitutional agitation. their approach. Demands
of extremists were
2. They had great faith in the British
aggressive.
sense of justice and fair play.
2. They believed in
3. They were inspired by the ideas of
atmashakti or self-
western philosophers like Mill, Burke,
reliance as a weapon
Spencer and Bentham. Moderates
against domination.
imbibed western ideas of liberalism,
democracy, equity and freedom. 3. Ideological inspiration
was Indian History,
Cultural heritage,
national education and
Hindu traditional
symbols. Hence, they
revived the Ganapati and
Shivaji festivals to arouse
the masses.
 4. They wanted to
inculcate pride in India’s
glorious culture to
generate the spirit of
nationalism. They
invoked goddesses Kali
or Durga for strength to
fight for the motherland.

5. Guided by four:
principles Swarajya,
Swadeshi, Boycott of
foreign goods and
National education to
make the Indian aware.

Methodology 1. They follow the principles of 3P: 1. They believe in

Petition, Prayer and Protest. militant methods.

2. They believed in cooperation and 2. They follow the

reconciliation. principle of atmashakti or
self-reliance as a weapon
against domination.

3. Method of Non-
Cooperation.

4. They advocated
democracy,
constitutionalism and
progress.
 Lala Lajpat Rai,
A.O. Hume. W.C. Banerjee. Surendra
Lokmanya Bal
Nath Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji,
Gangadhar Tilak. Bipin
Feroze Shah Mehta. Gopalakrishna
Leaders Chandra Pal, Aurobindo
Gokhale. Pandit Madan Mohan
Ghosem Rajnarayan
Malaviya. Badruddin Tyabji. Justice
Bose, and Ashwini
Ranade and G.Subramanya Aiyar
Kumar Dutt

Educated middle and

Social Zamindars and Upper middle classes
lower middle classes in
Support in towns
towns

Contribution 1. Economic Critique of British 1. Demand of Swaraj

Imperialism
2. Mass movement
2. Constitutional Reforms and
3. Spread of national
Propaganda in Legislature
education
3. Campaign for General
4. Upliftment of
Administrative Reforms
downtrodden
4. Defence of Civil Rights
5. Nationalism

6. Support to
revolutionary movements

7. Rise of communalism

8. Encouraged co-
operative organisation

9. Set up charitable
association for rural
 sanitation, preventive
police duties, regulation
of fairs and pilgrim
gatherings for providing
relief fund during
famines and other
calamities.

Comparison between Moderates and Extremists

Partition of Bengal

On January 6, 1899, Lord Curzon was appointed the new Governor General and
Viceroy of India. This was a time when British unpopularity was increasing due
to the impact of recurring famine and the plague. Curzon did little to change the
opinion of the educated Indian class. Instead of engaging with the nationalist
intelligentsia, he implemented a series of repressive measures. For instance, he
reduced the number of elected Indian representatives in the Calcutta
Corporation (1899). The University Act of 1904 brought the Calcutta University
under the direct control of the government. The Official Secrets Act (1904) was
amended to curb the nationalist tone of Indian newspapers. Finally, he ordered
partition of Bengal in 1905. The partition led to widespread protest all across
India, starting a new phase of the Indian national movement.

Bengal Presidency as an administrative unit was indeed of unmanageable in

size; the necessity of partition was being discussed since the 1860s. The scheme
of partition was revived in March 1890. In Assam, when Curzon went on a tour,
he was requested by the European planters to make a maritime outlet closer to
Calcutta to reduce their dependence on the Assam– Bengal railways. Following
this, in December 1903, Curzon drew up a scheme in his Minutes on Territorial
Redistribution of India, which was later modified and published as the Risely
Papers. The report gave two reasons in support of partition: Relief of Bengal
and the improvement of Assam. The report, however, concealed information on
how the plan was originally devised for the convenience of British officials and
the European businessmen.

From December 1903 and 1905 this initial idea of transferring or reshuffling
some areas from Bengal was changed to a full-fledged plan of partition. The
Bengal was to be divided into two provinces. The new Eastern Bengal and
Assam were to include the divisions of Chittagong, Dhaka, parts of Rajshahi
hills of Tippera, Assam province and Malda.

