EEN-206

Power Transmission and Distribution

Lecture 21: Corona
Dr. Deep Kiran
Insulators for Overhead Line
 Insulators are used to insulate towers from the live
conductors

 The insulators are attached to the tower and support

the line conductors.

 Important characteristics:
 Homogeneous materials without voids and
impurities.
 Minimum leakage current.
 High dielectric or breakdown strength.
 Mechanically strong to bear the conductor load
 Longer life.
Insulators for Overhead Line
 Porcelain:
 Porcelain is widely used as it is cheap.
 It is thoroughly vitrified to remove voids and
glazed before use to keep surface free of dust and
moisture.
 Breakdown strength is around 120-280 kV/cm
 Glass:
 Toughened glass is another choice having higher
dielectric strength (1200 kV/cm), mechanical
strength and life, higher thermal shock resistant,
lower coefficient of expansion
 Flaws can be detected easily by visual inspection.
 Main disadvantage is moisture rapidly condenses
on the surface giving high surface leakage current.
 Expensive
Insulators for Overhead Line
 Polymeric Insulation:
 Silicone rubber and EPDM (Ethylene propylene diene
monomer) are used for insulation purpose.
 Low cost, light weight, smaller in size, higher life,
improved dielectric performance under contamination or
pollution.
 They are used in combination with fiber glass rod.
 Tracking and erosion of the shed material, which can
lead to bad pollution performance and can cause
flashover.
 Chalking and crazing of the insulator’s surface, which
resulted in increased contaminant collection, arcing, and
flashover.
Insulator Ratings
 Three voltages ratings
 Working voltage
 Puncture voltage
 Flashover voltage

Flashover Voltage
Safety Factor =
Working Voltage

 Flashover voltage is less than puncture voltage.

Types of Insulators

 Pin type insulators

 Suspension type insulators
 Strain type insulators

 Shackle insulator
 Post type insulators
Pin Type Insulator
 Supported on steel bolt or pin
which is firmly supported on cross-
arm.

 Conductor is tied to insulator on

groove by annealed binding wire.

 Generally used for 11 kV and 33

kV lines.

 They can be made in one piece up

to 33 kV and two pieces for higher
voltages.

 Pin type insulators are

uneconomical for higher voltages.
Suspension Type Insulators
 Consists of one or more insulating units hung from
cross arm and conductor is connected at lowest unit.
 String is free to swing (lower mechanical stresses);
thus long cross arms are required.
 Economical voltages above 33 kV. Each typical unit
is designed for 11 kV.
 Failed unit can be changed
without changing whole
string.
 V shaped insulator strings
can also be used to avoid the
swings.
 400 kV -> 19 units -> 3.84 m
http://www.electrotechnik.net/
Strain Type Insulator

 The insulators are similar to

suspension type insulator but used
in horizontal position.
 Generally used at the towers with
dead end, angle towers, and road
and river crossings.
 They can take tension off the
conductors. When tension is very
high two or more strings are used
in parallel.
Shackle, Post and Polymeric insulators

Shackle insulators or
Post type insulators Polymeric insulators
spool insulators
http://www.electrotechnik.net/
Potential Distribution over String
Potential Distribution over String

http://www.epemag.net/electricity-generation-pylons.html
Potential Distribution over String
 Capacitance of disc:
Capacitance between metal
work of the insulator units;
sometimes called as mutual
capacitance.
 Capacitance to ground:
capacitance between metal
work of insulator to tower.
Capacitance per insulator 𝑚𝐶
𝑚= =
Capacitance to ground 𝐶

http://www.epemag.net/electricity-generation-pylons.html
Potential Distribution over the String
 If V is voltage across the conductor and
ground. We have:

