Characteristics of PN-Diode using Ge

Semiconductor

Abstract—In the present era, semiconductor devices are Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si), and gallium arsenide (GaAs)
involved in every modern technolgy. Industries are integrating are utilized as semiconductors in electronics. These materials'
semiconductor devices in their products due to the verstaility, atoms have four valence electrons, which can form bonds
ability to control the flow of charges and miniaturization
with the other four electrons in the atoms of other materials.
capability. Different kind of semiconductor materials are
The energy gap of the insulator is less than the energy gap
available, but in this project, Geraminum (Ge) semiconductor’s
between the conduction band and the valence band. The
characteristics has been studied for the development of an
electronic device to convert AC signal into DC signal, i.e., Half
valence electron can therefore be transferred from the valence

wave rectifer. The simulation has been done using COMSOL
Multiphysics software, in which we observed the characterisitics
of PN diode by checking the electron and hole concentrations.
2D and 1D graphs were representing the electron and hole pair
concentrations in the semiconductor device. The hole
concentration graph demonstrates that majority of hole barriers
are at the bottom, while electrons are at the top left corners.
After observing th concentration values, we measured the
minimum voltage that keeps the majoriy and minority charge
carriers into the region and in the end we observed the rectifed
bond to the conduction band at very low energy [1].
A PN junction diode is a two-terminal electrical component
that exclusively permits one-way electric current passage. It
only permits the flow of electricity when it is forward biased;
when it is reverse biased, it prevents the flow of electricity.
Extremely pure semiconductors are defined as an intrinsic
semiconductor. The conductivity of this semiconductor will
be zero at room temperature, according to the energy band
theory. Two examples of inherent semiconductors are Si and

waveform. The rectifed waveform is elaborating the behavior of Ge.

diode using the germanium (Ge) semiconductor.

Keywords—Half Wave Rectifier, COMSOL Multiphysics Tool,

Germanium (Ge) Semiconductor, Hole pair Concentration,
Electron Concentration, Voltage level

I. I NTRODUCTION (HEADING 1)
The term "semiconductor" refers to a class of materials whose
electrical conductivity falls between the conductor and
insulator. Conductor is the substance which conducts electric
charge while insulator is the one which prevents of flow of
electric current.
Figure 2 Intrinsic Semiconductor Device

The valence band is fully filled whereas the conduction band

Figure 1: Structure for Germanium and Silicon as
Semiconductor device
is vacant as shown in the following diagram . Once the
temperature has been increased, some heat energy can be
given to it. Electrons from the valence band are transferred to
the conduction band after getting energized with the help of
temperature as a result of leaving the valence band [2].

XXX-X-XXXX-XXXX-X/XX/$XX.00 ©20XX IEEE

 Figure 3 Energy bands for Intrinsic semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductors are semiconductors that have had
an impurity added to them at controlled levels in order to
render them conductive.
Extrinsic semiconductors can be created by doping intrinsic
semiconductors, just as insulating materials can be doped to
transform them into semiconductors. Due to doping, extrinsic
semiconductors may be classified into two groups: those with
more electrons (n-type for negative, from group V), and those
with less electrons (p-type for positive, from group III) [2].
Doping is the deliberate addition of impurities to a
semiconductor that is extremely pure or intrinsic in order to
modify its electrical properties. The impurities differ
depending on the kind of semiconductor. Light to moderately
doped semiconductors are classified as extrinsic
semiconductors [4].
Figure 4 Extrinsic Semiconductor Device
The material characteristics of several kinds
semiconductor materials are given in the following.
Figure 5 Semiconductor material characteristics
The electrical conductivity of semiconductors is influenced
by a wide range of variables, including temperature, the
quantity of charge carriers presents, humidity levels, and
charge carrier mobility. Due to variations in the motion of
charge carriers caused by temperature, the relationship
between resistance and temperature influences the resistance
of the conductor.
Semiconductor devices are almost used in every sort of
technologies in the present world [3]. Few of them are
mentioned in the below.
• Mobile Phones
• Digital Cameras
• Washing machine
• Refrigerators
• LED bulbs.
of
 II. SIMULATION RESULTS

Figure 8: Electric Potential surface for Germanium

Figure 6: Electron Concentration for Germanium

Figure 9: input and output waveform of PN diode

III. DISCUSSION
Figure 7: Hole concentration for Germanium
Figure 6 shows the graph of electron concentration. The
graph's width and depth are both set at 5 and 7 μm,
respectively. The red graph displays the concentration of
electrons, while the blue color indicates the density of holes.
As a result, in n-type materials, electrons make up the bulk of
carriers while holes make up the minority. The graph displays
n-type material and demonstrates that holes are in the
minority in the upper left corner of the graph surface while
electrons are in the majority at the bottom of the graph
surface. the concentration of electron carriers, please. The
provided data is listed in below table.