Aimed at Hindu Muslim Divide

The intention of Curzon was to suppress the political activities against the
British rule in Bengal and to create a Hindu–Muslim divide. The government
intentionally ignored alternative proposals presented by the civil servants,
particularly the idea of dividing Bengal on linguistic basis. Curzon rejected this
proposal as this would further consolidate the position of the Bengali
politicians. Curzon was adamant as he wanted to create a clearly segregated
Hindu and Muslim population in the divided Bengal. Curzon, like many before
him, knew very well that there was a clear geographical divide along the river
Bhagirathi: eastern Bengal dominated by the Muslims, and western Bengal
dominated by the Hindus and in the central Bengal and the two communities
balancing out each other. There was a conscious attempt on the part of British
administration to woo the Muslim population in Bengal. In his speech at Dhaka,
in Februry 1904, Curzon assured the Muslims that in the new province of East
Bengal, Muslims would enjoy a unity, which they had never enjoyed since the
days of old Muslim rule.

The partition, instead of dividing the Bengali people along the religious line,
united them. Perhaps the British administration had underestimated the growing
feeling of Bengali identity among the people, which cut across caste, class,
religion and regional barriers.By the end of the nineteenth century, a strong
sense of Bengali unity had developed among large sections in the society.
Bengali language had acquired literary status with Rabindranath Tagore as the
central figure. The growth of regional language newspapers played a role in
building the narrative of solidarity. Similarly, recurring famines, unemployment,
and a slump in the economic growth generated an anti-colonial feeling.

Anti-Partition Movement

Both the militants and the moderates were critical of the partition of Bengal
ever since it was announced in December 1903. But the anti-partition response
by leaders like Surendranath Banerjee, K.K. Mitra, and Prithwishchandra Ray
remained restricted to prayers and petitions. The objective was limited to
influencing public opinion in England against the partition. However, despite
this widespread resentment, partition of Bengal was officially declared on 19
July 1905.

With the failure to stop the partition of Bengal and the pressure exerted by the
radical leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, Aswini Kumar Dutta, and Aurobindo
Ghose, the moderate leaders were forced to rethink their strategy, and look for
new techniques of protest. Boycott of British goods was one such method,
which after much debate was accepted by the moderate leadership of the Indian
National Congress. So, for the first time, the moderates went beyond their
conventional political methods. It was decided, at a meeting in Calcutta on 17
July 1905, to extend the protest to the masses. In the same meeting,
Surendranath Banerjee gave a call for the boycott of British goods and
institutions. On 7 August, at another meeting at the Calcutta Town Hall, a
formal proclamation of Swadeshi Movement was made.

However, the agenda of Swadeshi movement was still restricted to securing an

annulment of the partition and the moderates were very much against utilizing
the campaign to start a full-scale passive resistance. The militant nationalists, on
the other hand, were in favour of extending the movement to other provinces
too and to launch a full-fledged mass struggle.

Spread of the Movement

Besides the organized efforts of the leaders, there were spontaneous reactions
against the partition of Bengal. Students, in particular, came out in large
numbers. Reacting to the increased role of the students in the anti-partition
agitation, British officials threatened to withdraw the scholarships and grants to
those who participated in programmes of direct action. In response to this, a call
was given to boycott official educational institutions and it was decided that
efforts were to be made to open national schools. Thousands of public meetings
were organized in towns and villages across Bengal. Religious festivals such as
the Durga Pujas were utilized to invoke the idea of boycott. The day Bengal was
officially partitioned – 16 Oct 1905 – was declared as a day of mourning.
Thousands of people took bath in the Ganga and marched on the streets of
Calcutta singing Bande Mataram.