Also
𝑗𝜔𝑚𝐶𝑉2 = 𝑗𝜔𝑚𝐶𝑉1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑉1

𝑚𝑉2 = 𝑚𝑉1 + 𝑉1
𝑚+1
𝑉2 = 𝑉1
𝑚

1
𝑉2 = 1 + 𝑉
𝑚 1
Potential Distribution over the String
 Similarly,

3 1
𝑉3 = 1 + + 2 𝑉1
𝑚 𝑚
Potential Distribution over the String
 Similarly,

𝜔𝑚𝐶𝑉4 = 𝜔𝑚𝐶𝑉3 + 𝜔𝐶 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

6 5 1
𝑉4 = 𝑉1 1 + + 2+ 3
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
String Efficiency
 Let m = 5

1
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 1 + 𝑉2 = 1.2𝑉1
𝑚

3 1
𝑉3 = 𝑉1 1 + + 2 𝑉3 = 1.64𝑉1
𝑚 𝑚

6 5 1
𝑉4 = 𝑉1 1 + + 2 + 3 𝑉4 = 2.41𝑉1
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

Voltage Across String

String Efficiency = × 100
n × Voltage across unit adjacent to line

(1 + 1.2 + 1.64 + 2.41)𝑉1

= × 100 = 64.8%
4 × 2.41𝑉1
Methods of Equalizing the Potential
 Methods to improve string efficiency
 Selection of m
 Grading of units
 Static shielding or guard rings
 Semiconducting high resistance glaze layer on surface of
insulator
Selection of m
 If the value of m is increased, which can
be achieved by increasing the cross-arm
length.
 Increased cross-arm length decreases the
capacitance between earth and metallic
connections.
 However increasing cross-arm length is
not economical after certain distance.
 Theoretically, one can achieve equal
voltage distribution when m is infinity.
 It is found that value of m greater than
10 is not economical.
Grading of Units
 Voltage across capacitor is
inversely proportional to the
capacitance for given current.
 By correct grading of
capacitances complete equal
voltage can be achieved.
 We have,
𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐶1 + 𝐼1
𝜔𝐶2 𝑉 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉 + 𝜔𝐶1 𝑉
𝐶2 = 𝐶 + 𝐶1
Grading of Units
𝐼3 = 𝐼𝐶2 + 𝐼2
𝜔𝐶3 𝑉 = 2𝜔𝐶𝑉 + 𝜔𝐶2 𝑉

𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝐶2 = 𝐶 + 𝐶1
𝜔𝐶3 𝑉 = 2𝜔𝐶𝑉 + 𝜔 𝐶 + 𝐶1 𝑉
𝐶3 = 3𝐶 + 𝐶1
𝐶3 = 𝐶1 + 1 + 2 𝐶

Generalized case:
𝐶𝑛 = 𝐶1 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 − 1 𝐶

For example, if 𝐶1 = 5𝐶,

then

𝐶2 = 6𝐶, 𝐶3 = 8𝐶, 𝐶4 = 11𝐶, and so on

Grading of Units
 Thus if capacitance of one unit is
fixed other capacitances can be
easily determined.
 This requires units of different
capacities, which is uneconomical
and impractical.
 Therefore this method is usually
not employed except for very high
voltage lines.
 In that case, string is graded in
groups, may be two/three.
Static Shielding
 In practice, it is very difficult to
achieve the condition of equal voltages.

 However the partial advantage can be

gained by this method using grading
ring (guard ring) and used normally.

 Further, when the horn gap is also used,

it also protect the insulator from the
flashover.
Static Shielding
𝐼2 + 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐶1
𝐼3 + 𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐶2
𝐼4 + 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼𝐶3

Voltages can be equal if

𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝐶1
𝜔𝐶𝑥 (𝑛 − 1)𝑉 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉
𝐶
𝐶𝑥 =
𝑛−1

Also, 𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼𝐶2
𝜔𝐶𝑦 (𝑛 − 2)𝑉 = 2𝜔𝐶𝑉
2𝐶
𝐶𝑦 =
𝑛−2

3𝐶 𝑝𝐶
Similarly, 𝐶𝑍 = and 𝐶𝑝 =
𝑛−3 𝑛−𝑝
Static Shielding: Corona Ring
Semiconducting Glaze
 The method is based on fact that
insulator achieve resistor voltage divider
effect.