Name Values
Semiconductor Material Ge
𝑵𝑫𝒐 2 × 1018 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑵𝑨𝟎 1 × 1018 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑽𝑺𝑹𝑪 10 V
Table 1: Given values

We are aware that while NA =0, N-type materials have a

concentration of electron carriers. Thermal equilibrium, then,
results in a majority carrier electron concentration in the N-
Figure 10:Plot for calculating ni at different temperature
type region:
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑁𝐷 = 2 × 1018 𝑐𝑚 −3 Getting values from the graph:
𝑛𝑖 = 2 × 1013 𝑐𝑚−3
It will be determined how many minority carrier holes are
present at thermal equilibrium in the N area by using the Thus, we calculate the minority hole carrier concentration at
formula. thermal equilibrium by plugging all values into equation A:
𝑛𝑖2
𝑝𝑛𝑜 = (𝐴) (2 × 1013 )2
𝑁𝐷 𝑝𝑛𝑜 = = 2 × 1018 𝑐𝑚−3
2 × 1018
It is unclear what the inherent carrier concentration is. So, the The total minority carriers in N region will be given by
first thing we must do is determine the n i at room temperature
𝑒𝑉𝑎
(T = 300 K). The inherent carrier concentration value is 𝑝𝑛 = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
shown in Figure 10, for our reference. ∴ 𝑉𝑎 = 0.45𝑉
𝑒 1 1
= = = 38.61 𝑉 −1
𝑘𝑇 𝑉𝑡 0.0259
Therefore,

0.45
𝑝𝑛 = (2 × 1018 ) (𝑒 0.0259 ) = 7.025 × 1025 𝑐𝑚 −3
Similarly, excess carrier concentration at x n will be given by

𝑛𝑛 (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑁𝐷 = 2 × 1018 𝑐𝑚−3

0.45
𝑝𝑛 (𝑥 𝑛) = (2 × 1018 ) ( 𝑒 0.0259 ) = 7.025 × 1025 𝑐𝑚−3
or
𝑛𝑖2 𝑒𝑉𝑎
∆𝑝𝑛 (𝑥 𝑛 ) = ( 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1)
𝑁𝐷
= 𝑝𝑛 (𝑥 𝑛 ) − 𝑝𝑛𝑜
= 7.025 × 1025 𝑐𝑚 −3
Figure 7 illustrates the 2D graph of hole carrier concentration. 𝑁𝑎 𝑁𝐷
𝑉𝑏𝑖 = 𝑉𝑡 ln ( )
As we previously stated, the color blue stands for a 𝑛 2𝑖

concentration of holes, whereas the color red stands for an (2 × 1018 )(1 × 1018 )
= (0.0259) ln ( )
(2 × 1013 ) 2
electron concentration. The fact that the bulk of the carriers
for holes are on the bottom side and the minority of the = 0.578𝑉

carriers for electrons are on the top left side may therefore be Using a PN diode, Figure 9 shows how a half wave rectifier

explored. actually operates. There are three plots, and each one is

Since ND =0, the bulk of the holes are found in p -type exhibiting distinct qualities. Because both the positive and

materials. The predominant hole concentration in P-type is negative half cycles are shown, the red waveform, for

therefore provided by instance, shows a sinusoidal signal generated by a n AC

𝑝𝑝 = 𝑁𝐴 = 1 × 1018 𝑐𝑚 −3 source. However, the green waveform is only displayed

The minority carriers—electrons that are in thermal during the positive half of the cycle, and during the negative

equilibrium—are determined by the following formula. half, it is zero. This occurs as a result of the pn junction's