Boycott and Swadeshi Movements in Bengal (1905–1911)

Such efforts, both organized and spontaneous, laid the foundation for a
sustained campaign against the British. The boycott and swadeshi were always
interlinked to each other and part of a wider plan to make India self-sufficient.
G. Subramaniam, a nationalist leader from Madras, succinctly explained the aim
of the swadeshi movement as ‘a revolt against their state of dependence…in all
branches of their national life’. In the words of Gopal Krishna Gokhale, ‘the
swadeshi movement is not only for the improvement of our industry but for an
allround enhancement of our national life ....’ As the movement progressed,
different definitions of Swadeshi appeared. However, for the larger part, the
movement of Swadeshi and Boycott was practiced as an anti -colonial political
agitation and not as a viable method to achieve dignity and freedom in life, a
definition which would be later infused with the entry of Mahatma Gandhi.

(a) Constructive Swadeshi

The constructive Swadeshi programmes largely stressed upon self-help. It

focused on building alternative institutions of self-governance that would
operate entirely free from British control. It also laid emphasis on the need for
self-strengthening of the people which would help in creating a worthy citizen
before the launch of political agitations.

Rabindranath Tagore was one of the central figures who popularized such ideas
through his writings. He outlined the constructive programme of atmashakti
Tagore called for economic self- development and insisted that education should
be provided in swadeshi languages. He also made the call for utilising melas, or
fairs, to spread the message of atmashakti. This became the creed of the whole
of Bengal and swadeshi shops sprang all over the place selling textiles,
handlooms, soaps, earthenware, matches and leather goods.

On 5 November 1905, at the initiative of the Dawn Society, the National

Council of Education was formed. In August 1906, Bengal National College
and a School were founded. A passionate appeal was made by Satish Chandra to
the students to come out of ‘institutions of slavery.’ Such efforts, however,
failed to attract many due to the bleak job prospects.

Evolution of the idea of Swadeshi

During the freedom struggle, the idea of Swadeshi movement was

conceptualized first during 1905 by a string of Congress leaders and then later
in the 1920s under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.

Swadeshi means ‘of one’s own country’. The origin of the idea can be traced to
1872 when Mahadev Govind Ranade, in a series of lectures in Poona,
popularised the idea of Swadeshi. According to Ranade, the goods produced in
one’s own country should be given preference even if the use of such goods
proved to be less satisfactory.
In the 1920s Gandhi gave a new meaning to the idea of Swadeshi by linking it to
the fulfilment of a duty that all Indians owed to the land of their birth. For
Gandhi, Swadeshi did not merely mean the use of what is produced in one’s own
country. Gandhi defined Swadeshi in following words “Swadeshi is that spirit in
us which restricts us to the use and service of our immediate surroundings to the
exclusion of more remote. I should use only things that are produced by my
immediate neighbours and serve those industries by making them efficient and
complete where they may be found wanting.”

(b) Samitis

The other successful method of mass mobilization was the formation of samitis
(corps of volunteers). The samitis were engaged in a range of activities such as
physical and moral training of members, philanthropic work during the famines,
epidemics, propagation of Swadeshi message during festivals, and organization
of indigenous arbitration courts, and schools. By its very nature boycott was
passive action and its aim was to refuse to cooperate with the British
administration.

But these mass mobilization efforts failed to flourish as they could not extend
their base among the Muslim peasantry and the “Depressed Classes”. Most of
the samitis recruited from the educated middle class and other upper caste
Hindus. Besides this, the swadeshi campaigners often applied coercive methods,
both social and physical. For instance, social boycott of those purchasing
foreign goods was common and taken up through caste associations and other
nationalist organisations.

(c) Passive Resistance

From 1906, when the abrogation of partition was no longer in sight, the
Swadeshi Movement took a different turn. For many leaders, the movement was
to be utilized for propagating the idea of the political independence or Swaraj
across India. The constructive programmes came under heavy criticism from
Aurobindo Ghose, Bipin Chandra Pal, and other militant leaders. Under their
new direction, the swadeshi agenda included boycott of foreign goods; boycott
of government schools and colleges; boycott of courts; renouncing the titles and
relinquishing government services; and recourse to armed struggle if British
repression went beyond the limits of endurance. The programme of this nature
required mass mobilization. Using religion, combined with the invocation of a
glorious past, became the essential features of their programmes.