 Each mutual capacitance is shunted by a

resistance of such magnitude that the
capacitance current is swamped by effect
of leakage current through the resistor.

 The leakage current becomes same for

all units and no more only dependent on
capacitance.

 The method is restricted due to risk of

thermal instability and difficult to
produce glaze of longer life.
Summary of the Chapter
Mechanical
 Factors affecting mechanical
design
 Calculation of Sag, Tension,
Conductor Length
 Additional loading
 Ice loading
 Wind loading
 Stringing Charts
 Sag Template
 Types of tower
 Equivalent or Ruling Span
 Vibrations in conductors
Electrical
 Insulator Characteristics
 Materials used
 Type of insulators: Pin, Suspension,
strain, shackle, post
 Potential Distribution Over an Insulator
String
 String Efficiency
 Methods to improve string efficiency
 Selection of m
 Grading of units
 Static shielding or guard rings
 Semiconducting Glaze
Attendance
 Corona

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge
What is Corona?

“Corona is a luminous discharge due to

ionization of the air surrounding an electrode,
caused by a voltage gradient exceeding a certain
critical value (breakdown strength of air).”
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge
Why Corona is Important?
 Corona from conductors may cause audible noise and radio
noise.
 Audible noise from conductors may violate noise standards.
 Radio noise from conductors may interfere with radio,
television and communications systems.
 Corona loss may be significant when compared with resistive
loss of conductors.
 Corona can cause possible damage to polymeric insulators.
 Therefore, corona free lines needs to be designed which
requires an understanding of factors that affect corona.
Corona
 The breakdown of a gas takes place when a self sustained
discharge or ionization process is set in.
 This takes place when the electric field stress exceeds a
certain critical value.
 For air breakdown strength (at 250C and 760 mm Hg) is
30 kV/cm for DC and 30 kV/cm (peak) for AC.
 In the case of uniform field this condition is satisfied at all
the points and there will be complete breakdown by
forming an arc between the electrodes.
 However, if the electric field is highly non-uniform the
breakdown condition may not be all over the gap.
Uniform Field
HV HV

GND GND

Voltage Electric Field

Corona Formation
 The electrons gets accelerated in
electric field. The velocity of electron
depends on the intensity of the electric
field.
 If the electric field strength exceeds
certain critical value, electrons gain
sufficient velocity and energy to knock
one of the outer orbit electron from the
one of the two atoms of air molecule.
 This is called as ionization and the ion
formed with the missing electrons are
called as positive ion.
 Both electrons then again gets
accelerated in electric field causing
more ionizations and ultimately forms
an electron avalanche.
 Non-Uniform Field

Conductor

• There are always free-electrons in the air

due to ultraviolet radiations from sun,
cosmic rays from outer space, radioactivity
of earth, etc.
• Therefore in non-uniform field, some
region of dielectric experiences higher field
strength than the critical value, while other
region field stress is well below critical
Ground value.
Corona Formation
 Thus, self sustained discharge condition will be valid only in the
strong field region giving rise to partial discharge called corona.
 This associated with a glow and a hissing (or frying sound) and
when it takes place in air and ozone, oxides of nitrogen and nitric
acid (in the presence of moisture) are formed.
 The corona manifests itself by visual corona, audible noise, radio
interference.
 The avalanches, being electrons in motion, constitute electric current
and produces electric and magnetic field in the vicinity.
 Since they are sudden and short in duration induce high frequency
voltage pulses in near by radio (or television) antenna.
 The positive conductor has more uniform bluish (or violet) white
glow near to conductor and on negative polarity isolated reddish tufts
or beads are formed.
Corona (Laboratory Testing)

Gonen T., “Electric Power Transmission System Engineering: Analysis and Design”, John Wiley and Sons.
Corona (Laboratory Testing)

Gonen T., “Electric Power Transmission System Engineering: Analysis and Design”, John Wiley and Sons.
Corona (Testing)