𝑛𝑖2 (2 × 1013 ) 2 width contracting during forward biasing and expanding

𝑛𝑝𝑜 = = = 4 × 108 𝑐𝑚−3 during reverse biasing. The forward bias mode voltage drops
𝑁𝐴 1 × 1018
The total minority carriers in P region will be given by and peak inverse voltage across the diode are represented by
the third waveform, which is blue. It is obvious that pn diode
𝑒 𝑉𝑎
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑝𝑜 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 is turned ON as soon supply voltage increased from 𝑉𝑏𝑖 . The
∴ 𝑉𝑎 = 0.45𝑉 voltage across the load can be calculated as
𝑒 1 1
= = = 38.61 𝑉 −1
𝑘𝑇 𝑉𝑡 0.0259
0.45 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑏𝑖
𝑛𝑝 = (4 × 108 ) (𝑒 0.0259 )
= 1.405 × 1026 𝑐𝑚 −3 𝑉𝑅 = 10 − 0.578 = 9.421 𝑉
Similarly, excess carrier concentration at -x p will be given
The term "built-in voltage" refers to the gap between Vin and
by
VR. Theoretically, it should be equal to 0.3V, but in our
18 −3
𝑝𝑝 (−𝑥 𝑝) = 𝑁𝐴 = 1 × 10 𝑐𝑚 situation, an excess of electron concentration has caused it to
be 0.578 V.
0.45
𝑛𝑝 (−𝑥 𝑝 ) = (4 × 1018 ) ( 𝑒 0.0259 ) = 1.405 × 1026 𝑐𝑚−3
IV. CONCLUSIONS

𝑛𝑖2 𝑒𝑉𝑎
∆𝑛𝑝 (−𝑥 𝑝 ) = ( 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1) In this project, we come to know the characteristics behavior
𝑁𝐴
of the PN diode using the germanium semiconductor device.

= 𝑛𝑝 (−𝑥𝑝 ) − 𝑛𝑝𝑜 We come to know the usage of COMSOL Multiphysics

= 1.405 × 1026 𝑐𝑚 −3
The electrical potential between the P and N junction is
shown in Figure 8. The bare minimum voltage (P and N) that
prevents both majority carriers and minority carriers from
entering their respective regions.
Electrical potential is another term for built-in potential, and
the following criteria can be used to assess it:
software for the simulation purposes. In conclusion, the
characterisitics of PN diode is observed by visualizing the
electron and hole concentrations. 2D and 1D graphs were
representing the electron and hole pair concentrations in the
semiconductor device. The hole concentration graph
demonstrates that majority of hole barriers are at the bottom,
while electrons are at the top left corners. After observing the
concentration values, we measured the minimum voltage, i.e.,
0.578V, keeps the majoriy and minority charge carriers into
the region and in the end we observed the rectifed waveform.
The rectifed waveform is elaborating the behavior of diode
using the germanium (Ge) semiconductor. This project can be
enhanced by applying same sort of circuit in the practical
applications to observe the behavior of appliances and modern
technologies.
[3] E. A. Gutierrez-D, “Semiconductor materials and devices for
medical and environmental applications,” LAEDC 2021 - IEEE
Lat. Am. Electron Devices Conf., Apr. 2021, doi:
10.1109/LAEDC51812.2021.9437925.
[4] J. P. Duchemin, “NEW SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS FOR
MICROWAVE APPLICATIONS.,” Conf. Proc. - Eur. Microw.
Conf., pp. 19–24, 1980, doi: 10.1109/EUMA.1980.332802.

CONTRIPUTION OF EACH GROUP M EMBER

Abdullah Alajmi 47026 → Documentation APPENDIX: PROJECT CODE

Khalefah Almutairi 46727 → Simulation
Ahmad Alenezi 46405 → Discussion of simulation
result
Ammar Sarkhouh 43805→ Introduction of the report

REFERENCES

[1] A. Srivastava and B. Kumar, “Organic Light Emitting Diodes -

Recent Advancements,” Oct. 2018, doi:
10.1109/INDICON.2017.8488040.
[2] M. Razeghi and A. Rogalski, “Semiconductor ultraviolet
detectors,” J. Appl. Phys., vol. 79, no. 10, pp. 7433–7473, May
1996, doi: 10.1063/1.362677.