Gonen T., “Electric Power Transmission System Engineering: Analysis and Design”, John Wiley and Sons.
Critical Disruptive Voltage
 The minimum potential difference required between the
conductor to start ionization is called critical disruptive voltage
or corona inception voltage
Critical Disruptive Voltage
Potential Difference between the conductor

𝑞 𝐷−𝑟
= ln 𝑥 − ln( 𝐷 − 𝑥) ቚ
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑞
= ln( 𝐷 − 𝑟) − ln( 𝑟) − ln( 𝑟) + ln( 𝐷 − 𝑟)
2𝜋𝜀0
𝑞 𝐷−𝑟 2
= ln
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
D>>r
Critical Disruptive Voltage

Therefore,
Critical Disruptive Voltage

 Above expression is for single phase line and V’=V/2

 Now this can be used to single phase with V’=V/2

or for three phase line V’= 𝑉/ 3
Critical Disruptive Voltage

 Gradient increase as x decreases and will be maximum at

conductor surface i.e. x=r

 Therefore,
Critical Disruptive Voltage

 When gmax reaches g0 (breakdown strength of air) air

breaks down.

Above g0 is for fair (standard) weather conditions, at any

other condition

𝑝 273 + 25 𝑝
where, 𝛿 = ⋅ = 3.92
273 + 𝑡 76 273 + 𝑡

δ is the relative air density or air density correction factor

p is barometric pressure in cm and t is temperature in celsius
Electric Field of Stranded Conductor
Critical Disruptive Voltage
 The critical disruptive voltage or corona inception voltage
is then given by

 Assumption: the conductor is solid having smooth surface.

 However in practical cases (like ACSR), conductor will
not be having smooth surface. To account for surface
irregularities a factor m0 is used. Thus,

m0 = surface irregularity factor or stranding factor

Critical Disruptive Voltage
 Surface irregularity factor depends on state of cross section of
conductor and state of its surface.
 It also considers dust and dirt on the conductor surface.
 The value of m0 lies between 0.8 to 1.
 m0 = 1 for smooth, polished, solid and cylindrical conductors
 m0 = 0.93 ̶ 0.98 for weathered (rough surfaced), solid cylindrical
conductors
 m0 = 0.87 ̶ 0.9 for weathered for stranded conductors (with more
than 7 strands)
 m0 = 0.8 ̶ 0.87 for weathered for stranded conductors (up to 7
strands)
 Now when D and r is expressed in cm.
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑔0 𝛿𝑚0 𝑟 ln 𝐷 Τ𝑟 kV(rms)
Visual Critical Disruptive Voltage
 At the critical disruptive voltage corona starts, but it will
not be visible. It requires further ionization by collision.
 If the voltage is further increased at some point corona
becomes visible. This voltage is called as visual critical
disruptive voltage or visual corona inception voltage.
 The voltage gradient (gv) for visual corona is given by
[Peek]: 0.301
𝑔𝑣 = 𝑔0 𝛿 1 + kV/cm
𝑟𝛿

 Therefore, 𝐷
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑔𝑣 𝑚𝑣 𝑟 ln kV
𝑟
0.301 𝐷
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑔0 𝛿 1 + 𝑚𝑣 𝑟 ln kV
𝑟𝛿 𝑟
Visual Critical Disruptive Voltage
 Surface irregularity factor (mv) is different from m0.
 Local corona: For conductor with irregular surface, visual
corona occurs at different point than whole surface called
as local corona.
 mv = 1 for smooth, solid, cylindrical and polished conductor
 mv = 0.93-0.98 for smooth, solid, cylindrical and weathered
conductor
 mv = 0.80-0.85 for general corona on stranded conductor
 mv = 0.70-0.75 for local visual corona on weathered stranded
conductor
 Now when d and r is expressed in cm.
0.301 𝐷
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑔0 𝛿 1 + 𝑚𝑣 𝑟 ln kV(rms)
𝑟𝛿 𝑟
Corona Loss
 The ionized charges near the conductor surface take energy from
the supply and thus there is loss of some energy due to corona.
 Peek’s Empirical relation for corona in fair weather condition
𝑓 + 25 𝑟 2
𝑃𝑐 = 241 × 10−5 × 𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝑐 kW/phase/km
𝛿 𝑑
 Where VP phase to neutral operating voltage in kV and f is frequency.
 For storm or foul weather condition voltage is 0.8 Vc
𝑓 + 25 𝑟 2
𝑃𝑐 = 241 × 10−5 × 𝑉𝑝 − 0.8𝑉𝑐 kW/phase/km
𝛿 𝑑
 This relation gives correct results when
 Corona loss is predominant
 Frequency lies between 25 and 125 Hz
 Ratio of Vp/Vc > 1.8
 Radius of conductor is greater than 0.25 cm.
 Corona Loss
 When the ratio Vp/Vc < 1.8 Peterson’s formula gives
good results
1.11066 × 10−4 𝑓𝑉 2
𝑃𝑐 = 𝐹 kW/Phase/km
ln 𝑑/𝑟 2

 Here F is corona factor determined by test depends on

Vp/Vc.

Vp/Vc 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2

F 0.012 0.018 0.05 0.08 0.3 1 3.5 6.0 8
Factors Affecting Corona
 Atmospheric factors
 Electrical factor
 Line configuration
Factors Affecting Corona
 Atmospheric Factors
𝑝 273 + 25 𝑝
𝛿= ⋅ = 3.92
273 + 𝑡 76 273 + 𝑡

𝐷
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚0 𝑔0 𝛿 𝑟 ln
𝑟
𝑓 + 25 𝑟 2
𝑃𝑐 = 241 × 10−5 × 𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝑐 kW/phase/km
𝛿 𝑑

 Temperature:
 Pressure:
 Dust, dirt:
 Rain, snow, fog:
Factors Affecting Corona
 Electrical Factor
𝑝 273 + 25 𝑝
𝛿= ⋅ = 3.92
273 + 𝑡 76 273 + 𝑡

𝐷
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚0 𝑔0 𝛿 𝑟 ln
𝑟
𝑓 + 25 𝑟 2
𝑃𝑐 = 241 × 10−5 × 𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝑐 kW/phase/km
𝛿 𝑑

 Frequency
 Voltage
Factors Affecting Corona
 Line configuration
𝐷
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑚0 𝑔0 𝛿 𝑟 ln
𝑟
𝑓 + 25 𝑟 2
𝑃𝑐 = 241 × 10−5 × 𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝑐 kW/phase/km
𝛿 𝑑

• Conductor configuration • Profile of conductor

• Diameter of conductor • Heating of conductor by
• Conductor spacing load current
• Number of conductor per • Surface condition
phase
Merits and Demerits of Corona
 Merits
 Act as safety valve during lightning and switching surges. The
waves gets dissipated as corona loss.
 Other applications:
 Van de Graaff generator, Electrostatic precipitator, Electro printing,
Ionization counting, Electrostatic deposition
 Demerits
 Corona loss reduces efficiency.
 Ionized air around the conductor works as conducting medium
increases effective diameter of conductor.
 This increases capacitance and decrease surge impedance
loading.
 Audible Noise, RI, TV, Interference with communication lines.
Prevention of Corona
 Economic consideration, it is advisable to build the line corona free
for all the weather. Modern practice is to build corona free line in fair
weather condition.
 To prevent corona loss, critical disruptive voltage higher the phase
voltage.
 Increasing conductor spacing
 Increasing radius of conductor (Expanded ACSR)
 Use of bundled conductors
 Spacing between bundled conductor
 Homogenous Insulators:
 Elimination of sharp points:
 Using Corona rings:
 Surface Treatments:
Corona Ring
Corona Review
 What is corona?
 Mechanism of corona formation
 Critical disruptive voltage
 Visual critical disruptive voltage
 Corona loss
 Factors affecting corona
 Methods to prevent corona
 Radio Interference